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A bidirectional model of executive functions and self-regulation
... Por isso, há diferentes nomenclaturas e definições, incluindo variabilidade na descrição de modelos, seus respectivos componentes e consequentemente, nas medidas de avaliação (Gagne et al., 2021). A definição considerada no presente estudo compreende a AR como a capacidade de controlar ou direcionar a atenção, cognição, emoções e comportamentos para alcançar objetivos (Lenes et al., 2020;Rademacher, 2022), envolvendo o gerenciamento cognitivo e emocional (Blair & Ursache, 2011). ...
... Um modelo que busca explicar a AR é o bidirecional, no qual a AR é um processo oriundo da relação recíproca entre as Funções Executivas -FE (consideradas processos top down -controle cognitivo) e a Regulação Emocional -RE (processos bottow up -mais reativos), que operam em um ciclo de feedback interativo com o ambiente (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Howard et al., 2021). Por exemplo, quando uma criança está num ambiente que propicia foco atencional, nível emocional ou de estresse inadequados, seu funcionamento executivo pode não operar de forma apropriada para atingir os objetivos propostos. ...
... córtex pré-frontal) na forma de U invertido. Isto significa que o funcionamento executivo será afetado pelos níveis hormonais relacionados ao estresse, sendo que o ideal seria ter um nível moderado para manter o estado de alerta, ativação cognitiva e processamento da informação, uma vez que baixos ou altos níveis hormonais podem prejudicar o adequado funcionamento executivo (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Howard et al., 2021). ...
... It attempts to provide a more reciprocal account of the regulatory skills important for school readiness and other positive outcomes during childhood and throughout the lifespan. This model of EF describes how the parallel development of brain areas that underlie EF reciprocally interacts with those associated with the automatic aspects of self-regulation, such as executive attention, the regulation of emotion, and the stress response system (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Within this bidirectional model, the ACC plays a critical role. ...
... The ACC is associated with executive attention (i.e., which registers conflict between stimuli or between stimulus and response options). It sends signals to the prefrontal cortex to initiate activity in the dorsal and ventrolateral regions associated with EF, as well as linking limbic areas associated with emotional processing, which in turn can trigger a stress response and increase neuroendocrine activity in areas such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (Blair & Ursache, 2011). In brief, the processes of EF and self-regulation interact in an adaptive feedback loop in response to the environment and are highly influenced by experience. ...
... In brief, the processes of EF and self-regulation interact in an adaptive feedback loop in response to the environment and are highly influenced by experience. Further, in this model, EFs are thought to serve as a critical higher-level, or top-down, mechanism in regulating the automatic aspects of self-regulation (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Research, which has examined the development of the bidirectional processes of EF and self-regulation, suggests that children may be "early developers" (i.e., show high initial levels of self-regulation and earlier gains), "intermediate developers" (i.e., show low initial levels of self-regular on followed by rapid gains), or "late developers" (i.e., show low initial levels of self-regulation followed by slow gains), with this heterogeneity in developmental trajectories pinpointing a need for individualized intervention options (Montroy et al., 2016). ...
This chapter reviews the theoretical underpinnings and empirical research on executive function in children and adolescents, with a particular emphasis on research that pertains to clinical child psychology. The concept of executive function emerged based on findings from primatology and neuropsychology and has spurred considerable research over the past half-century. The chapter begins with a review of influential conceptualizations of executive function and describes the common components and processes that have been ascribed to executive functions. These introductory sections provide the background that allows us to appreciate that the field of executive function suffers from terminological inconsistencies and could benefit from conceptual precision. The chapter then goes on to describe the development of executive function from infancy through to adolescence, as well as the brain structures and networks that have been associated with various executive functions, focusing on the prefrontal cortex, which is considered the neural basis of executive functions. In the next section, the influences of genetics and various prenatal and postnatal environmental factors that have been associated with the development of executive function are discussed. This is followed by a synthesis of the difficulties in executive function commonly reported in children with neurodevelopmental, behavioural, and mental disorders, and a discussion of the assessment of executive function. A brief synopsis of some of the clinical interventions designed to address difficulties with executive function, focusing on the promising potential of early intervention, is presented. The authors conclude the chapter with a discussion of future directions for research. Given the importance of pinpointing the genetic, brain, and behavioural correlates of executive function to consistently identify children with clinical and sub-clinical difficulties and to develop targeted interventions, which are currently obscured by theoretical and methodological challenges, this chapter closes with the proposition that executive function represents a concept in need of clarity.KeywordsExecutive functionChildrenAdolescentsDevelopmentCognitive developmentNeural correlatesGenetic correlatesEnvironmental factorsAssessmentIntervention
... Furthermore, individual differences and external influences characterize SR competencies in adolescence [1,10,13]. SR is not only shaped by the individuals themselves but also by their social environment (i.e., parents and peers; [14][15][16]. In addition, the SR of an individual also affects the social environment [15], with these transactional person-environment relationships further driving individual development [17,18]. ...
... SR is not only shaped by the individuals themselves but also by their social environment (i.e., parents and peers; [14][15][16]. In addition, the SR of an individual also affects the social environment [15], with these transactional person-environment relationships further driving individual development [17,18]. ...
... The arrows indicate that a reciprocal relationship between basal and complex SR sub-facets is assumed. The line width indicates that the influence of basal on complex sub-facets is assumed to be stronger than vice versa the typical development of various SR sub-facets and its importance for the accomplishment of adolescent-specific developmental tasks is still scarce [12,15,[21][22][23][24]. Our longitudinal research will therefore increase our understanding of the development and impact of SR, especially in the previously neglected but vulnerable period from puberty to early adulthood [25]. ...
Background
Self-regulation (SR) as the ability to regulate one’s own physical state, emotions, cognitions, and behavior, is considered to play a pivotal role in the concurrent and subsequent mental and physical health of an individual. Although SR skills encompass numerous sub-facets, previous research has often focused on only one or a few of these sub-facets, and only rarely on adolescence. Therefore, little is known about the development of the sub-facets, their interplay, and their specific contributions to future developmental outcomes, particularly in adolescence. To fill these research gaps, this study aims to prospectively examine (1) the development of SR and (2) their influence on adolescent-specific developmental outcomes in a large community sample.
Methods/design
Based on previously collected data from the Potsdam Intrapersonal Developmental Risk (PIER) study with three measurement points, the present prospective, longitudinal study aims to add a fourth measurement point (PIERYOUTH). We aim to retain at least 1074 participants now between 16 and 23 years of the initially 1657 participants (6–11 years of age at the first measurement point in 2012/2013; 52.2% female). The study will continue to follow a multi-method (questionnaires, physiological assessments, performance-based computer tasks), multi-facet (assessing various domains of SR), and multi-rater (self-, parent-, and teacher-report) approach. In addition, a broad range of adolescent-specific developmental outcomes is considered. In doing so, we will cover the development of SR and relevant outcomes over the period of 10 years. In addition, we intend to conduct a fifth measurement point (given prolonged funding) to investigate development up to young adulthood.
Discussion
With its broad and multimethodological approach, PIERYOUTH aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the development and role of various SR sub-facets from middle childhood to adolescence. The large sample size and low drop-out rates in the first three measurements points form a sound database for our present prospective research.
Trial registration German Clinical Trials Register, registration number DRKS00030847.
... After the pilot testing, we recruited 24 new subjects for the actual study. Before the gaming sessions, subjects were briefed about the Self-regulation crucial for planning and problem solving (Blair & Ursache, 2011). The regulation of attention, emotion, and executive functions is important for goal-directed actions (Blair & Ursache, 2011) in everyday functioning, such as when the study subjects chose to do what they liked during gameplay instead of following the game's instructions. ...
... Before the gaming sessions, subjects were briefed about the Self-regulation crucial for planning and problem solving (Blair & Ursache, 2011). The regulation of attention, emotion, and executive functions is important for goal-directed actions (Blair & Ursache, 2011) in everyday functioning, such as when the study subjects chose to do what they liked during gameplay instead of following the game's instructions. ...
... Inhibitory control is a neurocognitive process that contributes to an individual's executive function (Choi et al., 2016). Executive function involves higher order and deliberative aspects of self-regulation that are crucial for planning and problem solving (i.e., goal-directed behaviours) and for managing thoughts, feelings, and actions (i.e., self-control responses; Blair & Ursache, 2011). Players can develop inhibitory control when playing video games as they practice managing their attention and behaviour in evermore complex ways while progressing from novice to expert. ...
This qualitative study uses grounded theory to derive a set of social-emotional learning concepts from a group of subjects who demonstrated social-emotional skills in video game play. We found evidence of social-emotional learning concepts through analysing game recordings, interviews, and player reflections. The concepts, including inhibitory control, prosocial behaviours, perseverance, social awareness, self-management, relationship management, emotional regulation, and optimism, are synthesised into a social-emotional theoretical model grounded in socialemotional theories of learning. Based on the findings, we suggest how teachers and game designers can create learning opportunities using the social-emotional learning concepts in video games.
