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A bidirectional model of executive functions and self-regulation
... Self-regulation is a multicomponent construct representing a child's ability to modulate cognition, emotions, and behaviors according to external demands (Bell & Deater-Deckard, 2007;C. B. Blair & Ursache, 2011;McClelland & Cameron, 2012). Selfregulatory processes reflect interrelated top-down and bottom-up systems (C. B. Blair & Ursache, 2011). The top-down system is cognitive control, often referred to as executive functions, and the bottom-up system includes automatic and nonvoluntary processes, such as emotional arousal, stress physiology, ...
... Selfregulatory processes reflect interrelated top-down and bottom-up systems (C. B. Blair & Ursache, 2011). The top-down system is cognitive control, often referred to as executive functions, and the bottom-up system includes automatic and nonvoluntary processes, such as emotional arousal, stress physiology, and attention focusing that often have a foundation in temperament (C. ...
... The top-down system is cognitive control, often referred to as executive functions, and the bottom-up system includes automatic and nonvoluntary processes, such as emotional arousal, stress physiology, and attention focusing that often have a foundation in temperament (C. B. Blair & Ursache, 2011;Garon et al., 2008;Obradović, 2016). Executive functions enable reasoning, problem solving, and goal-directed thinking, which assist in the regulation of attention, emotions, and behaviors (C. ...
Patterns of change in self-regulation from the ages of 2.5 to 12 years were modeled using repeated measures of self-regulation for a sample of 399 African American (n = 180, 45%) and Latinx (n = 219, 55%) children from families experiencing low income. Measures included both direct assessment and parent report. Results confirmed four components of self-regulation: working memory, inhibitory control, complex response inhibition, and set shifting. Furthermore, these components of self-regulation were more differentiated at younger ages but grew increasingly integrated as children developed. During early childhood, Latinx children displayed greater levels of working memory and higher levels of inhibitory control, and African American children displayed greater complex response inhibition and set shifting, but these ethnic differences reversed by early elementary school. By late middle childhood, ethnic differences in self-regulation had virtually disappeared altogether. Few differences by child gender or family poverty status were identified. Recommendations are provided to facilitate the modeling of self-regulation over extended periods of development including (a) utilizing measures that overlap time points, (b) standardizing the measurement scales, and (c) utilizing a flexible latent variable model.
... EFs EF refers to a set of interrelated cognitive processes in service of goal-directed behavior (Blair, 2016;Diamond, 2013). EF subcomponents are the specific skills that allow children to deliberately hold information and integrate and organize competing information and stimuli (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Usually, EF is conceptualized as comprising the following cognitive processes as sub-components: attention shifting, working memory, and response inhibition (Miyake et al., 2000). ...
... Usually, EF is conceptualized as comprising the following cognitive processes as sub-components: attention shifting, working memory, and response inhibition (Miyake et al., 2000). Attention shifting can be defined as the child's ability to switch back and forth between multiple mental sets or tasks (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Working memory refers to the child's ability to actively monitor and update information during a short time (Blair & Ursache, 2011). ...
... Attention shifting can be defined as the child's ability to switch back and forth between multiple mental sets or tasks (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Working memory refers to the child's ability to actively monitor and update information during a short time (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Response inhibition denotes the child's ability to inhibit automatic prepotent responses in favor of more adaptive responses to specific situations (Blair & Ursache, 2011). ...
This longitudinal study explores the associations between children’s executive functions at the beginning of preschool and their learning behaviors, namely competence motivation and attentional persistence, at the end of preschool. Participants were 218 Portuguese children ( M age = 40.4 months, SD = 4.2; 52% boys) and their preschool teachers ( n = 29). The children’s executive functions (specifically attention shifting, working memory, and response inhibition) were individually assessed when they were 3 years of age. Teachers’ perceptions about the children’s competence motivation and attentional persistence were assessed with the Preschool Learning Behaviors Scale (PLBS) when the children were 6 years old. Results showed positive associations between children’s executive functions and attentional persistence, but not competence motivation, after controlling for covariates (age, gender, and expressive vocabulary). These findings contribute to current evidence about the links between early executive functions and later behavioral indicators of child persistence in learning tasks.
