ArticlePDF Available

Natural Remedies for the Relief of Cold and Flu Symptoms: The Evidence for Garlic, Onion, Chilli and Chocolate

Authors:
Christopher Ian Wright
Christopher Ian Wright
Christopher Ian Wright
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
Download full-text PDF
Read full-text
Download citation

Abstract

Some over-the-counter natural remedies claim to provide symptomatic relief from the common cold and flu. The current study used pubmed to review the evidence to support the use of garlic, onion, chilli and chocolate for the symptomatic relief of cold and flu symptoms, congestion, cough, mucous and a runny nose. The search terms focused the search on review articles conducted in humans. Results showed that there was limited data supporting the use of garlic, onion, chilli and chocolate. Future studies are required to support the effectiveness and safety of these ingredients alone or in combination. Studies may also consider exactly what ingredients are effective, which combinations are effective and at what dose these ingredients are effective.
Content uploaded by Christopher Wright
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Christopher Wright on Feb 01, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
Natural Remedies for the Relief of Cold and Flu Symptoms: The Evidence for
Garlic, Onion, Chilli and Chocolate
Christopher Ian Wright*
Red Pharmaceuticals; Cold Meece Estate, Staffordshire, UK
*Corresponding author: Christopher Ian Wright, Red Pharm; Cold Meece Estate, Staffordshire, UK, Tel: +44-7967-230-155; E-mail: ciwright26@hotmail.com
Received date: July 21, 2014; Accepted date: June 25, 2015; Published date: July 2, 2015
Copyright: © 2015, Wright CI. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Abstract
Some over-the-counter natural remedies claim to provide symptomatic relief from the common cold and flu. The
current study used pubmed to review the evidence to support the use of garlic, onion, chilli and chocolate for the
symptomatic relief of cold and flu symptoms, congestion, cough, mucous and a runny nose. The search terms
focused the search on review articles conducted in humans. Results showed that there was limited data supporting
the use of garlic, onion, chilli and chocolate. Future studies are required to support the effectiveness and safety of
these ingredients alone or in combination. Studies may also consider exactly what ingredients are effective, which
combinations are effective and at what dose these ingredients are effective.
Keywords: Cold and flu; Symptomatic; Garlic; Onion; Chilli;
Chocolate
Background
The symptoms of cold and flu can be quite similar with common
symptoms including a stuffy nose, sneezing, sore throat and coughing
[1]. In both conditions, over-the-counter remedies can be used to
provide some symptomatic relief2. Review articles have assessed the
effectiveness of complementary and alternative medicine in the
treatment and prevent of common cold symptoms (Table 1) with
varying effects reported in terms of both severity and duration of
symptoms. Promising candidates include
Andrographis paniculata
,
Echinacea purpurea
,
Pelargonium sidoides
extract, zinc, garlic and
vitamin C [2,3]. There are a growing number of natural remedies
claiming to provide relief from the symptoms of the common cold and
flu [1]. One example is FinifluTM (product link www.finiflu.com.au).
This product contains garlic, onion and chilli, and is chocolate
flavoured and the on-pack indications are for the symptoms associated
with colds and flu including a runny nose, congestion, mucous build-
up and cough. The prophylactic use of garlic for 12 weeks has been
suggested to decrease the number of self-reported colds with no
change in the days taken to recovery from the cold [2]. However, there
is little data, that the author is aware of, that shows extracts of onion,
chilli or chocolate provide symptomatic relief from the common cold
or flu. The aim of this article was therefore to review the evidence that
supports their use.
F Preparation Dose Duration Effect
Treatment Andrographis paniculata
(Kalmcold)
200 mg per day 5 days Reduced symptoms of upper respiratory
tract infection
Echinacea purpurea
(aerial parts)
4 ml twice per day 8 weeks Early use shortened duration and
decreased the severity of cold symptoms
Day 1: 20 drops every 2 hour
>Day 1: 20 drops 3-times per
day
10 days
Pelargonium sidoides
(geranium) extract
(Umcka Coldcare)
30 drops 3-times per day 10 days Reduced the severity of symptoms and
shortened the duration of the common cold
Zinc lozenges (acetate or
gluconate)
Varying doses of zinc between
4.5 and 23.7 mg
As long as symptoms
persist
Reduced the severity and duration of
illness when taken within 24 hours of
symptoms onset
Prevention Vitamin C 0.25 to 2 grams per day 40 days to 28 weeks Decreased the overall duration of illness
Did not reduce the incidence of a cold
Garlic Supplement containing 180 mg
of allicin
12 weeks No change in the days taken to recovery
Homeopathy & Ayurvedic Medicine Wright, J Homeop Ayurv Med 2015, 4:1
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2167-1206.1000182
Review Article Open Access
J Homeop Ayurv Med
ISSN:2167-2106 JHAM, an open access journal Volume 4 • Issue 1 • 1000182
Decreased the number of self-reported
colds
Table 1: Preparations reported to be effective in the treatment and prevention of the common cold in adults.
Methods
Product ingredients
32 chocolate squares are contained within each box of Finiflu. The
packet claims that the product is produced with 100% natural
vegetable extract containing garlic, onion and chilli and provided in a
chocolate food base.