... Consequently, a warm and responsive environment is created for children to develop their executive function (Paro et al., 2009;Wang et al., 2020). Teachers may also help children to experience a moderate level of arousal, which is believed to be beneficial for children's executive function through the adults' high-quality emotional support (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Neuenschwander et al., 2017). Also, a sensitive and responsive teacher may provide more effective verbal-based feedback to children, such as clarifying rules and expectations. ...
... Also, a sensitive and responsive teacher may provide more effective verbal-based feedback to children, such as clarifying rules and expectations. This could, in turn, create opportunities for children to practice their working memory and inhibition control in goal-oriented tasks (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Paro et al., 2009). Furthermore, although the association between Instructional Support and executive function gains is considered theoretically weak , some scholars have proposed that the instructional interactions between teachers and children may matter as well for the development of executive function . ...
Theories posit that the quality of teacher–child interactions has a profound influence on children’s development of executive function skills. However, prior research has yielded mixed findings regarding the associations between teacher–child interaction quality as measured by the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) and children’s executive function. In an attempt to examine the inconsistent findings, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the associations between the three CLASS domains (i.e. Emotional Support, Classroom Organization, and Instructional Support) and children’s gains in executive function. The systematic review presented an overview of the methodological approaches applied in the included studies. The meta-analysis examined the magnitude of the overall effects of CLASS domains on children’s executive function. Four databases (i.e., PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, Web of Science, and ERIC) and Google Scholar were used to search and locate relevant studies, leading to the identification and inclusion of Sixteen articles (published from 2009 to 2021) that met the inclusion criteria. Results of a random-effects model indicated that the overall effect sizes for all three CLASS domains were significant but small in magnitude (from 0.06 to 0.09). Our research findings did not provide strong support for the link between CLASS domains and children’s executive function. We argue that it is necessary to revise and expand the current quality measures that focus on general teacher–child interactions.
... Page 4 of 32 development Blair & Ursache, 2011;Becker et al., 2014;Howard et al., 2021aHoward et al., , 2021b. This is not surprising if viewed from a relational development systems theory perspective, which asserts that skills do not develop in isolation, and all development represents a bidirectional and dynamic process between the development of increasingly complex skills over time and across contexts (Blair & Raver, 2015;McClelland et al., 2015). ...
... The current review contributes to the current state of knowledge by bringing together the literature on SR and EF interventions conducted in preschool settings. This is important given increased interest in reconciling the two constructs, and the findings of bi-directional associations between them Blair & Ursache, 2011;Howard et al., 2021aHoward et al., , 2021b. This review is additionally important for highlighting the need for better theory of change for SR and EF, and particularly for their integration. ...
This systematic literature review sought to reconcile the evidence of efficacy for interventions and approaches to enhancing self-regulation and/or executive function in preschool settings. Following PRISMA methodology, a comprehensive search of 20 years of intervention research identified 85 studies that met inclusion criteria. Interventions were categorised by intervention approach and coded for their characteristics (e.g. sample size, dose, duration, interventionist, intervention activities), outcomes (e.g. significance, size of effects) and study quality (i.e. risk of bias). Reconciliation of intervention results indicated (1) within intervention approaches, some approaches had more consistent and robust evidence of efficacy (e.g. mindfulness, mediated play, physical activity) and (2) across intervention approaches, characteristics that had greater (or exclusive) presence amongst the higher efficacy interventions (e.g. cognitive challenge, movement, as well as interventionist, fidelity and dose considerations). Implications for future intervention (re)design, and for theorising about mechanisms of self-regulation and executive function change, are discussed.
... Despite the advantages of global EF scores, most of the studies in the two bodies of literature utilized separate EF scores. Secondly, more frequent observation of significant relations between parent/teacher behaviors and child EF at younger ages, compared to older ones, supports the hypothesis that young children rely on co-regulation with adults (i.e., parents' and teachers' external help for children to modify children's behaviors, thoughts, and emotions according to the requirements of the specific context) before they learn self-regulation (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Erdmann & Hertel, 2019;Kurki et al., 2016;Pauen, 2016). Third, patterns of findings in the parenting field showed that when parental behaviors were assessed through observational methods, they displayed significant relations with child EF to a greater extent compared to studies using self-or child-reports. ...
... Even though there are some review studies investigating development of EF across different age spans (Diamond, 2002;Garon et al., 2008;Hughes, 2011), research on how the effect of environmental influences, specifically parent/teacher-child interactions, changes across time is scarce. In their meta-analysis, Valcan et al. (2018) found that the impact of parents' cognitive support on child EF is more pronounced in younger children than older ones in an age group of 0 to 8. Vandenbroucke et al. (2018), on the other hand, showed that teacher behaviors (including different aspects of teacher behaviors such as emotional support, instructional support) have stronger effect sizes on child EF in older children (i.e., beginning of elementary school) across the ages from 2 to 7. Overall, these findings corroborate the hypothesis that young children depend more on parents' support and guidance (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Sameroff, 2010) than older children. However, when children start attending formal schools, they may rely on the teachers' support as an additional resource for improving their EF skills. ...
The aim of the current systematic review is (1) to examine theoretical frameworks and mechanisms explaining the association between parental and teacher behaviors and child executive function (EF) development, and (2) to compare and combine empirical findings for the relationship between parental and teacher behaviors and child EF development in early and middle childhood. Results revealed that theoretical frameworks have been established more strongly in the parent literature and parental behaviors have been more extensively studied with more diverse terms compared to studies in teacher literature. Overall, patterns of findings suggest that positive (e.g., emotional support) and cognitive parental/teacher behaviors (e.g., cognitive stimulation) were positively linked to child EF performance while negative behaviors (e.g., intrusiveness) were adversely related. Considering the similar roles of parents and teachers in child EF development, insights from parent literature could enable a better understanding of the impact of teacher behaviors on child EF (and vice versa), and opens new venues for future teacher research. Moreover, these findings suggest that, in addition to genetic transmission, social factors such as parent/teacher-child interactions play a significant role in EF development. Future research should investigate the joint influence of parent and teacher behaviors on child EF.
... EF is one dimension of the broader construct of self-regulation, which also includes emotion regulation, effortful control, and executive attention (Vernon-Feagans et al., 2016). EF helps children do things such as stay focused, see things from new perspectives, resist impulses and temptations, flexibly adjust to changing demands or circumstances, and delay gratification (Blair and Ursache, 2011). EF is related to, but distinct from, intelligence, as it has less to do with possessing knowledge, but instead is about putting that knowledge into practice and being able to reason (Zelazo et al., 2017). ...
... Executive function has been studied from different perspectives and conceptualized in different ways. Neuropsychologists, through studying frontal lobe functioning, generally characterize EF as a specific set of attention-regulation skills that include inhibitory control (impulse control), cognitive flexibility (attention switching), and working memory (mentally "holding" and using information) (McCabe et al., 2010;Blair and Ursache, 2011). These skills are highly integrated and work together for optimal functioning. ...
This study examined the effect of nature-based practices on preschoolers’ executive function (EF). The Minnesota Executive Function Scale was administered to 147 children within one school district at the beginning and end of the preschool year. Results suggest incorporating nature-based practices into preschool was effective, as children in preschool classrooms where nature-based practices were used had significantly higher levels of EF at the end of the school year than children in programs where nature-based practices were more minimally used. Preschools that used a blended approach (some incorporation of nature-based practices) were significantly more effective than preschools that had lesser incorporation of nature-based practices. Results also point to the effectiveness of a blended approach for supporting EF in lower SES children. This study contributes to the literature regarding effective practices for supporting EF development and adds to the growing body of research surrounding the impact of nature play on child development and school readiness.
... La auto-regulación de la conducta y las emociones de una manera adaptativa al contexto social es una capacidad central del desarrollo, así como uno de los principales objetivos de la socialización parental (Blair y Ursache, 2011). En relación con el concepto más amplio de auto-regulación, las funciones ejecutivas son capacidades cognitivas que sirven para organizar información, planear la acción, la resolución de problemas o la inhibición del comportamiento de una manera consciente e intencional. ...
... En relación con el concepto más amplio de auto-regulación, las funciones ejecutivas son capacidades cognitivas que sirven para organizar información, planear la acción, la resolución de problemas o la inhibición del comportamiento de una manera consciente e intencional. Son capacidades fundamentales, por tanto, para un comportamiento auto-regulado (Blair y Ursache, 2011;Diamond, 2013). La regulación de las emociones de forma adaptativa y eficaz es otro aspecto importante de la auto-regulación, que se desarrolla de forma inter-relacionada a las funciones ejecutivas, ya que compar-ten procesos de control atencional y áreas cerebrales (Blair y Diamond, 2008;Calkins y Marcovitch, 2010). ...