... This prolonged maturation process might explain the limited involvement of the frontal cortex in self-regulatory skills during the first years of life (for a meta-analysis on the relationship between frontal activity and self-regulation, see Hofstee et al., 2022a). However, higher-order mechanisms of self-regulation, such as executive functioning, are likely to emerge in children around the age of three, when the frontal cortex becomes sufficiently developed (Blair and Ursache, 2011;Garon et al., 2008). One theory of functional brain development is the maturational perspective, suggesting that the emergence of higher-order cognitive skills can be related to the maturation of underlying brain regions, including the frontal cortex (Johnson, 2001). ...
... In addition, lower levels of theta power around 3 years of age were related to greater abilities to delay gratification around 3 years of age. In the first years of life, children gradually shift from more bottom-up forms of self-regulation to more top-down forms of self-regulation (Blair and Ursache, 2011;Nigg, 2017). These results therefore align with the idea that parent-reports of self-regulation include numerous items that capture bottom-up self-regulation mechanisms, such as external regulation, that begin to emerge early in life (e.g., around 5 months of age). ...
... These results therefore align with the idea that parent-reports of self-regulation include numerous items that capture bottom-up self-regulation mechanisms, such as external regulation, that begin to emerge early in life (e.g., around 5 months of age). In contrast, more top-down forms of self-regulation (i.e., delay of gratification) might rely on activity in the frontal cortex emerging later in early childhood (Blair and Ursache, 2011;Nigg, 2017). ...
... This framework was used to conduct a large cross-cultural study that compares teachers' wellbeing (mostly focusing on K-12) across the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. Our study extended Viac and Fraser's framework by focusing on ECE teachers who have unique challenges and needs and by examining EF, cognitive processes related to managing and regulating thoughts, emotions, and actions (Blair and Ursache, 2011), as a pathway through which well-being influences adaptability among preschool teachers. We also added to the framework by investigating teachers' well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, which serves as an unprecedented and distinctive context for the ECE teachers' well-being and work. ...
... Relations among well-being, executive function, and teaching adaptability Executive function (EF) refers to cognitive processes that are critical for performing higher-order skills such as planning, problemsolving, and response inhibition, among others (Blair and Ursache, 2011). EF also includes attentional skills that enable individuals to adapt their current knowledge as needed to pursue their objectives related to work (Zelazo et al., 2016). ...
... This is connected to our finding which is that EF skills are related to adaptability to virtual instruction in HS programs. Given the role of EF in problemsolving (Blair and Ursache, 2011) and enabling teachers to maintain focus and attention on their instruction and on their students' needs (Raver et al., 2012), it is not surprising that teachers who report higher EF skills were also more able to adapt to their job demands. ...
The documented challenges of the early care and education (ECE) workforce include poor well-being, inadequate compensation, and high turnover rates. The COVID-19 pandemic not only exacerbated these issues, but also imposed additional demands such as virtual instruction, highlighting the need to understand how teachers’ well-being relates to their adaptability in teaching. The present study examined whether early childhood teachers’ well-being is directly and indirectly related to adaptability to virtual instruction via teachers’ executive function during the COVID-19 pandemic. With a research-practice partnership project in a Head Start program in a metropolitan area in the central United States, data were collected from the Early Head Start/Head Start annual teacher survey ( n = 148). Mediation analysis showed that teachers who demonstrated higher well-being displayed higher levels of executive function, which in turn was associated with greater adaptability in virtual instruction. Beyond the pandemic, findings highlight the importance of supporting teachers’ well-being and executive functions to promote adaptability, which is critical not only in virtual instruction, but also in successfully navigating other challenges of the teaching profession.
... Investigating caregiver-infant synchrony of stress physiology is important for the study of child development for several reasons. First, the functioning and regulation of stress physiology is an essential part of healthy child (and adult) development, supporting cognition, emotion, and behavior (Blair, 2010;Blair & Ursache, 2011;Calkins, Perry, & Dollar, 2016;Perry et al., 2019). Likewise, the dysregulation of stress physiology early in life is associated with increased risk for adverse physical and mental health outcomes throughout the lifespan (Arnsten, 2009;Blair, 2010;Lupien, McEwen, Gunnar, & Heim, 2009;Shonkoff, Boyce, & McEwen, 2009). ...