Finiflu, is mint chocolate flavoured and contains 333.34 mg of dry
Allium cepa fruit (i.e., onion), 16.65 mg of garlic clove powder and
8.33 mg of Capsicum annum fruit (chilli).
Directions for use
The advice is that the product is taken orally with two squares of
chocolate taken every 2 hours with a maximum of 16 tablets taken in
one day. Hence the maximum suggested daily dose is: onion, 5333.44
mg; garlic, 266.40 mg; and, chilli, 133.28 mg.
Symptomatic relief
The pack states the following usage: “Assists with the relief of
symptoms associated with cold and flu and other mild respiratory
conditions.” The symptoms specifically identified on pack are runny
nose, congestion, mucous and cough.
Commercial availability
Finiflu is listed / included in the Australian Register of Therapeutic
Goods (AUST L165924). The author is unaware of other countries
where this product has been commercialised.
Analysis
Pubmed (www.pubmed.org) was searched using two pre-defined
filters - ‘humans’ and ‘review’ to assess the number of results for each
of the ingredients (‘garlic’, ‘onion’, ‘chilli’ and ‘chocolate’) in
combination with each of the symptoms (‘common cold’, ‘flu’,
‘congestion’, ‘cough’, ‘mucous’ and ‘runny rose’).
Results of this search are presented in terms of the number of
review articles per ingredient. This is broken down by symptom Table
2.
Ingredient
Symptom relieved Garlic Onion Chilli Chocolate
Cold 11 2 2 3
Flu 2 1 0 0
Congestion 0 0 0 1
Cough 2 0 1 1
Mucous 1 1 1 0
Runny nose 0 0 1 0
Tally 16 4 5 5
Table 2: Number of review articles in humans reporting symptomatic relief with garlic, onion, chilli and chocolate.
Results
The results of this literature review are presented in Table 2.
Onion
The literature search revealed three symptoms potentially
associated with onion. These were cold [4,5], flu [4] and mucous [6].
Analysis of the identified literature showed that none of the hits
specifically related to clinical efficacy and safety trial results and were
associated respiratory and allergic diseases [4], epilepsy [5] and
pemphigus, an autoimmune disease marked by blisters on skin and
mucous membranes and often by itching or burning [6].
Chilli
The literature search revealed four symptoms potentially associated
with chilli. These were cold [7,8], cough [7], mucous [6] and runny
nose [7]. None of these related to clinical efficacy and safety trial
results for the common cold or flu and were associated safety [7],
themo transient receptor potential channels [8] and gastric ulcers [6].
Chocolate
The literature search revealed three symptoms potentially
associated with chocolate. These were cold [9-11], congestion [12] and
cough [13]. None of these reviews related to the common cold and flu,
Citation: Wright CI (2015) Natural Remedies for the Relief of Cold and Flu Symptoms: The Evidence for Garlic, Onion, Chilli and Chocolate. J
Homeop Ayurv Med 4: 182. doi:10.4172/2167-1206.1000182
Page 2 of 3
J Homeop Ayurv Med
ISSN:2167-2106 JHAM, an open access journal Volume 4 • Issue 1 • 1000182
but were associated with phosphodiesterase inhibitors [9], productivity
and development safety [10], methylxanthine composition of cocoa
[11], acute pelvic pain [12] and allergic bronchopulmonary
aspergillosis [14].
Garlic
The literature search revealed four symptoms potentially associated
with chocolate. These were cold [15-23], flu, cough [16,23] and
mucous [6]. The reviews relating to cold, flu and cough all concerned
trials relating to the effectiveness of garlic. Mucous was not related as
this review related to pemphigus [6].
Discussion
Many people turn to alternative remedies for treating the symptoms
of the common cold and the flu. The current assessment focused on
four actives – garlic, onion, chilli and chocolate – and their
effectiveness in providing relief from the symptoms of the common
cold and flu. A review of the literature on Pubmed showed that there
was little support for onion, chilli and chocolate. Garlic, in contrast,
was reviewed in a number of different articles and suggested to
provide relief from cold and flu symptoms, and cough.
The current research was initiated based on the claims being made
by Finiflu. This product contains garlic, onion, chill and chocolate and
it claims to alleviate symptoms including a runny nose, congestion,
mucous and cough. The current literature search failed, however, to
identify scientific support to show that onion, chilli and chocolate
provided symptomatic relief for any of the symptoms that Finiflu
claims on its pack. Garlic per se, however, may provide symptomatic
relief. The strongest evidence supporting the use of garlic comes from
the Cochrane review by Lissiman et al. 17, although the authors did
conclude that further trials were needed to support the use of garlic in
the prevention and symptomatic treatment of the common cold.
Indeed, the reviewers concluded that:
“There is insufficient clinical trial evidence regarding the effects of
garlic in preventing or treating the common cold. A single trial
suggested that garlic may prevent occurrences of the common cold but
more studies are needed to validate this finding. Claims of
effectiveness appear to rely largely on poor-quality evidence.”