Este artículo presenta una revisión de algunas líneas de investigación centradas en el acogimiento familiar sobre las que sería conveniente ampliar nuestro conocimiento, particularmente en España. Para que la medida de acogimiento familiar se ajuste mejor a las necesidades de los menores es fundamental dar el salto de los estudios descriptivos al análisis de los procesos relacionados con una mejor adaptación. Con motivo de una investigación actualmente en marcha por los autores, en este artículo se repasan algunas de las áreas más relevantes para el desarrollo de los menores en acogimiento familiar que aún están escasamente estudiadas. Concretamente, las áreas revisadas son la auto-regulación, las representaciones mentales de apego, la salud mental y la familia acogedora como contexto de recuperación. En cada una de ellas se subraya su importancia en el acogimiento familiar y se repasan los estudios más relevantes. El artículo finaliza con algunas conclusiones derivadas de la revisión.
... The small literature on self-regulation in neighborhood contexts supports a role for both the built environment and social environment in shaping components of child selfregulation. We build on a model of self-regulation, which highlights the bi-directional relations between more effortful aspects of self-regulation such as executive function and more automatic processes including stress physiology and emotion regulation (Blair and Ursache, 2011;Blair and Ku, 2022). Stress physiology involves biological regulation through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS; Holochwost et al., 2021). ...
... Emotion regulation is defined as a set of contextually influenced, dynamic processes that modulate emotion (Eisenberg et al., 2004). Executive functions are cognitive skills that support goaldirected behavior through organizing, planning, and problem solving (Blair and Ursache, 2011). ...
We present a conceptual model of the ways in which built and social environments shape the development of self-regulation in early childhood. Importantly, in centering children of color growing up in historically disinvested neighborhoods, we first describe how systemic structures of racism and social stratification have shaped neighborhood built and social environment features. We then present evidence linking these neighborhood features to children’s development of self-regulation. Furthermore, we take a multilevel approach to examining three potential pathways linking neighborhood contexts to self-regulation: school environment and resources, home environment and resources, and child health behaviors. Finally, we consider how racial-ethnic-cultural strengths and multilevel interventions have the potential to buffer children’s development of self-regulation in disinvested neighborhood contexts. Advancing multilevel approaches to understand the development of self-regulation among children of color living in historically disinvested neighborhoods is an important step in efforts to promote equity in health and education.
... Firstly, the relation of positive parenting with dysregulation and self-esteem provides support to fundamental theoretical frameworks recognizing the primary role of effective caregiving for the development of children's well-being, regulatory functioning and positive adaptation [22,[38][39][40]76]. More interestingly, we were able to enlarge the picture by proving support to a full mediation in which positive parenting predicted less PSNSU, by decreasing dysregulation and by increasing self-esteem, both independently and sequentially, with the first mediator acting on the second. ...
... Secondly, negative parenting was related only to dysregulation, in line with recently reported evidence testing the link between parenting and dysregulation profile [27], and with a consistent corpus of findings linking dysfunctional parenting to disorders, especially externalizing ones, all characterized by dysregulation issues such as conduct disorder (CD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) ( [22,39,40,77] for reviews). In line with the developmental psychopathology framework [78], adequate self-regulation requires parents' ability to set limits for appropriate child behavior and/or misbehavior and when such parental functions fail, there is an increased risk for the child to develop dysregulation. ...
The study addresses some gaps in the current understanding of adolescents’ Problematic Social Network Site Use (PSNSU) by exploring the role of parenting as a precursor, and dysregulation and self-esteem as possible mediators. The sample includes 148 parents (15% fathers) and their adolescent offspring (23% male, age ranging from 14 to 18 years old, M = 15.96, SD = 1.36). Parent-reported dysregulation and positive/negative parenting style and adolescent-reported PSNSU and self-esteem were collected. As to positive parenting, simple parallel mediations were fully supported: positive parenting was associated with less dysregulation and higher self-esteem and both conditions independently predicted adolescents’ PSNSU. Additionally, a serial mediation model was confirmed, suggesting that positive parenting is associated with less PSNSU by means of the sequential effect of dysregulation on self-esteem. As to negative parenting, results only support one simple mediation: negative parenting predicted PSNSU through dysregulation. Self-esteem was not impacted by negative parenting, interrupting the indirect pathways. The direct effect of negative parenting on PSNSU was significant, suggesting a partial mediation. Findings deepen the current understanding of teens’ PSNSU and highlight the importance of targeting parenting when implementing interventions to prevent and treat PSNSU.
... Executive functions (EFs) are the cognitive processes that seem to benefit most from physical activity, shown in adults [3]. EFs represent the cognitive aspect of self-regulation enabling individuals to exert goal-directed actions [4]. EFs can be separated into three core components: (a) inhibition of prepotent responses, (b) working memory, and (c) shifting [5,6]. ...
... Furthermore, primary outcomes were assessed by comparing the two groups, relying on the 95% confidence intervals of differences between groups. For the secondary objectives (3)(4), preliminary intervention effects were evaluated based on 95% confidence intervals of adjusted mean differences between the control and intervention groups. Therefore, linear regression models were run to observe adjusted mean differences of the outcome variables (i.e., HTKS, DNS) between the two condition groups, after controlling for children's age, sex, motor coordination experience, and self-control. ...
Background
Executive functions are pivotal for future academic and social functioning. Causal effects of physical activity on executive functions have been shown in adults. The primary objective of this study was to test the proof-of-concept (i.e., feasibility of implementation and acceptance) of a motor coordination intervention and a sedentary control condition in kindergartners and its preliminary effectiveness on subsequent executive function performance.
Methods
The study used a two-group post-test only design. All children aged between 4 and 7 years old were eligible. One hundred and three children (46% girls; age: M = 5.71 years, 95% CI = 5.50 to 5.92) recruited in a middle-sized town in Germany were randomly assigned to a 20-min motor coordination intervention ( n = 51) or a sedentary control condition ( n = 52), both of which were conducted in a one-on-one experimenter-child setting in the university or kindergarten. A second blinded-to-condition experimenter assessed the executive function outcomes directly following the conditions. Proof-of-concept criteria were the implementation of the intervention with a moderate-to-vigorous physical activity level assessed via heart rate sensors, and with motor coordination demands, analyzed via video recordings; children’s acceptance via self-reported enjoyment of the conditions; and the post-assessments of executive functions with a behavioral and computerized task.
Results
The motor coordination intervention and the control condition were feasible in a one-on-one setting with kindergartners. The intervention revealed heart rate increases and challenging motor coordination tasks. Children in both conditions indicated they enjoy them. Performance in the two executive function tasks did not differ between children in the motor coordination intervention and the control condition.
Conclusions
A one-on-one experimenter-child setting was feasible to deliver in kindergartners. Future intervention studies should consider pre-testing of executive functions and take into account children’s characteristics as potential moderators, such as motor coordination skills.
... EFs make it possible for people to concentrate on multiple information flows at the same time, to monitor their execution, to make decisions considering the information available, to review their plans, and to manage to inhibit preponderant automatic responses that are not adaptive (Diamond, 2013b). EFs play a crucial role in the self-regulation and self-control capacity of humans (Blair & Ursache, 2011); they are vital for daily development (Montoya et al., 2019;Zorza et al., 2017) and are a significant predictor of academic performance (Finch et al., 2019;Montoya et al., 2019;St. John et al., 2018). ...
The healthy development of cognitive functions, including executive functions, has been shown to depend mainly on the experiences and learning opportunities of people, especially during childhood. Over the past few years, researchers have been studying the impacts of diverse types of interventions on children's cognitive development in which computational thinking programs are a recent field. This pilot study evaluated the effect of computational thinking training based on the "Programming for Children" program on the executive functions of children aged 10 and 11 years: working memory, inhibition, and planning (N = 30). The results showed that children in the experimental group improved on tests of visuospatial working memory, cognitive inhibition, and sequential planning compared with the control group. However, tests of verbal working memory, memory strategy, and visual spatial planning did not show any observed changes. Although this was an exploratory study, and its findings should be interpreted cautiously due to the small sample size, the findings support the relevance and feasibility of conducting similar larger studies with larger samples.
... IC enables children to inhibit their strong internal tendencies or impulsive reactions and produce more appropriate responses (Diamond, 2013). Finally, CF enables children to shift and maintain their attention between different tasks consciously, even if there is a distraction in the environment (Blair & Diamond, 2008;Blair & Ursache, 2011;Rothbart & Posner, 2005). Studies indicate that SR has an integrated structure and that the components of WM, IC, and CF work in an integrated manner Tominey & McClelland, 2013;Wiebe et al., 2008;Willoughby et al., 2012). ...