... The self-regulation of stress is an important part of healthy child development, especially early in life (Blair, 2010;Blair & Ursache, 2011;Calkins & Fox, 2002). Because infants have not yet fully developed the means to effectively self-regulate, they rely greatly on their caregivers to co-regulate their emotion and physiology, particularly in response to stressors (Calkins, 2011;Field, 2012;Fogel, 1993;Hofer, 1994;Sullivan & Perry, 2015;Gunnar & Hostinar, 2015). ...
... The capacity to self-regulate cognition, emotion, physiology, and behavior develops rapidly during the first few years of life. The development of early selfregulation is not a simple, individual process of maturation but rather depends greatly on the social co-regulation of infant functioning by caregivers (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Calkins, Perry, & Dollar, 2016;Feldman, Greenbaum, & Yirmiya, 1999;Fogel, 1993;Kopp, 1982;Vygotsky, 1978). Traditionally, caregiver-child co-regulation in early development has been examined on the behavioral level postnatally, although co-regulation on the physiological level occurs even during pregnancy via maternal regulation of the fetal environment (Bobin-Bègue, 2019; Gitau, Cameron, Fisk, & Glover, 1998;Seckl & Meaney, 2004). ...
An emerging body of research suggests that interpersonal physiological synchrony may be a key mechanism of social co-regulation that potentially influences child development. Yet despite growing interest, many fundamental questions about the nature and function of physiological synchrony and its role in development remain unanswered. Most studies have focused on describing whether synchrony occurs, and less on when, why, or how it functions. In particular, previous studies on synchrony have been limited in three aspects: 1) methods that do not fully account for the dynamic nature of parent-infant synchrony; 2) a lack of considering the broader ecological context, namely environmental factors; and 3) a lack of longitudinal studies investigating the developmental consequences of synchrony in early life. In light of these limitations, the overarching aim of the three studies of this dissertation was to enhance our understanding of the function of physiological synchrony and its role in infant development. Specifically, the first two studies examined physiological synchrony between mothers and their three-month-old infants. In study 1, I addressed some methodological and conceptual issues in the study of physiological synchrony, namely the need for methods assessing the dynamic, bidirectional, and situation-dependent nature of synchrony. The most important finding from study 1 was that there was significant negative lagged cardiac synchrony from mother-to-infant and from infant-to-mother during the moderately stressful Still Face task, and that this synchrony differed between phases of the task. This finding suggests that mothers and infants were physiologically co-regulating each other, and that this co-regulation was dependent on the type of interaction in which they were engaged. In the second study, I examined the predictive associations between environmental, psychological, and physiological stress factors and mother-infant synchrony. I first found that there was no lagged mother-infant cardiac synchrony during a free play interaction, suggesting that neither mother nor infant were co-regulating each other’s stress physiology. I also found no association between the three stress factors and mother-infant synchrony, which was most likely due to a lack of variability in synchrony across dyads. In the third study, I evaluated physiological synchrony between mother and father during pregnancy and examined its potential developmental consequences for infant cognitive functioning. I found that stronger prenatal mother-father cortisol synchrony was associated with higher infant executive function scores at child age 24 months. Findings from this study suggest that mothers and fathers may co-regulate each other’s cortisol activity during pregnancy, and that this co-regulation may impact infant cognitive development. Together, these studies provide some novel insight into the dynamic, bidirectional, and situation-dependent nature of physiological synchrony with implications for infant development.
... Por isso, há diferentes nomenclaturas e definições, incluindo variabilidade na descrição de modelos, seus respectivos componentes e consequentemente, nas medidas de avaliação (Gagne et al., 2021). A definição considerada no presente estudo compreende a AR como a capacidade de controlar ou direcionar a atenção, cognição, emoções e comportamentos para alcançar objetivos (Lenes et al., 2020;Rademacher, 2022), envolvendo o gerenciamento cognitivo e emocional (Blair & Ursache, 2011). ...