Conclusion and Recommendations
At the present time, the current literature for the individual
ingredients (garlic, onion, chilli and chocolate) is quite limited.
Further data is required to support both the effectiveness of these
individual ingredients as well as their combined usage in preparations
such as Finiflu. Hence, in keeping with the conclusions by Lissiman et
al. [18], more studies (e.g., randomised placebo-controlled clinical
trials and individual case reports) are required. Furthermore, such
trials will need to assess which ingredients are effective, which
combinations are effective and at what dose these ingredients are
effective. Lastly, future studies should assess the safety of the
ingredients in order to define their optimal dosing frequency and
duration of use.
Acknowledgements and Disclosures
The author confirms that he did not receive any financial rewards
or incentives to prepare this article.
References
1. Cold & flu health centre (2014).
2. Simasek M, Blandino DA (2007) Treatment of the common cold. Am
Fam Physician 75: 515-520.
3. Fashner J, Ericson K, Werner S (2012) Treatment of the common cold in
children and adults. Am Fam Physician 86: 153-159.
4. Jaber R (2002) Respiratory and allergic diseases: from upper respiratory
tract infections to asthma. Prim Care 29: 231-261.
5. Owczarek K (2011) Treating epilepsy: a review of Polish historical
sources. Epilepsy Behav 22: 226-230.
6. Ruocco V, Ruocco E, Lo Schiavo A, Brunetti G, Guerrera LP, et al.
( 2013) Pemphigus: etiology, pathogenesis, and inducing or triggering
factors: facts and controversies. Clin Dermatol 31: 374-81.
7. Abdullah T (2000) A strategic call to utilize Echinacea-garlic in flu-cold
seasons. J Natl Med Assoc 92: 48-51.
8. Final report on the safety assessment of capsicum annuum extract,
capsicum annuum fruit extract, capsicum annuum resin, capsicum
annuum fruit powder, capsicum frutescens fruit, capsicum frutescens
fruit extract, capsicum frutescens resin, and capsaicin (2007). Int J
Toxicol 26: 3-106.
9. Latorre R, Brauchi S, Orta G, Zaelzer C, Vargas G (2007) ThermoTRP
channels as modular proteins with allosteric gating. Cell Calcium 42:
427-38.
10. Schudt C, Hatzelmann A, Beume R, Tenor H (2011) Phosphodiesterase
inhibitors: history of pharmacology. Handb Exp Pharmacol 204: 1-46.
11. Christian MS, Brent RL (2001) Teratogen update: evaluation of the
reproductive and developmental risks of caffeine. Teratology 64: 51-78.
12. Amagase H (2006) Clarifying the real bioactive constituents of garlic. J
Nutr 136: 716S-725S.
13. Kupesić S, Aksamija A, Vucić N, Tripalo A, Kurjak A (2002)
Ultrasonography in acute pelvic pain. Acta Med Croatica 56: 171-80.
14. Allan GM, Arroll B (2014) Prevention and treatment of the common
cold: making sense of the evidence. CMAJ 186: 190-159.
15. Li L, Sun T, Tian J, Yang K, Yi K, et al. (2013) Garlic in clinical practice:
an evidence-based overview. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 53: 670-681.
16. Raghu R, Lu KH, Sheen LY (2012) Recent Research Progress on Garlic
(dà suàn) as a Potential Anticarcinogenic Agent Against Major Digestive
Cancers. J Tradit Complement Med 2: 192-201.
17. Lissiman E, Bhasale AL, Cohen M (2012) Garlic for the common cold.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 14: 3-CD006206.
18. Nahas R, Balla A (2011) Complementary and alternative medicine for
prevention and treatment of the common cold. Can Fam Physician 57:
31-36.
19. Aviello G, Abenavoli L, Borrelli F, Capasso R, Izzo AA, et al. (2009)
Garlic: empiricism or science? Nat Prod Commun 4: 1785-1796.
20. Pittler MH, Ernst E. Clinical effectiveness of garlic (Allium sativum). Mol
Nutr Food Res 51: 1382-1385.
21. Capriotti T (2004) Any science behind the hype of 'natural' dietary
supplements? Medsurg Nurs 13: 339-350.
22. Bielory L (2004) Complementary and alternative interventions in asthma,
allergy, and immunology. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 93: S45-S54.
23. Abdullah T (2000) A strategic call to utilize Echinacea-garlic in flu-cold
seasons. J Natl Med Assoc 92: 48-51.
Citation: Wright CI (2015) Natural Remedies for the Relief of Cold and Flu Symptoms: The Evidence for Garlic, Onion, Chilli and Chocolate. J
Homeop Ayurv Med 4: 182. doi:10.4172/2167-1206.1000182
Page 3 of 3
J Homeop Ayurv Med
ISSN:2167-2106 JHAM, an open access journal Volume 4 • Issue 1 • 1000182
... For children, if the virus enters the alveoli that is untreated in time, it will produce pulmonary edema (formerly known as schizophrenia) that can easily lead to death. At this time, traditional folk methods are rather effective [2] [3] . ...
... There are a lot of plant species in remote areas, in large forest or even in our gardens. This helps patients avoid having to use antibiotics, which can cause unhealthy side effects [2]. ...