The present study examined the relationship between children's behavioral self-regulation (BSR) skills and the teacher-child relationship (TCR). Furthermore, this study investigated the contribution of TCR, child age, family monthly income, and child gender on children's BSR assessed by the Revised Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders. Participants consisted of 292 children aged 42 to 77 months. The data were analyzed using Pearson product-moment correlation and multiple linear regression analysis. The results showed a moderately positive relationship between BSR skills and TCR's closeness subscale and a moderately negative relationship between BSR skills and TCR's conflict subscale. Except for child gender, the TCR's subscales, child's age, and family monthly income significantly predicted the total score of BSR skills. TCR closeness was the strongest predictor of BSR skills, followed by TCR conflict, child age, and family monthly income. The results suggest that teacher-child relationships are essential for children's BSR skills.
... 3), refers to the skills involved to exert control over one's own actions, thoughts, and feelings in accordance with the social expectations of the environment (Willoughby et al., 2012;Blair and Raver, 2015;Korinek and deFur, 2016;Nigg, 2017). Scholars suggest that the construct of self-regulation is multidimensional and involves both conscious (i.e., top-down) and unconscious (i.e., bottom-up) biopsychosocial processes (Best and Miller, 2010;McClelland and Cameron, 2012;Blair, 2016;Nigg, 2017). The conscious aspect of self-regulation depends greatly on three executive function (EF) components: working memory (the ability to hold and manipulate information in shortterm memory), attentional flexibility (the ability to shift one's thoughts and attention when necessary), and inhibitory control (the ability to suppress a habitual response in favor of a more socially acceptable one; Best and Miller, 2010;Nigg, 2017;Gonzales et al., 2021). ...
The present study represents the first meta-analytic synthesis of the utility of a widely used early-childhood self-regulation measure, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task, in predicting children's academic achievement. A systematic review of the literature yielded 69 studies accessed from peer reviewed journals representing 413 effect sizes and 19,917 children meeting the complete set of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Robust variance analysis demonstrated that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was a consistent predictor of children's academic achievement across literacy, oral language, and mathematical outcomes. A moderator analysis indicated that in accordance with prior research, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was more strongly associated with children's mathematics performance relative to their performance on language and literacy measures. The results of this meta-analysis suggest that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task demonstrated statistically significant, positive associations with children's overall academic performance. These associations remained stable across different participant and measurement factors and are comparable to meta-analyses examining the self-regulation and academic association with multiple measures of self-regulation and executive function.
... Amongst others, processes that support this gradual development are increased physical and behavioral skills (e.g., moving away from unpleasant situations) as well as development of frontal cortical networks associated with attentional control. As such, the development of emotion regulation in infancy and early childhood can be seen as a crucial developmental phase in which children regulate their emotions mainly through behavioral strategies (21). In SCT, a few studies have provided initial evidence that the developmental trajectory of children with SCT can be different compared to nonclinical controls (18,22) with more pronounced behavioral problems in 4-to-6-yearolds compared to earlier years, thus highlighting the importance the role of age when studying children with SCT. ...
The presence of an additional X or Y chromosome (sex chromosome trisomies, SCT) is associated with an increased risk for neurodevelopmental difficulties, including socio-emotional problems, across the life-span. Studying emotion regulation in young children with SCT could signal deviations in emotional development that serve as risk markers to guide clinical care. This study explored the presence and variety of emotion regulation strategies in 75 SCT children and 81 population-based controls, aged 1 to 7 years, during a frustration-inducing event in which physiological (heart rate) and observational data (behavioral responses) were collected. Children with SCT were equally physiologically aroused by the event as compared to controls. However, they showed more emotion regulation difficulties in terms of behavior compared to controls that was not explicable in terms of differences in general intellectual functioning. Specifically, they had a more limited range of behavioral alternatives and tended to rely longer on inefficient strategies with increasing age. The field of practice should be made aware of these early risk findings regarding emotion regulation in SCT, which may potentially lay at the foundation of later socio-emotional problems, given the significant impact of emotion regulation on child and adult mental health outcomes. The current results may help to design tailored interventions to reduce the impact of the additional sex chromosome on adaptive functioning, psychopathology, and quality of life.
... SR has been studied as a key mechanism of health behavior change in relation to a wide range of health outcomes in adults [6,15] and has been proposed as a behavioral mechanism that may promote positive health outcomes such as weight status during childhood [8,[16][17][18][19][20]. SR is hypothesized to support health in multiple ways; including shaping an individual's capacity to focus on long-term goals and aiding in stress reduction [21][22][23][24][25][26]. For example, SR can help individuals maintain a healthy weight by "tuning-out" external cues in the moment (e.g., advertisements about food), reducing unhealthy emotional coping behaviors (e.g., sedentary behavior or frequent/stress eating), and sustaining engagement in positive health behaviors (e.g., physical activity and exercise). ...
Introduction
Self-regulation (SR) is critical to healthy development in children, and intervention approaches (i.e., professional training, classroom-based curricula, parent-focused intervention) have shown to support or enhance SR. However, to our knowledge, none have tested whether changes in children’s SR across an intervention relate to changes in children’s health behavior and outcomes. This study, the Promoting Activity and Trajectories of Health (PATH) for Children-SR Study uses a cluster-randomized control trial to examine the immediate effects of a mastery-climate motor skills intervention on SR. Secondly, this study examines the associations between changes in SR and changes in children’s health behaviors (i.e., motor competence, physical activity, and perceived competence) and outcomes (i.e., body mass index and waist circumference) (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier, NCT03189862 ).
Methods and analysis
The PATH—SR study will be a cluster-randomized clinical trial. A total of 120 children between the ages of 3.5 to 5 years of age will be randomized to a mastery-climate motor skills intervention (n = 70) or control (n = 50) condition. SR will be assessed using measures that evaluate cognitive SR (cognitive flexibility and working memory), behavioral SR (behavioral inhibition), and emotional SR (emotional regulation). Health behaviors will be assessed with motor skills, physical activity, and perceived competence (motor and physical) and health outcomes will be waist circumference and body mass index. SR, health behaviors, and health outcomes will be assessed before and after the intervention (pre-test and post-test). Given the randomization design, 70 children in the intervention group and 50 in the control group, we have 80% power to detect an effect size of 0.52, at a Type I error level of 0.05. With the data collected, we will test the intervention effect on SR with a two-sample t-test comparing the intervention group and the control group. We will further evaluate the associations between changes in SR and changes in children’s health behaviors and health outcomes, using mixed effect regression models, with a random effect to account for within-subject correlations. The PATH-SR study addresses gaps in pediatric exercise science and child development research. Findings hold the potential to help shape public health and educational policies and interventions that support healthy development during the early years.
Ethics and dissemination
Ethical approval for this study was obtained through the Health Sciences and Behavioral Sciences Institutional Review Board, University of Michigan (HUM00133319). The PATH-SR study is funded by the National Institutes of Health Common Fund. Findings will be disseminated via print, online media, dissemination events and practitioner and/or research journals.
Trial registration number
ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier, NCT03189862 .
... Children's growing capacity to exhibit IC is a cardinal feature of many prominent Frontiers in Psychology 02 frontiersin.org models of self-regulation (Kopp, 1982;Blair and Ursache, 2011;Mischel et al., 2011;Nigg, 2017;Bailey and Jones, 2019). Widespread interest in IC also derives from its association with multiple other domains of functioning, including specific aspects of psychological development (Carlson and Moses, 2001); academic achievement (Allan et al., 2014); risk for psychopathology (Lipszyc and Schachar, 2010); and adult health and financial outcomes (Moffitt et al., 2011). ...
Preschool-aged children’s performance on inhibitory control tasks is typically represented by the overall accuracy of their item responses (e.g., mean proportion correct). However, in settings where children vary widely in age or ability level, inhibitory control tasks are susceptible to ceiling effects, which undermine measurement precision. We have previously demonstrated a general approach for scoring inhibitory control tasks that combines item-level accuracy and reaction-time information to minimize ceiling effects. Here, we extend that approach by incorporating additional item-level reaction time data from an adjunct (simple reaction time) task. We contrast three approaches for scoring inhibitory control tasks, two of which rely exclusively on item accuracy information and a third which also considers item reaction time information. We demonstrate the impacts of these different approaches to scoring with two inhibitory control tasks that were included in a recent evaluation of the Red Light, Purple Light intervention in preprimary classrooms in Nairobi County, Kenya. We limited our study to children who met inclusion criteria at pre-test (N = 418; 51% male; mean age = 4.8 years) or post-test (N = 386; 51% male; mean age = 4.8 years). Children’s performance on individual inhibitory control tasks was strongly correlated regardless of the scoring approach (rs = 0.73–0.97 across two tasks). However, the combined accuracy and reaction time scores eliminated ceiling effects that were common when only accuracy information was used. The combined accuracy and reaction time models also distinguished item-level RT into inhibitory control and processing speed components, which are distinct constructs. Results are discussed with respect to the challenges and nuances of the estimation and interpretation of inhibitory control task scores with children of varied ages and ability levels.