... Um modelo que busca explicar a AR é o bidirecional, no qual a AR é um processo oriundo da relação recíproca entre as Funções Executivas -FE (consideradas processos top down -controle cognitivo) e a Regulação Emocional -RE (processos bottow up -mais reativos), que operam em um ciclo de feedback interativo com o ambiente (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Howard et al., 2021). Por exemplo, quando uma criança está num ambiente que propicia foco atencional, nível emocional ou de estresse inadequados, seu funcionamento executivo pode não operar de forma apropriada para atingir os objetivos propostos. ...
... córtex pré-frontal) na forma de U invertido. Isto significa que o funcionamento executivo será afetado pelos níveis hormonais relacionados ao estresse, sendo que o ideal seria ter um nível moderado para manter o estado de alerta, ativação cognitiva e processamento da informação, uma vez que baixos ou altos níveis hormonais podem prejudicar o adequado funcionamento executivo (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Howard et al., 2021). ...
Self-regulation (SR) is necessary for learning, bringing short and long-term benefits in the school, family, and social contexts. This study describes the stages of elaboration of the Intervention Program for the Promotion of SR (PIPA), aimed at preschool children. PIPA was developed in four stages: 1. Survey of the literature, elaboration, selection, and adaptation of activities; 2. Creation of new activities, systematic description, and allocation of activities in modules; 3. Content analysis by experts; and 4. Reformulation and elaboration of the final version. Performed in a systematic way, the steps provided evidence of the program’s content validity, as a careful construction was carried out based on a theoretical model, on evidence-based practice and on the analysis of expert judges. The final version consists of 33 activities divided into 4 modules: emotion recognition; understanding of emotions in different contexts; learn by playing; and consequences/control of behavior. It is a complementary curriculum intervention program to promote SR to be applied by early childhood education teachers. PIPA brings together in a single procedure the promotion of executive functions and emotional regulation. The procedure used in the elaboration of PIPA can support the development of new programs in the (Neuro)psychology-Education interface.
... It attempts to provide a more reciprocal account of the regulatory skills important for school readiness and other positive outcomes during childhood and throughout the lifespan. This model of EF describes how the parallel development of brain areas that underlie EF reciprocally interacts with those associated with the automatic aspects of self-regulation, such as executive attention, the regulation of emotion, and the stress response system (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Within this bidirectional model, the ACC plays a critical role. ...
... The ACC is associated with executive attention (i.e., which registers conflict between stimuli or between stimulus and response options). It sends signals to the prefrontal cortex to initiate activity in the dorsal and ventrolateral regions associated with EF, as well as linking limbic areas associated with emotional processing, which in turn can trigger a stress response and increase neuroendocrine activity in areas such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (Blair & Ursache, 2011). In brief, the processes of EF and self-regulation interact in an adaptive feedback loop in response to the environment and are highly influenced by experience. ...
... In brief, the processes of EF and self-regulation interact in an adaptive feedback loop in response to the environment and are highly influenced by experience. Further, in this model, EFs are thought to serve as a critical higher-level, or top-down, mechanism in regulating the automatic aspects of self-regulation (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Research, which has examined the development of the bidirectional processes of EF and self-regulation, suggests that children may be "early developers" (i.e., show high initial levels of self-regulation and earlier gains), "intermediate developers" (i.e., show low initial levels of self-regular on followed by rapid gains), or "late developers" (i.e., show low initial levels of self-regulation followed by slow gains), with this heterogeneity in developmental trajectories pinpointing a need for individualized intervention options (Montroy et al., 2016). ...