Some Effective Ways for Treating Flu
Conference Paper
  • Sep 2019
Treatment of flu is a method that many people choose because of benign, fast-acting and especially not causing side effects. There are many remedies for this by traditional Oriental medicine method which are used by many people and shows remarkable effect. The paper is based on research paper, journals as well as the survey data of patients who are living in Vietnam. The results show that the traditional method has its advantages that other therapies do not have. Some solutions have been also pointed out in order to improve the quality of the residents in the country.
View
... Both of garlic and onion extracts are found of therapeutic properties including antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-protozoal, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-amnesic, anticarcinogenic, antimutagenic, antiasthmatic, immunomodulatory, hypolipidemic, anti-hypertensive, anti-diabetic and antioxidant [24]. Garlic and onion are used as natural remedies for the relief of Cold and Flu Symptoms [25,26]. Extracts of onions show the antiviral effects of against avian influenza virus subtype H9N2 [27]. ...
Suggestion of an Alternative Approach of Inhalation of Volatile Chemicals from Onion and Garlic for Isolated Patient of Mild Onset Infected Flu: Review and Communication
Preprint
  • Feb 2020
Virus-infected Flu is a common disease. To date, no specific drugs are available to manage the symptoms of cough, headache and sputum production. An alternative Chinese herb medicine is introduced for virus-infected Flu or similar infection. Before hospitalization, some of patients may scare for cross-infection with mild symptoms or hardly go to hospital if encountered a temporary lockdown or quarantine. Some Chinese practice self-treatment of cough, headache and sputum production by inhalation of volatile chemicals from onion and garlic. Author used to take the same alternative approach of inhalation of onion, garlic or scallions for self-treatment when suffered virus caused flu with cough, headache and sputum production at onset disease. In this article, the biomedical effects of onion and garlic are reviewed. To help patients with mild symptoms of virus infected Flu, a simple home-based treatment was suggested to self-treatment because of temporary isolation and hardly going to hospitalization. The alternative approach may also suggest for some mild virus infected respiratory diseases caused by virus at onset disease.
View
After The COVID-19 Pandemic, Nurses' Attitudes Toward The Use Of Herbs And Complementary Therapies For Seasonal Influenza in TürkiyeTürkiye’de COVİD-19 Pandemi̇si̇ Sonrasinda Hemşi̇releri̇n Mevsi̇msel Gri̇pte Bi̇tki̇sel ve Tamamlayici Tedavi̇leri̇n Kullanimina Yöneli̇k Tutumlari
Article
  • Mar 2024
Objective: This study aims to examine the attitude of nurses toward the use of herbal and complementary therapies for seasonal influenza after the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: This descriptive study was completed with 153 nurses working in shifts at the university hospital. The data were collected in the form of an online questionnaire with the "Introductory Information Form" prepared by the researchers in line with the literature, and the "Attitudes Towards Using Complementary Therapies Scale". Results: The mean age of the participants was 31.84±6.32 years. Among the nurses who participated in the study, 58.2% stated that they had COVID-19 disease in the previous years (2019–2022), and 41.8% had seasonal flu this year (2023). The majority of nurses (91.5%) reported knowing herbal methods, and 39.2% reported using social media as a source of herbal method information. Conclusion: In this study, it was found that nurses who experienced seasonal influenza after the COVID-19 pandemic had positive attitudes toward the use of herbal treatment during influenza. The most frequently used methods for herbal treatment include herbal teas, the use of herbal oils, and mixtures. In the study, it was found that nurses used rosemary tea, chamomile oil, and black cumin honey mixtures the most, respectively.
View
Recent Research Progress on Garlic ( dà suàn) as a Potential Anticarcinogenic Agent Against Major Digestive Cancers
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2012
Garlic ( dà suàn; the bulb of Allium sativum), bestowed with an array of organosulfur compounds finds its application in treating many ailments including cardiovascular problems, common cold, bacterial and fungal infections and cancer. Numerous epidemiological evidences document the beneficial effects of various bioactive organosulfur compounds of garlic against different types of cancer. Studies involving the animal and cell models indicate garlic bioactive compounds could be effective in treating all the stages of cancer. This review gives an update on the recent pre-clinical and clinical trials, carried out to evaluate the efficacy of various garlic bioactive compounds along with the mechanism of action pertaining to major digestive cancers including liver, gastric and colorectal cancers. The major anti-carcinogenic mechanisms are caspase dependent and/or independent induction of apoptosis, anti-proliferative, anti-metastasis, anti-oxidant and immunomodulative properties. Form the clinical trials an increase in the garlic consumption of 20 g/day reduced the risk of gastric and colorectal cancer. In summary, increased uptake of garlic in diet may prevent the incidence of digestive cancers.