... EFs make it possible for people to concentrate on multiple information flows at the same time, to monitor their execution, to make decisions considering the information available, to review their plans, and to manage to inhibit preponderant automatic responses that are not adaptive (Diamond, 2013b). EFs play a crucial role in the self-regulation and self-control capacity of humans (Blair & Ursache, 2011); they are vital for daily development (Montoya et al., 2019;Zorza et al., 2017) and are a significant predictor of academic performance (Finch et al., 2019;Montoya et al., 2019;St. John et al., 2018). ...
Computational thinking refers to a series of cognitive processes involved in solving problems through a computational system. A growing body of studies has managed to demonstrate the correlation between computational thinking and different cognitive domains. From these findings, in recent decades, multiple studies have taken place, seeking to evaluate the effect of computational thinking on higher-order cognitive processes. The current study aims to contribute to this discussion by studying the effect of an intervention program in computational thinking on the executive functions of school-age children. In this experimental study, 30 children from 10 to 11 years, were randomly assigned to an experimental group and an active control group. The instruments to collect the data were the 15 tests of the neuropsychological battery of executive functions and frontal lobes BANFE-2, which were applied to both groups before and after the intervention. The experimental group participated in an 8-week computational thinking intervention, twice a week with plugged and unplugged activities and block programming language. The results showed that the intervention had significant effects on executive functions associated with the anterior prefrontal cortex and the dorsolateral cortex, but not those related to the orbitofrontal area.
... Executive functions (EFs) are defined as a complex process referring to the capability of self-control, behavioral selfregulation, focus and attentional sustaining, definition of action planning, goal orientation, and problem solving (Ahmed & Stephen Miller, 2011;Baggetta & Alexander, 2016;Barkley, 2012;Baumeister & Vohs, 2004;Blair & Ursache, 2011;Zurcher et al., 2020). Studying executive functions is fundamental to understanding daily functioning, learning, and personal development, as well as providing a check for potential impairments resulting from multidetermined neuropsychological disorders (Ahmed & Stephen Miller, 2011;Bakos et al., 2008;Garner, 2009;Williams et al., 2021). ...
The Web-based Executive Functioning Questionnaire (Webexec) is a brief scale developed to assess executive functions via online format. It has been used in different contexts, but its adaptation to other cultures is still restricted. This study aimed to perform a cross-cultural adaptation of the Webexec for a Brazilian sample considering the psychometric properties of the scale. This study used a sample of 295 Brazilian participants, with a mean age equal to 20.69 (SD = 6.030). This is a longitudinal study with reapplication of the scale six weeks after the test phase. Classical and contemporary methods were applied to analyze the psychometric properties of the Webexec. The results showed that the scale presented excellent psychometric properties for the Brazilian version, considering validity evidence based on the content and internal structure of Webexec, as well as reliability and precision. However, it is considered that other relational and experimental studies should be carried out with a larger sample size and for different population groups.
... Das Konzept der exekutiven Funktionen stammt aus der Kognitiven Psychologie und wird in der allgemeinpsychologischen Forschung mit Erwachsenen und in der entwicklungspsychologischen Forschung mit Kindern verwendet. Die exekutiven Funktionen werden als kognitive Basis von selbstreguliertem Handeln verstanden und umfassen kognitive Prozesse höherer Ordnung (Blair & Ursache, 2011), die es ermöglichen, eine Handlung bei Aufforderung zu unterbrechen, zielgerichtet zu handeln, trotz Ablenkungen konzentriert zu bleiben und Fehler zu erkennen und zu korrigieren (Roebers, 2017). Der sehr verbreiteten Theorie von Miyake et al. (2000) zufolge werden hierbei drei grundlegende Funktionsbereiche angenommen: die absichtliche Hemmung eigener Handlungsimpulse (Inhibition), die Aufrechterhaltung und Manipulation von Informationen (Arbeitsgedächtnis) und der Wechsel zwischen verschiedenen Aufgabenanforderungen oder kognitiven Operationen (kognitive Flexibilität, shifting). ...
... EFs act as key cognitive control mechanisms to self-regulate future-oriented behavior adapted to the changing demands of the environment. Under this umbrella term, there is a set of complex mental activities that allow the regulation of cognitive, emotional and behavioral operations, all necessary to direct, plan, organize, increase flexibility and evaluate goaloriented behavior, especially in new situations (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Goldberg, 2015;Hughes, 2020;Hughes & Graham, 2002;Soprano, 2010). ...
Computational thinking refers to a series of cognitive processes involved in solving problems through computational systems. A growing body of studies has managed to demonstrate the correlation between computational thinking and different cognitive domains. In recent decades, multiple studies have taken place that seek to evaluate the effect of computational thinking on higher-order cognitive processes. The current study aims to contribute to this discussion by analyzing the effect of an intervention program in computational thinking on the executive functions of school-age children. In this experimental study, 30 children aged 10 and 11 were randomly assigned to an experimental group and an active control group. The instruments to collect the data were 15 tests of the neuropsychological battery of executive functions and frontal lobes BANFE-2, which were applied to both groups before and after the intervention. The experimental group participated in an 8-week computational thinking intervention during which its participants enrolled in plugged and unplugged activities and carried out block programming language twice a week. The results showed that the intervention had significant effects on executive functions associated with the anterior prefrontal cortex and the dorsolateral cortex, but not those related to the orbitofrontal area.
... Fernandez-Duque et al., 2000). The integration of cognitive regulation and emotional regulation to regulate behavior and actions are the central work of self-regulation, and these domains inuence one another in a bidirectional relationship (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Barkley cites Gross's (2007) modal model and Carver and Scheier's (2016) feedback loop theory as two equivalent selfregulation models. ...
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent and highly debated diagnosis for mental disorder in practice today. Two decades of research have substantially contributed to evolving conceptualizations and understanding of the condition. However, this evolution has not been extended to theoretical research. Current cognitive behavioral-based theories aim to identify the etiology of ADHD and experience challenges in accommodating the full spectrum of both neurobiological and behavioral research evidence. Characterizations historically associated with mental illness have generated public stigma, influencing low self-esteem, negative self-concept, and identity development in ADHD individuals. Neurodiversity research and activism recognize a diversity of nonnormative development and highlight the need for alternatives to deficit models of functioning. Recent research in psychology recommends developing approaches beyond symptom control and seeking to develop positive psychological factors and well-being. We propose that the perspective presented by self-determination theory (SDT) on human motivation, self-regulation, and self-determination offers a new understanding of ADHD research evidence and symptomology. According to this theory, humans have a natural tendency toward growth and self-actualization. We propose a framework grounded in SDT that provides an alternative understanding of ADHD neural processing, motivation and engagement, self-regulation, and a potential foundation for treatment approaches with self-determination and positive identity outcomes.
... The early childhood years are crucial for the development of self-regulation, the internal mechanism by which thoughts, behaviors, and emotions are processed and managed (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Self-regulation aids in processing emotional arousal, managing impulse control, maintaining positive social relationships, and completing important tasks related to learning such as focusing and maintaining attention (Blair & Raver, 2015;Eisenberg et al., 2009). ...
Self-control plays an essential role in children’s emotional and behavioral adjustment. A central behavioral indicator of self-control is the ability to delay gratification. Few studies have focused on understanding the heterogeneity of self-control behaviors that underlie children’s ability to delay gratification. Therefore, we examined the role of spontaneous self-control behaviors (fidgeting, vocalizations, and anticipation/attentional focus toward a reward) in relation to 5-year old children’s delay ability using Mischel’s delay task (N = 144; Mage = 5.4 years, SD = 0.29). Latent mixture modeling was used to derive three distinct classes of self-control behaviors observed during the delay task: (1) Passive (low fidgeting, low vocalizations, but moderate anticipation), (2) Active (moderate fidgeting, moderate vocalizations, but high anticipation), and (3) Disruptive (high fidgeting, high vocalizations, and high anticipation). Children in the Passive class were more likely to delay the full task time compared with children in the Active class (odds ratio = 1.50, 95 % confidence interval = 1.28–1.81). There were no other differences in delay ability by self-control class. Children whose level of fidgeting and vocalizations matched their level of anticipation (i.e., Passive and Disruptive regulators) were able to delay more successfully than children who were mostly driven by anticipation (Active regulators). Some variation in children’s delay ability and use of self-control strategies was explained by sociodemographic differences, specifically maternal age. Findings suggest probing processes underlying children’s self-control to identify potential targets for intervention.
... Studies have shown that executive functions have been implicated as an important predictor of school readiness, exerting a great influence on academic performance as they are associated with adjustment and cognitive, emotional, behavioral and social development (Diamond, 2013;Blair & Ursache, 2011). ...