This chapter reviews the theoretical underpinnings and empirical research on executive function in children and adolescents, with a particular emphasis on research that pertains to clinical child psychology. The concept of executive function emerged based on findings from primatology and neuropsychology and has spurred considerable research over the past half-century. The chapter begins with a review of influential conceptualizations of executive function and describes the common components and processes that have been ascribed to executive functions. These introductory sections provide the background that allows us to appreciate that the field of executive function suffers from terminological inconsistencies and could benefit from conceptual precision. The chapter then goes on to describe the development of executive function from infancy through to adolescence, as well as the brain structures and networks that have been associated with various executive functions, focusing on the prefrontal cortex, which is considered the neural basis of executive functions. In the next section, the influences of genetics and various prenatal and postnatal environmental factors that have been associated with the development of executive function are discussed. This is followed by a synthesis of the difficulties in executive function commonly reported in children with neurodevelopmental, behavioural, and mental disorders, and a discussion of the assessment of executive function. A brief synopsis of some of the clinical interventions designed to address difficulties with executive function, focusing on the promising potential of early intervention, is presented. The authors conclude the chapter with a discussion of future directions for research. Given the importance of pinpointing the genetic, brain, and behavioural correlates of executive function to consistently identify children with clinical and sub-clinical difficulties and to develop targeted interventions, which are currently obscured by theoretical and methodological challenges, this chapter closes with the proposition that executive function represents a concept in need of clarity.KeywordsExecutive functionChildrenAdolescentsDevelopmentCognitive developmentNeural correlatesGenetic correlatesEnvironmental factorsAssessmentIntervention
... Furthermore, individual differences and external influences characterize SR competencies in adolescence [1,10,13]. SR is not only shaped by the individuals themselves but also by their social environment (i.e., parents and peers; [14][15][16]. In addition, the SR of an individual also affects the social environment [15], with these transactional person-environment relationships further driving individual development [17,18]. ...
... SR is not only shaped by the individuals themselves but also by their social environment (i.e., parents and peers; [14][15][16]. In addition, the SR of an individual also affects the social environment [15], with these transactional person-environment relationships further driving individual development [17,18]. ...
... The arrows indicate that a reciprocal relationship between basal and complex SR sub-facets is assumed. The line width indicates that the influence of basal on complex sub-facets is assumed to be stronger than vice versa the typical development of various SR sub-facets and its importance for the accomplishment of adolescent-specific developmental tasks is still scarce [12,15,[21][22][23][24]. Our longitudinal research will therefore increase our understanding of the development and impact of SR, especially in the previously neglected but vulnerable period from puberty to early adulthood [25]. ...
Background
Self-regulation (SR) as the ability to regulate one’s own physical state, emotions, cognitions, and behavior, is considered to play a pivotal role in the concurrent and subsequent mental and physical health of an individual. Although SR skills encompass numerous sub-facets, previous research has often focused on only one or a few of these sub-facets, and only rarely on adolescence. Therefore, little is known about the development of the sub-facets, their interplay, and their specific contributions to future developmental outcomes, particularly in adolescence. To fill these research gaps, this study aims to prospectively examine (1) the development of SR and (2) their influence on adolescent-specific developmental outcomes in a large community sample.
Methods/design
Based on previously collected data from the Potsdam Intrapersonal Developmental Risk (PIER) study with three measurement points, the present prospective, longitudinal study aims to add a fourth measurement point (PIERYOUTH). We aim to retain at least 1074 participants now between 16 and 23 years of the initially 1657 participants (6–11 years of age at the first measurement point in 2012/2013; 52.2% female). The study will continue to follow a multi-method (questionnaires, physiological assessments, performance-based computer tasks), multi-facet (assessing various domains of SR), and multi-rater (self-, parent-, and teacher-report) approach. In addition, a broad range of adolescent-specific developmental outcomes is considered. In doing so, we will cover the development of SR and relevant outcomes over the period of 10 years. In addition, we intend to conduct a fifth measurement point (given prolonged funding) to investigate development up to young adulthood.
Discussion
With its broad and multimethodological approach, PIERYOUTH aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the development and role of various SR sub-facets from middle childhood to adolescence. The large sample size and low drop-out rates in the first three measurements points form a sound database for our present prospective research.
Trial registration German Clinical Trials Register, registration number DRKS00030847.
... For instance, highlighting the instability of moment-to-moment SR [28], research has shown that a child's ability to self-regulate is negatively influenced by factors such as critical parenting behaviours consisting of coercion and criticism [29], stress, tiredness [30], and a lack of enriching activities in the HLE [29]. This bi-directionality of influence impacting SR [31] identifies plausible targets for SR-promoting programs: on one hand, promoting constituent abilities/strategies underpinning self-regulatory control (goal setting, motivation, and capacity) while at the same time considering children's reactivity to in situ SR challenges. Yet, while this model of SR provides an understanding into the dynamic factors impacting processes and outcomes of children's attempts at SR, it does not offer insight into how to action these mechanisms of change. ...