View
View
Clarifying he real bioactive constituents of garlic
Conference Paper
  • Mar 2006
Compounds in garlic work synergistically to produce various effects, but, because of garlic's chemical complexity, processing methods yield preparations with differing efficacy and safety. Although thiosulfinates such as allicin have been long misunderstood to be active compounds due to their characteristic odor, it is not necessary for garlic preparations to contain such odorous compounds to be effective, and they decompose and disappear during any processing. Garlic exhibits hypolipidemic, antiplatelet, and procirculatory effects. It prevents cold and flu symptoms through immune enhancement and demonstrates anticancer and chemopreventive activities. In addition, aged garlic extract possesses hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, antioxidative activities, whereas other preparations may stimulate oxidation. Additional effects may be caused by S-allylcysteine, S-allyl mercaptocysteine), saponins, N-alpha-fructosyl arginine, and other substances formed during a long-term extraction process. Although not all of active ingredients of garlic are known, and allicin-like transient components are not directly active, ample research suggests that an allicin-free garlic preparation that is standardized with a bioavailable component such as S-allylcysteine, is active and various effects of garlic may be attributed to it. Furthermore, various chemical constituents in garlic products, including nonsulfur compounds such as saponins, may contribute to the essential biological activities of garlic. Further studies are needed to confirm their bioavailability and associated activities.
View
Pemphigus: Etiology, pathogenesis, and inducing or triggering factors: Facts and controversies
Article
  • Jul 2013
Pemphigus includes a group of autoimmune bullous diseases with intraepithelial lesions involving the skin and Malpighian mucous membranes. Pemphigus vulgaris (PV), the most frequent and representative form of the group, is a prototypical organ-specific human autoimmune disorder with a poor prognosis in the absence of medical treatment. The pathomechanism of PV hinges on autoantibodies damaging cell-cell cohesion and leading to cell-cell detachment (acantholysis) of the epidermis and Malpighian mucosae (mainly oral mucosa). A controversy exists about which subset of autoantibodies is primarily pathogenic: the desmoglein-reactive antibodies or those directed against the acetylcholine receptors of the keratinocyte membrane. The onset and course of PV depend on a variable interaction between predisposing and inducing factors. Genetic predisposition has a complex polygenic basis, involving multiple genetic loci; however, the genetic background alone ("the soil"), although essential, is not by itself sufficient to initiate the autoimmune mechanism, as proven by the reports of PV in only one of two monozygotic twins and in only two of three siblings with an identical PV-prone haplotype. The intervention of inducing or triggering environmental factors ("the seed") seems to be crucial to set off the disease. The precipitating factors are many and various, most of them directly originating from the environment (eg, drug intake, viral infections, physical agents, contact allergens, diet), others being endogenous (eg, emotional stress, hormonal disorders) but somehow linked with the subject's lifestyle. As to certain drugs, their potential of provoking acantholysis may be implemented by their interfering with the keratinocyte membrane biochemistry (biochemical acantholysis) and/or with the immune balance (immunologic acantholysis). Viral infections, especially the herpetic ones, may trigger the outbreak of PV or simply complicate its clinical course. The precipitating effect might be due to interferons and other cytokines released by the host as a consequence of the viral attack, which overactivate the immune response. Inductions of PV by physical agents (ultraviolet or ionizing radiation, thermal or electrical burns, surgery and cosmetic procedures), contact allergens (in particular, organophosphate pesticides), dietary factors (eg, garlic, leek, onion, black pepper, red chili pepper, red wine, tea), and emotional stress are rare, but well-documented events. The possible intervention of the environment in the outbreak of PV has been overlooked in the past, but nowadays clinicians perceive it more frequently. The assumption that genetic factors alone are not sufficient to cause the outbreak of the disease, inevitably instills the idea that PV may not occur spontaneously, but always results from an interaction between an individual predisposing genetic background and environmental precipitating factors, often concealed or apparently harmless.
View
Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Capsicum Annuum Extract, Capsicum Annuum Fruit Extract, Capsicum Annuum Resin, Capsicum Annuum Fruit Powder, Capsicum Frutescens Fruit, Capsicum Frutescens Fruit Extract, Capsicum Frutescens Resin, and Capsaicin
Article
  • Jan 2007
Capsicum-derived ingredients function as skin-conditioning agents - miscellaneous, external analgesics, flavoring agents, or fragrance components in cosmetics. These ingredients are used in 19 cosmetic products at concentrations as high as 5%. Cosmetic-grade material may be extracted using hexane, ethanol, or vegetable oil and contain the full range of phytocompounds that are found in the Capsicum annuum or Capsicum frutescens plant (aka red chiles), including Capsaicin. Aflatoxin and N-nitroso compounds (N-nitrosodimethylamine and N-nitrosopyrrolidine) have been detected as contaminants. The ultraviolet (UV) absorption spectrum for Capsicum Annuum Fruit Extract indicates a small peak at approximately 275 nm, and a gradual increase in absorbance, beginning at approximately 400 nm. Capsicum and paprika are generally recognized as safe by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use in food. Hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate extracts of Capsicum Frutescens Fruit at 200 mg/kg resulted in death of all mice. In a short-term inhalation toxicity study using rats, no difference was found between vehicle control