... Yönetici işlevler (Executive Function-EF), amaçlı, hedefe yönelik davranıştan sorumlu birbiriyle ilişkili süreçlerin birleşimini içeren şemsiye bir terimdir (Gioia vd., 2001). Yönetici işlev becerileri, problem çözme çabalarını desteklemek için yararlanılan ve öz düzenlemeyi destekleyen bir dizi bilişsel süreçtir (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Hofmann vd., 2012). Erken çocukluk dönemindeki gelişimsel süreçlerin en önemlilerinden birisi; çocuğun yönetici işlevlerinde olan gelişimdir. ...
... Inhibitory control has been defined as the capacity to resist distraction and automatic response tendencies (e.g., Eisenberg et al., 2010). Finally, cognitive flexibility, or set shifting, describes one's ability to flexibly shift attention between tasks (Blair, 2016). Some conceptualizations of EF integrate these components with temperament-based factors such as executive attention and control (Bailey & Jones, 2019;Blair & Ursache, 2011). ...
During childhood, the ability to limit problem behaviors (i.e., externalizing) and the capacity for cognitive regulation (i.e., executive function) are often understood to develop in tandem, and together constitute two major components of self‐regulation research. The current study examines bi‐directional relations between behavioral problems and executive function over the course of childhood and adolescence. Relying on a diverse sample of children growing up in low‐income neighborhoods, we applied a random intercept cross‐lagged panel model to longitudinally test associations between behavioral problems and executive function from age 4 through age 16. With this approach, which disaggregated between‐ and within‐child variation, we did not observe significant cross‐lagged paths, suggesting that within‐child development in one domain did not strongly relate to development in the other. We also observed a relatively moderate correlation between the stable between‐child components of behavioral problems and executive function over time in our preferred model, suggesting that these two domains may be relatively distinct when modeled from early childhood through adolescence. We tested associations between behavioral problems and executive function among children from low‐income families, using a random intercept cross‐lagged panel model. Our results demonstrated that bi‐directional effects at the within‐child level between behavioral problems and executive function were consistently small and non‐significant over the course of childhood and adolescence. To the extent that behavioral problems and executive function were related to one another, this relation only appeared at the between‐child level. Our results imply that behavioral problems and executive function may not be as developmentally intertwined as previous theory suggests. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
... They refer to a series of neurological functions and higher-order cognitive abilities that allow the sophisticated processing of input information, making it possible to plan, organize, guide, review, flexible, regularize, and evaluate the behavior to achieve goals. In conclusion, they constitute critical cognitive control mechanisms to self-regulate future-oriented behavior and adapt to the changing demands of the environment [13]. ...
This article presents a systematic review of studies on cognitive training programs based on artificial cognitive systems and digital technologies and their effect on executive functions. The aim has been to identify which populations have been studied, the characteristics of the implemented programs, the types of implemented cognitive systems and digital technologies, the evaluated executive functions, and the key findings of these studies. The review has been carried out following the PRISMA protocol; five databases have been selected from which 1889 records were extracted. The articles were filtered following established criteria, to give a final selection of 264 articles that have been used for the purposes of this study in the analysis phase. The findings showed that the most studied populations were school-age children and the elderly. The most studied executive functions were working memory and attentional processes, followed by inhibitory control and processing speed. Many programs were commercial, customizable, gamified, and based on classic tasks. Some more recent initiatives have begun to incorporate user-machine interfaces, robotics, and virtual reality, although studies on their effects remain scarce. The studies recognize multiple benefits of computerized neuropsychological stimulation and rehabilitation programs for executive functions in different age groups, but there is a lack of studies in specific population sectors and with more rigorous research designs.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13369-022-07292-5.
... We can appreciate that self-soothing or self-regulation is a crucial part of human functioning that entails a dynamic process through which experience gathered from environmental cues works to steer an individual's actions towards a desired goal in a variety of settings (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Inzlicht et al., 2021). Following this and this study's findings that family, friends, a sense of responsibility, and concern for others were significant motivating factors for magical practice in adulthood, one can see how magical thinking and behaviour relies on an exchange between one's internal and external world-while being set in a specific cultural context that influences its uses including rules-with the goal to achieve some sort of harmony in an individual's internal world. ...
Martha Muchow, in collaboration with Heinz Werner, developed a questionnaire to collect data on magical thinking and practices in children and adolescents in Germany in the early 1900s. Three other studies (Watzlawik & Valsiner, 2012; Massoumi, 2019; Szarata, 2019) have used an English translation of this questionnaire to collect and analyse data on magical thinking and behaviour in the USA, Germany, India, Turkey, and South Korea. Using a cultural psychology and critical cross- “cultural” approach, this study combined and re-analysed both Massoumi in Karl-Franzens-Universitaet Graz, 2019 and Szarata in Freie Universitaet Berlin, 2019 pre-coded data (N = 488) on the magical practices from four countries: Germany, India, Turkey, and South Korea. A descriptive analysis and cross-tables (chi-square) for group comparisons were performed. The study aims to compare the similarities and differences of groups in different settings on how magical practice is applied (passively or actively), the internal and external motives and influencing factors behind magical thinking and practices, and the reactions to the outcomes of magical practice. The findings show that the participants’ country of origin played a role in who used magic; how and reasons for its application; its continued use and frequency of use in adulthood; reactions to their outcomes; and the motivating factors for magic application. Participants’ sex and the religious status only played a role in who used magic, reactions to their outcomes, and motives for their use. The current study adds support to the relevance of reanalysing data from historical periods in understanding how cultural phenomena move in time and space, and discusses directions for future research.
... Örneğin, ülkemizde çocuklara öz düzenleme becerilerini doğrudan öğretmeyi hedefleyen eğitim programlarının, çocukların öz düzenleme becerilerinde olumlu etkiler oluĢturduğu belirlenmiĢtir (Çelik & Kamaraj, 2020;Ezmeci, 2019;Gündüz, 2020;KeleĢ, 2014;Liman, 2017;Sezgin, 2016). Ayrıca çocuklar ilkokula baĢladıktan sonra gerçekleĢtirilen müdahalelerin olumlu etkileri olsa da, çocukları ortaokul deneyimi ve ergenliğe geçiĢin zorluklarından yeterince koruyamadığı (Bierman vd., 2013), erken çocukluk döneminin öz düzenlemeyi teĢvik etme sürecinde özellikle önemli bir zaman olduğu belirtilmiĢtir (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Fergusson vd., 2013). Bu nedenle okul öncesi dönem, çocukların, öz düzenleme becerilerine yönelik uygun eğitim ve destekle, etkili bir Ģekilde bu becerileri geliĢtirebilecekleri önemli bir dönemdir. ...
Bu araştırmanın amacı da okul öncesi dönemdeki çocukların ve ailelerinin, öz düzenlemeye yönelik eğitim ihtiyaçlarının belirlenmesidir. Bu araştırma, karma yöntem türlerinden açımlayıcı desende gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışmanın nicel boyutu 186, nitel boyutu ise 18 katılımcı ile yürütülmüştür. Araştırma verileri “Öz Düzenlemeye Yönelik Eğitim İhtiyaçlarını Belirleme Anketi” ve “Öz Düzenlemeye Yönelik Eğitim İhtiyaçları Görüşme Formu” ile toplanmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda ailelerin en çok ihtiyaç duydukları konuların kendilerinin davranışlarını ve duygularını nasıl düzenlemeleri gerektiği ayrıca kendi öfkelerini ortaya çıkaran dinamikleri analiz etme, öfkeleriyle baş etme ve streslerini hafifletmeye yönelik konular olduğu belirlenmiştir. Ailelerin çocuklarının öz düzenlemeleri açısından en çok ihtiyaç duydukları konuların, çocukların problem davranışlarının değiştirilmesi, disiplin yöntemleri ve disiplinin sağlanması açısından aile kuralları olduğu saptanmıştır. Araştırmada, ailelerin büyük bir çoğunluğunun, çocukların öz düzenlemelerine ilişkin eğitim almalarını istedikleri ve bu konuda desteğe ihtiyaç duydukları sonucuna da ulaşılmıştır. Bu bağlamda, okul öncesi dönemdeki çocukların öz düzenlemelerinin desteklenmesi ve aileler ile öğretmenlerin de eğitime dahil edilmesi önemlidir.
... 432). The normal development of EF subserves successful self-regulation (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Hofmann et al., 2012). In the present study, we specifically focus on inhibitory control, one of the most critical EF processes (Zelazo & Carlson, 2012). ...