... As such, we invite a wider holistic view that looks beyond the outcome of play to look at the quality of the social interaction, the how of the play (rather than the what) between a parent and child to contribute toward the reciprocal development toward autonomy and agency expression, and opportunities for cognitive development. This idea embraces the bi-directional model of SR [31] and, notably, the 'bottom-up' influences on a child's ability to regulate their behaviours, as a result of their motivation to do so. By supporting children's autonomy during experiences of SR challenge in play, parents can 'carve out' a space in which children can experience agency and autonomy. ...
Compelling evidence supports the foundational importance of early self-regulation (SR). It also supports parents in the home environment as having the foremost influence on early development. Yet, prevailing approaches to support early SR growth have tended to leverage early education and clinical settings. Partners in Play (PiP) was developed as a sustainable approach for parents to learn how and when to support children through experiences of self-regulation challenges in the home learning environment. This study reports the first randomised control trial evaluation of the PiP program, with 21 parent–child dyads (consisting of twelve girl–mother dyads, eight boy–mother dyads, and one boy–father dyad; mean child age = 4.12 years, SD = 0.65). Dyads were randomised to a PiP intervention group (n = 10), which entailed four online parent information sessions and four out-of-home guided practice dyadic play sessions across 8 weeks, or an active control group (n = 11). The primary outcome was parent autonomy support, and the secondary outcome was child SR. Results indicated a significant increase in parents’ use of autonomy support and a non-significant but moderate-sized effect on child SR. This innovative proof-of-concept program and evaluation provides a roadmap for effecting change in parental support during children’s play, to the prospective benefit of important abilities such as child SR. Analyses show promise for a parent-based model toward parent behaviour change and child SR improvement.
... A menudo, los términos autorregulación y función ejecutiva se han usado indistintamente en la literatura, sin embargo, los abordajes recientes sostienen que la autorregulación y la función ejecutiva son términos conceptual y metodológicamente distintos, aunque relacionados (Blair & Ursache, 2011). De manera que, las FE suelen estar asociadas a la autorregulación comportamental y menos a la regulación de emociones, además, la autorregulación es contemplada como una categoría más amplia y compleja que involucra, pero no se reduce a los procesos ejecutivos (Reilly & Downey, 2019). ...
... Algunas corrientes teóricas (Müller et al., 2009;Blair & Ursache, 2011), establecen una relación bidireccional entre la autorregulación y las FE, de tal forma que estas últimas actuarían como un precursor necesario de la regulación del comportamiento y las emociones. En este orden de ideas, los niños primero deben desarrollar habilidades cognitivas de funcionamiento ejecutivo antes de poder integrarlas y aplicarlas de manera fluida en contextos dinámicos a través de comportamientos y emociones bien regulados. ...
Este libro tiene el propósito de introducir a los maestros en un campo de las neurociencias cognitivas aplicadas a la educación, más específicamente al área del desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas en la niñez. Esta obra está compuesta por cinco capítulos: el primero realiza una reflexión general sobre la relevancia del conocimiento de los maestros sobre el desarrollo neurológico y en particular de las funciones ejecutivas, así como contextualiza en referencia a las políticas públicas nacionales e internacionales. El segundo capitulo ofrece una conceptualización sobre la relación entre los mecanismos de autorregulación y las funciones ejecutivas; presenta un recorrido histórico del surgimiento del concepto “Funciones ejecutivas” y los aportes que se han realizado desde las neurociencias a la comprensión de este constructo, también se describe los sustratos neurológicos que soportan dichos procesos ejecutivos. El tercer capitulo presenta los modelos teóricos más representativos sobre las funciones ejecutivas. El cuarto capítulo ofrece un abordaje sobre el desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas, empezando por las generalidades, seguido por una descripción de la maduración del sistema nervioso y si incidencia en las habilidades de función ejecutiva, continua con una descripción de las trayectorias de desarrollo de las funcione ejecutivas desde el modelo de Mikaye y por último describe los factores de riesgo y protectores en su desarrollo. El quinto y ultimo capitulo presenta una propuesta de intervención basada en los principios de la teoría ecológica del desarrollo y del nicho ecológico escolar, se definen los principios de la propuesta, sus componentes y la manera como pueden orquestarse para generar un nicho favorable para el desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas. El libro finaliza presentando algunas estrategias basadas en la evidencia que favorecen el desarrollo de algunas funciones ejecutivas en contextos escolares.