and a 7% Capsicum Oleoresin solution. In a 4-week feeding study, red chilli (Capsicum annuum) in the diet at concentrations up to 10% was relatively nontoxic in groups of male mice. In an 8-week feeding study using rats, intestinal exfoliation, cytoplasmic fatty vacuolation and centrilobular necrosis of hepatocytes, and aggregation of lymphocytes in the portal areas were seen at 10% Capsicum Frutescens Fruit, but not 2%. Rats fed 0.5 g/kg day- 1 crude Capsicum Fruit Extract for 60 days exhibited no significant gross pathology at necropsy, but slight hyperemia of the liver and reddening of the gastric mucosa were observed. Weanling rats fed basal diets supplemented with whole red pepper at concentrations up to 5.0% for up to 8 weeks had no pathology of the large intestines, livers, and kidneys, but destruction of the taste buds and keratinization and erosion of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract were noted in groups fed 0.5% to 5.0% red pepper. The results of 9-and 12-month extension of this study showed normal large intestines and kidneys. In rabbits fed Capsicum Annuum Powder at 5 mg/kg day- 1 in the diet daily for 12 months damage to the liver and spleen was noted. A rabbit skin irritation test of Capsicum Annuum Fruit Extract at concentrations ranging from 0.1% to 1.0% produced no irritation, but Capsicum Frutescens Fruit Extract induced concentration-dependent (at 25 to 500 μg/ml) cytotoxicity in a human buccal mucosa fibroblast cell line. An ethanol extract of red chili was mutagenic in Salmonella typhimurium TA98, but not in TA100, or in Escherichia coli. Other genotoxicity assays gave a similar pattern of mixed results. Adenocarcinoma of the abdomen was observed in 7/20 mice fed 100 mg red chilies per day for 12 months; no tumors were seen in control animals. Neoplastic changes in the liver and intestinal tumors were observed in rats fed red chili powder at 80 mg/kg day- 1 for 30 days, intestinal and colon tumors were seen in rats fed red chili powder and 1,2-dimethyl hydrazine, but no tumors were observed in controls. In another study in rats, however, red chile pepper in the diet at the same dose decreased the number of tumors seen with 1,2-dimethylhydrazine. Other feeding studies evaluated the effect of red chili peppers on the incidence of stomach tumors produced by N-methyl-N′-nitro- N-nitrosoguanidine, finding that red pepper had a promoting effect. Capsicum Frutescens Fruit Extract promoted the carcinogenic effect of methyl(acetoxymethyl)nitrosamine (carcinogen) or benzene hexachloride (hepatocarcinogen) in inbred male and female Balb/c mice dosed orally (tongue application). Clinical findings include symptoms of cough, sneezing, and runny nose in chili factory workers. Human respiratory responses to Capsicum Oleoresin spray include burning of the throat, wheezing, dry cough, shortness of breath, gagging, gasping, inability to breathe or speak, and, rarely, cyanosis, apnea, and respiratory arrest. A trade name mixture containing 1% to 5% Capsicum Frutescens Fruit Extract induced very slight erythema in 1 of 10 volunteers patch tested for 48 h. Capsicum Frutescens Fruit Extract at 0.025% in a repeated-insult patch test using 103 subjects resulted in no clinically meaningful irritation or allergic contact dermatitis. One epidemiological study indicated that chili pepper consumption may be a strong risk factor for gastric cancer in populations with high intakes of chili pepper; however, other studies did not find this association. Capsaicin functions as an external analgesic, a fragrance ingredient, and as a skin-conditioning agent - miscellaneous in cosmetic products, but is not in current use. Capsaicin is not generally recognized as safe and effective by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for fever blister and cold sore treatment, but is considered to be safe and effective as an external analgesic counterirritant. Ingested Capsaicin is rapidly absorbed from the stomach and small intestine in animal studies. Subcutaneous injection of Capsaicin in rats resulted in a rise in the blood concentration, reaching a maximum at 5 h; the highest tissue concentrations were in the kidney and lowest in the liver. In vitro percutaneous absorption of Capsaicin has been demonstrated in human, rat, mouse, rabbit, and pig skin. Enhancement of the skin permeation of naproxen (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent) in the presence of Capsaicin has also been demonstrated. Pharmacological and physiological studies demonstrated that Capsaicin, which contains a vanillyl moiety, produces its sensory effects by activating a Ca2 +-permeable ion channel on sensory neurons. Capsaicin is a known activator of vanilloid receptor 1. Capsaicin-induced stimulation of prostaglandin biosynthesis has been shown using bull seminal vesicles and rheumatoid arthritis synoviocytes. Capsaicin inhibits protein synthesis in Vero kidney cells and human neuroblastoma SHSY-5Y cells in vitro, and inhibits growth of E. coli, Pseudomonas solanacearum, and Bacillus subtilis bacterial cultures, but not Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Oral LD50 values as low as 161.2 mg/kg (rats) and 118.8 mg/kg (mice) have been reported for Capsaicin in acute oral toxicity studies, with hemorrhage of the gastric fundus observed in some of the animals that died. Intravenous, intraperitoneal, and subcutaneous LD50 values were lower. In subchronic oral toxicity studies using mice, Capsaicin produced statistically significant differences in the growth rate and liver/body weight increases. Capsaicin is an ocular irritant in mice, rats, and rabbits. Dose-related edema was observed in animals receiving Capsaicin injections into the hindpaw (rats) or application to the ear (mice). In guinea pigs, dinitrochlorobenzene contact dermatitis was enhanced in the presence of Capsaicin, injected subcutaneously, whereas dermal application inhibited sensitization in mice. Immune system effects have been observed in neonatal rats injected subcutaneously with Capsaicin. Capsaicin produced mixed results in S. typhimurium micronucleus and sister-chromatid exchange genotoxicity assays. Positive results for Capsaicin were reported in DNA damage