Early tobacco smoke exposure (TSE) in utero and/or during the first years after birth poses threats to the development of child executive functioning and self-regulation skills, including inhibitory control. Efforts are still needed to examine under what conditions such effects may occur and thus identify modifiable intervention targets. In addition, a distinction between cool and hot inhibitory control is also important to obtain greater nuance in such links. The cool inhibitory control refers to children’s suppression of prepotent automatic responses to a distracting stimulus in solving arbitrary and decontextualized problems, whereas the hot inhibitory control refers to children’s control of impulse in motivationally and emotionally high-stake situations. Using data derived from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, we examined the links between early risk of TSE and preschoolers’ hot and cool inhibitory control and tested the potential promotive/protective roles of maternal positivity in early mother–child interactions. Results indicate that early risk of TSE was negatively linked to child cool inhibitory control when maternal positivity was low, but this link was nonsignificant when maternal positivity was high (i.e., the protective role of maternal positivity). The link between early risk of TSE and child later hot inhibitory control was not moderated by maternal positivity; instead, early risk of TSE and maternal positivity were negatively and positively associated with child hot inhibitory control above and beyond each other, respectively (i.e., the promotive role of maternal positivity). Accordingly, building a tobacco-free environment during pregnancy and infancy likely yields long-term benefits for child self-regulation development. Improving early mothering may offset the negative link between early TSE and child cool inhibitory control and also facilitate child hot inhibitory control even in the face of early TSE.
... We argue that victimization of education can stimulate adverse reactions among learners and can be detrimental in two ways. Firstly, learners who are more emotionally reactive and less reflective as a result of their conflict experience might struggle to deal with differences in a non-adversarial manner, resulting in reproduction or exacerbation of long-term confrontational behaviours (Blair and Ursache, 2011;Blair and Cybele Raver, 2012). This is particularly the case if conflict is experienced early in life, but also during adolescence, when the central nervous system is rapidly developing and can flip the brain and the behaviour it underlies to more emotionally reactive and less reflective responses to stimulation (Arnsten, 2009). ...
The overall goal of the ISEE Assessment is to pool multi-disciplinary expertise on educational systems and reforms from a range of stakeholders in an open and inclusive manner, and to undertake a scientifically robust and evidence based assessment that can inform education policy-making at all levels and on all scales. Its aim is not to be policy prescriptive but to provide policy relevant information and recommendations to improve education systems and the way we organize learning in formal and non-formal settings. It is also meant to identify information gaps and priorities for future research in the field of education.
... Although self-regulation emerges as early as 3 or 4 years, the effectiveness of self-regulatory attempts on altering prepotent desire and frustration at this age is limited (Cole et al., 2020). Executive processes development likely increases throughout childhood and perhaps even accelerates as children's cognitive resources continue to develop and they experience greater expectations and more opportunities to control behavior (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Working memory and set shifting show the greatest gains after age 5 and into middle childhood (Best et al., 2009), and executive attention improves from age 7 to 10 years (Simonds et al., 2007). ...
Self-regulation often refers to the executive influence of cognitive resources to alter prepotent responses. The ability to engage cognitive resources as a form of executive process emerges and improves in the preschool-age years while the dominance of prepotent responses, such as emotional reactions, begins to decline from toddlerhood onward. However, little direct empirical evidence addresses the timing of an age-related increase in executive processes and a decrease in age-related prepotent responses over the course of early childhood. To address this gap, we examined children’s individual trajectories of change in prepotent responses and executive processes over time. At four age points (24 months, 36 months, 48 months, and 5 years), we observed children (46% female) during a procedure in which mothers were busy with work and told their children they had to wait to open a gift. Prepotent responses included children’s interest in and desire for the gift and their anger about the wait. Executive processes included children’s use of focused distraction, which is the strategy considered optimal for self-regulation in a waiting task. We examined individual differences in the timing of age-related changes in the proportion of time spent expressing a prepotent response and engaging executive processes using a series of nonlinear (generalized logistic) growth models. As hypothesized, the average proportion of time children expressed prepotent responses decreased with age, and the average proportion of time engaged in executive processes increased with age. Individual differences in the developmental timing of changes in prepotent responses and executive process were correlated r = .35 such that the timing of decrease in proportion of time expressing prepotent responses was coupled with the timing of increase in proportion of time engaging executive processes.
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This chapter describes two sets of simple techniques—deep breathing and mindfulness-based practices—that have been successfully used in schools to help children cope with stress and anxiety, regulate emotions, and improve cognitive, social, and psychological well-being. Deep breathing can be easily taught to children and applied in a self-directed manner to immediately regulate adverse effects of anxiety, stress, or other negative affectivity and arousal, enhancing emotional and cognitive well-being. Though mindfulness-based practices may also be applied for immediate self-regulatory effects, practice over time brings additional benefits such as self-and-other awareness and compassion, and better intra- and interpersonal relationships. Both techniques can promote cognitive, emotional, and behavioral self-regulation, contributing towards resilience and well-being. The evidence supporting these techniques, their mechanisms, and how they complement positive psychology and social emotional learning are described. Applications in Asian school settings and issues related to implementation are discussed.
Background The relationship between physical activity and cognitive functions is well established, with regular exercise improving cognitive functions. However, there is less clarity surrounding the effect of exercise-induced fatigue on attention network particularly in those with a history of continuous physical activity.
Aims This research was aimed to determine whether exercise-induced fatigue can affect cognitive functions, especially those involved in attentional control (i.e., alerting, orientation, and executive functions) and to identify any differences in attentional control between active and inactive individuals after exercise-induced fatigue.
Methods We compared the performance of 24 physically active and inactive participants in the Attentional Network Task, which allows for the assessment of the executive, orienting and alerting networks. Under two conditions regarding exercise-induced fatigue (pre-fatigue and post-fatigue), we used sub-maximum aerobic endurance training to induce fatigue to the exhaustion point.
Results The results showed that fatiguing exercise improved alertness in both groups; however, the executive control network of the active group improved while the orienting and executive control networks of the inactive group performed worse.
Conclusions Depending on the participants' degree of physical activity and the particular task used to test each of these attention networks, exercise-induced exhaustion had a different impact on different attention networks.
Izvršne funkcije (IF) su svrsihodne ka cilju usmjerene aktivnosti. Razvojni profil djeteta predškolske dobi kreira se procjenom kroz pet razvojnih područja: kognitivno, komunikacijsko, socioemocionalno, fizičko i adaptivno ponašanje. Cilj ovog istraživanje je utvrditi uticaj različitih komponenti IF na razvojne domene djece sa poteškoćama u razvoju predškolske dobi (DPR) i uporediti ih sa djecom neurotipičnog razvoja (DTR), te ispitati uticaj socioekonomskog statusa porodice na razvoj IF. Metode: Uzorak je obuhvatio 120 djece iz redovnnih i specijaliziranih predškolskih ustanova iz Bosne i Hercegovine. Starosna dob djece je pet i šest godina. Socioekonoomski status je ispitan kroz stručnu spremu roditelja i uzorak čine roditelji DPR i to 28 roditelja sa visokom stručnom spremom (VSS) i 32 roditelja sa srednjom stručnom spremom (SSS), te roditelji DTR 25 roditelja sa VSS i 35 roditelja sa SSS. Instrumenti: Profili djece ispitani su Razvojnom procjenom male djece (Developmental Assessment of Young Children, DAYC-2, Swartmiller 2014), a izvršne funkcije pomoću predškolske verzije Inventara za procjenu izvršnih funkcija (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions; BRIEF-a, Giola et al., 2003). Dobijeni rezultati ukazuju na postojanje značajno nižih statističkih povezanosti IF sa domenima razvoja kod DPR u odnosu na TPR. Kod DPR postoji statistički značajna povezanost u korist roditelja sa VSS u komponentama: preusmjeravanje (t=-2,53; p=0,01), emocionalna kontrola (t=-2,46; p=0,01), a kod DTR inhibicija (t=2,26; p=0,02), emocionalna kontrola (t=2,26; p=0,05) i radna memorija (t=2,51; p=0,01). Zaključak: Istraživanje pokazuju različitu povezanost IF i razvojnih domena kod DPR i DTR. Djeca višeg socioekonomskog statusa pokazuju povezanost sa više komponenti IF.
Play is an integrative process, and the skills acquired in it-overcoming impulses, behavior control, exploration and discovery, problem-solving, reasoning, drawing conclusions, and attention to processes and outcomes are foundational cognitive structures that drive learning and motivation. Loose parts play is a prominent form of play that many scholars and educators explicitly endorse for cognitive development (e.g., divergent thinking, problem-solving). It is unique among play types because children can combine different play types and natural or manufactured materials in one occurrence. While educators and policymakers promote the benefits of loose parts play, no previous research has explored the direct relationship between preschool-age children's indoor loose parts play experiences and cognitive development. We address this gap by bringing together the relevant literature and synthesizing the empirical studies on common play types with loose parts, namely object and exploratory, symbolic and pretend, and constructive play. We also focus on studies that examine children's experiences through loose parts, highlighting the impact of different play types on learning through the reinforcement of cognitive skills, such as executive function , cognitive self-regulation, reasoning, and problem-solving. By examining the existing literature and synthesizing empirical evidence, we aim to deepen our understanding of the relationship between children's play with loose parts and its impact on cognitive development. Ultimately, pointing out the gaps in the literature that would add to the body of knowledge surrounding the benefits of play for cognitive development and inform educators, policymakers, and researchers about the significance of incorporating loose parts play into early childhood education.