... There is growing evidence that EFs play an important foundational role in the mental health and well-being in childhood and adolescence (e.g., Hofmann et al., 2012). These fundamental cognitive skills have been associated with positive outcomes, including school readiness, academic achievement, self-regulation, healthy behaviors, and general mental health (e.g., Blair & Ursache, 2011). Conversely, poor EFs have been linked to adverse outcomes, such as health risk behaviors, psychiatric disorders, substance dependence, crime, and unemployment (e.g., Diamond & Ling, 2016). ...
... A review of the literature highlights that problems in EFs are a multidimensional issue in children with SLD and are consistently correlated with academic failure, perceptual-motor problems, emotion dysregulation, and poor self-regulation (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Hofmann et al., 2012). Given the robust association between EFs and multidimensional problems in children with SLD (e.g., Ahn & Hwang, 2017, 2018Diamond & Lee, 2011), EFs have emerged as a promising target for intervention and prevention efforts. ...
... New abilities affect infants' communicative skills at the same and other levels. Even though we do not fully understand the interdependency among the three levels of communication, the supposition is that access to greater self-regulation capacities enables acting or inhibiting action while sustaining hyper-or hypo-arousal (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Engel & Gunnar, 2020). Decreased contingency with autonomic activity due to infants' growing ability to contain arousal increases while sustaining a stable behavioral output (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Zeng et al., 2022). ...
... Even though we do not fully understand the interdependency among the three levels of communication, the supposition is that access to greater self-regulation capacities enables acting or inhibiting action while sustaining hyper-or hypo-arousal (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Engel & Gunnar, 2020). Decreased contingency with autonomic activity due to infants' growing ability to contain arousal increases while sustaining a stable behavioral output (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Zeng et al., 2022). Schematically depicted in Figure 3, the newly developed symbolic abilities enable infants to self-regulate and decrease the weight of autonomic signals in altering behavioral output, such as changes in proximity from the parent during dyadic interaction (Rothbart et al., 2011). ...
Communication is commonly viewed as connecting people through conscious symbolic processes. Infants have an immature communication toolbox, raising the question of how they form a sense of connectedness. In this article, we propose a framework for infants' communication, emphasizing the subtle unconscious behaviors and autonomic contingent signals that convey drives, emotions, and a sense of connection, facilitating the formation of primal social bonds. Our developmental model emphasizes the importance of diverse modes of communication and their interplay in social interactions during infancy. The framework leverages three levels of communication—autonomic, behavioral, and symbolic—and their different maturational pathways. Initially, infants' social communication relies on autonomic responses and a dynamic behavioral repertoire, which evolve during the first year of life, supporting the emergence of symbolic communication. This extended communication framework highlights infants' role as proactive communicating agents and allows for tracing communicative developmental cascades back to their origins.
... Garner (2009) sees EF as a group of general competencies that support SRL and its development and are correlated with different SRL components. In line with this, Blair and Ursache (2011) assume that EF is the foundation for regulating one's own actions and that its development in early childhood lays the grounding for the core processes of planning, monitoring, and controlling learning behavior. Bailey and Jones (2019) also suggest that EF builds up core processes, resulting in three regulation domains that can be understood as (meta)cognitive and motivational SRL competencies. ...
... Recently, several studies have investigated the relationship between SRL, MC, and EF and have found differing results mostly in dependence on which instruments were used to measure the constructs (e.g., Cirino et al., 2018, Folmer & Sperling, 2016. As no longitudinal studies exist to date, conclusions about the direction of the relationship between the three constructs cannot be drawn, although theoretically it is assumed that EF is a precursor for SRL (Bailey & Jones, 2019;Blair & Ursache, 2011). Therefore, the present systematic review is highly significant in summarizing previous results on the development of the three constructs in critical academic phases (i.e., transition phases) and by that aiming to deduce assumptions about the directional relationship. ...