assays. Carcinogenic, cocarcinogenic, anticarcinogenic, antitumorigenic, tumor promotion, and anti-tumor promotion effects of Capsaicin have been reported in animal studies. Except for a significant reduction in crown-rump length in day 18 rats injected subcutaneously with Capsaicin (50 mg/kg) on gestation days 14, 16, 18, or 20, no reproductive or developmental toxicity was noted. In pregnant mice dosed subcutaneously with Capsaicin, depletion of substance P in the spinal cord and peripheral nerves of pregnant females and fetuses was noted. In clinical tests, nerve degeneration of intracutaneous nerve fibers and a decrease in pain sensation induced by heat and mechanical stimuli were evident in subjects injected intradermally with Capsaicin. An increase in mean inspiratory flow was reported for eight normal subjects who inhaled nebulized 10- 7 M Capsaicin. The results of provocative and predictive tests involving human subjects indicated that Capsaicin is a skin irritant. Overall, studies suggested that these ingredients can be irritating at low concentrations. Although the genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and tumor promotion potential of Capsaicin have been demonstrated, so have opposite effects. Skin irritation and other tumor-promoting effects of Capsaicin appear to be mediated through interaction with the same vanilloid receptor. Given this mechanism of action and the observation that many tumor promoters are irritating to the skin, the Panel considered it likely that a potent tumor promoter may also be a moderate to severe skin irritant. Thus, a limitation on Capsaicin content that would significantly reduce its skin irritation potential is expected to, in effect, lessen any concerns relating to tumor promotion potential. Because Capsaicin enhanced the penetration of an anti-inflammatory agent through human skin, the Panel recommends that care should be exercised in using ingredients that contain Capsaicin in cosmetic products. The Panel advised industry that the total polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)/pesticide contamination should be limited to not more than 40 ppm, with not more than 10 ppm for any specific residue, and agreed on the following limitations for other impurities: arsenic (3 mg/kg max), heavy metals (0.002% max), and lead (5 mg/kg max). Industry was also advised that aflatoxin should not be present in these ingredients (the Panel adopted ≤15 ppb as corresponding to "negative" aflatoxin content), and that ingredients derived from Capsicum annuum and Capsicum Frutescens Plant species should not be used in products where N-nitroso compounds may be formed.
View
Garlic in Clinical Practice: An Evidence-Based Overview
Article
Background and objective: Garlic has been widely used in clinical practice, and there were many systematic reviews (SRs) describing its effects. But none reviewed the clinical utility comprehensively, so we aimed to evaluate its effects from every aspect of its effects. Methods: We comprehensively searched medical electronic databases, asked the experts in this field, along with reference tracking, and manual searching. We included all kinds of SRs, including Cochrane SRs and non-Cochrane SRs. Two authors independently selected articles for relevant SRs, and extracted data of included SRs, resolved differences by consultation with a third reviewer. Results: We described nine SRs about garlic. Available evidence showed that garlic can reduce blood pressure (BP) in hypertensive patients and patients with elevated systolic BP (SBP), but not in normotensive subjects. Evidence about the effects of garlic on lipid parameters was contentious, so we cannot make a decision whether garlic is effective enough for reducing total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TAG), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). As evidence was very limited and insufficient, relations between garlic intake and reduced risks of all kinds of cancers, antiglycemic and antithrombotic effects of garlic, the effects of garlic on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality were unclear. Garlic as a preventative or treatment option for the common cold or peripheral arterial occlusive disease or pre-eclampsia and its complications could not be recommended, as only one relatively small trial evaluated the effects separately. Conclusions: Garlic might be effective in some areas of clinical practice, but the evidence levels were low, so further researches should be well designed using rigorous method to avoid potential biases.
View
Treatment of the Common Cold in Children and Adults
Article
  • Jul 2012
The common cold, or upper respiratory tract infection, is one of the leading reasons for physician visits. Generally caused by viruses, the common cold is treated symptomatically. Antibiotics are not effective in children or adults. In children, there is a potential for harm and no benefits with over-the-counter cough and cold medications; therefore, they should not be used in children younger than four years. Other commonly used medications, such as inhaled corticosteroids, oral prednisolone, and Echinacea, also are ineffective in children. Products that improve symptoms in children include vapor rub, zinc sulfate, Pelargonium sidoides (geranium) extract, and buckwheat honey. Prophylactic probiotics, zinc sulfate, nasal saline irrigation, and the herbal preparation Chizukit reduce the incidence of colds in children. For adults, antihistamines, intranasal corticosteroids, codeine, nasal saline irrigation, Echinacea angustifolia preparations, and steam inhalation are ineffective at relieving cold symptoms. Pseudoephedrine, phenylephrine, inhaled ipratropium, and zinc (acetate or gluconate) modestly reduce the severity and duration of symptoms for adults. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and some herbal preparations, including Echinacea purpurea, improve symptoms in adults. Prophylactic use of garlic may decrease the frequency of colds in adults, but has no effect on duration of symptoms. Hand hygiene reduces the spread of viruses that cause cold illnesses. Prophylactic vitamin C modestly reduces cold symptom duration in adults and children.