The current study examined the relations between children's cognitive and emotion abilities with their likelihood to tell a lie for personal gain in a tempting situation. These relations were examined using behavioral tasks and questionnaires. A total of 202 Israel Arab Muslim kindergarten children participated in this study. Our results showed that behavioral self-regulation was positively associated with children's likelihood to tell a lie for personal gain. Children with higher behavioral self-regulation actually tended to lie more for their own gain, suggesting that the likelihood to tell a lie might be related to children's ability to mobilize and integrate their cognitive abilities to self-regulate their behavior. In addition, through exploratory analysis, we found a positive relation between theory of mind and children's likelihood to tell a lie, which was moderated by inhibition. Specifically, only among children with low inhibition was there a positive correlation between their theory of mind and the likelihood to lie. Moreover, age and gender were related to children's lie-telling; older children tended more to lie for their own gain, and this likelihood was higher for boys than for girls.
Abstract
Introduction: Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES), including tDCS and tRNS, can improve neuropsychological
and cognitive deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Here, we investigated the effectiveness of
various tES modes combined with working memory training in children and adolescents with ADHD.
Materials and Methods: Participants in this study consisted of a cohort of 13- to 17-year-old adolescents
(N=45)who were diagnosed with ADHD in 2018. They were randomly assigned to three groups: tDCS, tRNS, and the
active control (sham). The three groups received five sessions of tES either as an intervention or sham on the left and
right prefrontal areas (F3 and F4). In addition to tES, Dual n-Back training was also used in the three groups.
Wechsler's Digit Span subtest and resting state EEG data were collected before and after brain stimulation.
Results: Analysis of variance showed significant differences between the groups in some EEG channels (p .05). The
absolute power analysis of the brain waves data in the pre-testand post-test phases revealed that the tDCS group had
the greatest changes compared to the other two groups and that most changes in the absolute power related to theta,
delta and alpha bands were found in the frontal and occipital regions.
Conclusions: Based on the results, we concluded that tES over the prefrontal area induced cortical changes in
children and adolescents with ADHD. Thus, it seems that various methods of tES can be used in combination with
other common types of intervention to treat ADHD.
Background:
Currently, some trauma-informed education practices use "ACE scores," a number that represents the sum of endorsed items from a survey derived from the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) study in 1998. We caution that the survey provides limited information within education, and such scores have limited utility for designing and delivering individualized intervention to support students who have experienced adversity.
Objective:
We sought to illustrate why ACEs are not well-suited for use in trauma-informed education, provide definitions for adversity-related terms from which a broader and common understanding of adversity can stem, and provide recommendations for integration of adversity-informed approaches to the educational context.
Methods:
We compiled definitions of adversity-related constructs and made recommendations based on review of relevant research from the fields of psychology and education.
Results:
Rather than tailoring educational practices to specific children based on the "traumatic" events they experience, we recommend educators focus their efforts on building supportive classrooms geared toward supporting students with best practices drawn from the Science of Learning, and with the understanding that early adversity can influence heterogeneous trajectories in student development and behavior. In addition, further research on educational practices, including the use of a shared language for describing and defining adversity-related experiences, are the concrete steps needed to better support a goal of adversity-informed education.
Background:
Students who have experienced adversity tend to demonstrate poorer academic outcomes than their non-maltreated peers. Academic engagement, a multidimensional, motivational construct, associated with a myriad of positive academic outcomes is an important academically-related mechanism that can be leveraged to improve the outcomes of this population.
Objective:
The present study aimed to better understanding of how engagement develops in the context of adversity by exploring the effects emotion regulation skills and parent-child relationships have on engagement development.
Participants and setting:
Analyses were conducted on 795 participants in the NSCAW dataset.
Methods:
Path analysis was used to estimate mediation and moderated mediation models.
Results:
Emotion regulation skills significantly mediated the effect experiencing trauma symptoms had on engagement. Parent-child relationship quality moderated the mediation effect emotion regulation skills had on the relationship between experiencing trauma symptoms and engagement.
Conclusions:
Emotion regulation skills and parent-child relationship quality are potential intervention targets to improve engagement for students who have experienced adversity.
This entry discusses the role of self-regulation in fulfilling personal goals. Particularly, it focuses on creative actions representing one of the most salient forms of engaging with the possible. Different conceptual views on self-regulation are discussed, with a particular focus on the holistic approaches to self-regulation, considered best suited for explaining how people guide their creative endeavors. Specific self-regulatory mechanisms considered beneficial when pursuing a creative goal are presented. The significance of conducting intervention programs focused on strengthening self-regulation is emphasized.
This entry discusses the role of self-regulation in fulfilling personal goals. Particularly, it focuses on creative actions representing one of the most salient forms of engaging with the possible. Different conceptual views on self-regulation are discussed, with a particular focus on the holistic approaches to self-regulation, considered best suited for explaining how people guide their creative endeavors. Specific self-regulatory mechanisms considered beneficial when pursuing a creative goal are presented. The significance of conducting intervention programs focused on strengthening self-regulation is emphasized.
Biological and psychosocial stressors that have been associated with income include family dynamics such as household chaos, family conflict, maternal depression, harsh parenting, lower parental responsiveness, and exposure to violence. Research from high income countries has shown that exposure to violence may have detrimental effects on children's self-regulation, with possible flow-on implications for broad later-life outcomes, but less is known about such links in low- and- middle income countries, where many children live in violent communities and households and where physical punishment remains the norm. This study aimed to investigate exposure to violence, in addition to coercive parenting, and its associations with self-regulation among 243 3- to 5-year-olds (M = 4.7 ± 0.6; 51.9 % female) from low-income settings in Cape Town and who were not attending Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE). Results showed that self-regulation was not associated with child exposure to community violence, but it was positively associated with coercive parenting (β = 0.17; p = 0.03). The null concurrent associations between exposure to violence and self-regulation suggest the need for additional research aimed at understanding later potential developmental sequelae. It is important that findings regarding coercive parenting are contextualised within local social norms around parenting styles, as well as the influence of living in dangerous communities on parenting practices.
Zusammenfassung. Selbstregulation und die damit verbundenen Kompetenzen gelten als wesentliche Voraussetzung für einen erfolgreichen Schuleintritt. Im deutschen Sprachraum fehlt es bisher an Instrumenten zur Erfassung der Selbstregulation im Vorschulalter, die bei der Entwicklungsdiagnostik im Kindergarten oder bei der Einschulungsuntersuchung zum Einsatz kommen könnten. Es wird daher ein Überblick über Verfahren gegeben, (1) die auf Deutsch vorhanden sind und für die es (2) in einem Altersbereich zwischen drei und sechs Jahren Normen oder Cut-Off-Werte gibt. Identifiziert werden konnten zwölf Fragebögen, drei Beobachtungsverfahren und 26 Leistungstest, die Facetten der Selbstregulation erfassen. Die Testgütekriterien dieser Verfahren wurden geprüft. Es zeigt sich, dass einige Subtest oder -skalen aus etablierten Verfahren zur Schätzung der Selbstregulation herangezogen werden können, jedoch differenzierte Fragebögen oder gar Testbatterien zur objektiven, zuverlässigen und validen Erfassung der Selbstregulation fehlen.
Background
Self-regulation has frequently been shown to be context-sensitive, suggesting the influence of different cultural contexts on its development. However, up until now, self-regulation has been mainly studied in Western countries with similar cultural contexts.Objective
Thus, with the present study we compared self-regulation of preschool children in Iran and Germany, hypothesizing that self-regulation differs between these two countries.Methods
In total, 148 preschool children (n = 100 Iranian, n = 48 German) participated in this study. Self-regulation was operationalized as waiting in the delay of gratification task. Moreover, behavioral strategies (i.e., focusing, withholding, and distracting) used by children while waiting in the task were video recorded and later rated using a behavioral rating scale.ResultsOn average, Iranian children waited less time than their German peers and used fewer withholding strategies to stop themselves from touching the reward. Interestingly, focusing strategies directing attention towards the reward undermined the waiting time in the delay of gratification task for German but not Iranian children.Conclusion
Our findings are consistent with previous cross-cultural/national studies in suggesting that childhood self-regulation may be developed and applied differently depending on cultural context. However, based on our results, the assumption that children from Eastern countries generally show a greater level of self-regulation than children from Western countries as discussed in previous cross-cultural/national studies is to be viewed critically.
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