View
Treating epilepsy: A review of Polish historical sources
Article
  • Oct 2011
  • EPILEPSY BEHAV
The first surviving Polish publications on epilepsy were written in the 16th and 17th centuries. Many causes of epileptic seizures are quoted and they are divided into two categories: internal and external. Internal causes (causa interna) include imbalance in the basic bodily humors, that is, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood. According to medieval writers, the principal cause of epilepsy was vapor, a damp, cold volatile substance originating in the excessive production of one of the basic organismic liquids. Vapor allegedly stuck to the openings leading to the cerebral ventricles or blocked them entirely, resulting in convulsions. External causes (causa externa) include overeating and excessive drinking, teething, spoiled milk, poisons, badly treated spots and fever, cold air, moonlight, and wearing donkey hide. Medical treatments for epilepsy included surgical interventions (bloodletting) and pharmacological interventions. The latter included laxatives, sea onion (scilla maritima, urginea maritima), and ground human skull, all of which were supposed to protect the body from vapors. Medical practitioners of that time also advised that the factors and circumstances conducive to epileptic seizures be observed and identified so that patients could be isolated from these alleged causal factors and their seizures reduced or ended.
View
Garlic for the common cold
Article
  • Mar 2012
Background: Garlic is alleged to have antimicrobial and antiviral properties that relieve the common cold, among other beneficial effects. There is widespread usage of garlic supplements. The common cold is associated with significant morbidity and economic consequences. On average, children have six to eight colds per year and adults have two to four. Objectives: To determine whether garlic (allium sativum) is effective for either the prevention or treatment of the common cold, when compared to placebo, no treatment or other treatments. Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (2011, Issue 4), which includes the Cochrane Acute Respiratory Infections Group Specialised Register, OLDMEDLINE (1950 to 1965), MEDLINE (January 1966 to November week 3, 2011), EMBASE (1974 to December 2011) and AMED (1985 to December 2011). Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials of common cold prevention and treatment comparing garlic with placebo, no treatment or standard treatment. Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently reviewed and selected trials from searches, assessed and rated study quality and extracted relevant data. Main results: Of the six trials identified as potentially relevant from our searches, only one trial met the inclusion criteria. This trial randomly assigned 146 participants to either a garlic supplement (with 180 mg of allicin content) or a placebo (once daily) for 12 weeks. The trial reported 24 occurrences of the common cold in the garlic intervention group compared with 65 in the placebo group (P < 0.001), resulting in fewer days of illness in the garlic group compared with the placebo group (111 versus 366). The number of days to recovery from an occurrence of the common cold was similar in both groups (4.63 versus 5.63). Only one trial met the inclusion criteria, therefore limited conclusions can be drawn. The trial relied on self reported episodes of the common cold but was of reasonable quality in terms of randomisation and allocation concealment. Adverse effects included rash and odour. Authors' conclusions: There is insufficient clinical trial evidence regarding the effects of garlic in preventing or treating the common cold. A single trial suggested that garlic may prevent occurrences of the common cold but more studies are needed to validate this finding. Claims of effectiveness appear to rely largely on poor-quality evidence.
View
Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors: History of Pharmacology
Article
  • May 2011
  • Handbook Exp Pharmacol
The first pharmacological investigations of phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors were developed with the clinical efficacies of drugs isolated from coffee, cacao and tea but only later their relevant ingredients were identified as xanthines that act as PDE. With its diuretic, inotropic and bronchodilating clinical efficacy, use of theophylline anticipated the clinical goals, which were later approached with the first-generation of weakly selective PDE inhibitors in the period from 1980 to 1990. Pharmacological and clinical research with these early compounds provided a vast pool of information regarding desired and adverse actions - although most of these new drugs had to be discontinued due to severe adverse effects. The pharmacological models for cardiac, vascular and respiratory indications were analysed for their PDE isoenzyme profiles, and when biochemical and molecular biological approaches expanded our knowledge of the PDE superfamily, the purified isoenzymes that were now available opened the door for more systematic studies of inhibitors and for generation of highly selective isoenzyme-specific drugs. The development of simple screening models and clinically relevant indication models reflecting the growing knowledge about pathomechanisms of disease are summarised here for today's successful application of highly selective PDE3, PDE4 and PDE5 inhibitors. The interplay of serendipitous discoveries, the establishment of intelligent pharmacological models and the knowledge gain by research results with new substances is reviewed. The broad efficacies of new substances in vitro, the enormous biodiversity of the PDE isoenzyme family and the sophisticated biochemical pharmacology enabled Viagra to be the first success story in the field of PDE inhibitor drug development, but probably more success stories will follow.
View