The importance of self-regulated learning (SRL) for academic learning and achievement is already well established. In terms of developing a comprehensive understanding of SRL, executive functions (EFs), which are seen as an important influential factor for learning and goal-oriented behavior, should be taken into consideration. Some authors have linked SRL and EF via metacognition (MC), which forms a fundamental component of SRL, and like EF, represents higher-level cognitive processes. Therefore, this systematic review searched education and psychology databases to determine the natural development and current state of research on the three constructs. Academic transitional periods were brought into focus because of their influence on learners’ well-being and academic achievement. An evaluation of 30 publications indicated that strong development of simple EFs occurs before the transition from preschool to primary school. Moreover, there is a decrease in the motivational component of SRL and the use of metacognitive SRL strategies during the transition from primary to secondary education but an increase in metacognitive awareness. Simple as well as complex EFs also increase during this transition, with a later developmental peak for complex EF. The transition from secondary to tertiary education is accompanied by positive developments in the cognitive and metacognitive components of SRL, with small increases for simple EFs, and larger increases for complex EFs. In conclusion, the findings suggest there is an early developmental maximum for EFs compared to SRL and MC, which supports the theory that EFs are the foundation for SRL and MC.
... Consequently, a warm and responsive environment is created for children to develop their executive function (Paro et al., 2009;Wang et al., 2020). Teachers may also help children to experience a moderate level of arousal, which is believed to be beneficial for children's executive function through the adults' high-quality emotional support (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Neuenschwander et al., 2017). Also, a sensitive and responsive teacher may provide more effective verbal-based feedback to children, such as clarifying rules and expectations. ...
... Also, a sensitive and responsive teacher may provide more effective verbal-based feedback to children, such as clarifying rules and expectations. This could, in turn, create opportunities for children to practice their working memory and inhibition control in goal-oriented tasks (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Paro et al., 2009). Furthermore, although the association between Instructional Support and executive function gains is considered theoretically weak , some scholars have proposed that the instructional interactions between teachers and children may matter as well for the development of executive function . ...
Theories posit that the quality of teacher–child interactions has a profound influence on children’s development of executive function skills. However, prior research has yielded mixed findings regarding the associations between teacher–child interaction quality as measured by the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) and children’s executive function. In an attempt to examine the inconsistent findings, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the associations between the three CLASS domains (i.e. Emotional Support, Classroom Organization, and Instructional Support) and children’s gains in executive function. The systematic review presented an overview of the methodological approaches applied in the included studies. The meta-analysis examined the magnitude of the overall effects of CLASS domains on children’s executive function. Four databases (i.e., PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, Web of Science, and ERIC) and Google Scholar were used to search and locate relevant studies, leading to the identification and inclusion of Sixteen articles (published from 2009 to 2021) that met the inclusion criteria. Results of a random-effects model indicated that the overall effect sizes for all three CLASS domains were significant but small in magnitude (from 0.06 to 0.09). Our research findings did not provide strong support for the link between CLASS domains and children’s executive function. We argue that it is necessary to revise and expand the current quality measures that focus on general teacher–child interactions.
... Existem aspectos conceituais no conhecimento das FE e da RE que se sobrepõem e as diferenciam, como também há uma diversidade de modelos teóricos e uma série de questões ainda não respondidas sobre esses construtos (Cardoso et al., 2020). Mais especificamente, há pouco consenso sobre a integração entre elas, já que os modelos teóricos neuropsicológicos tendem a não explicar com clareza a relação das FE com as emoções, não investigando em grande parte o papel das emoções no funcionamento executivo e seus desfechos (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Contudo, pesquisas longitudinais que investigaram o desenvolvimento destas habilidades em crianças, referem que as FE e a RE podem ser consideradas componentes de uma ampla função denominada autorregulação (AR) (Blair, 2002;McClelland et al., 2010). ...
As funções executivas (FE) e a regulação emocional (RE) estão associadas à base dos desenvolvimentos cognitivo e socioemocional de crianças. Em vista da corrente de intervenções neuropsicológicas em FE, o presente estudo buscou investigar se uma intervenção de FE (programa PENcE) seria equivalente, superior ou inferior em relação à intervenção de FE em conjunto com estratégias de RE (programas PENcE e REPENcE) no desempenho executivo, emocional e escolar de alunos do Ensino Fundamental I que foram submetidos a programas de desempenho exclusivamente focados nas FE (PENcE) versus programa misto de FE e RE (PENcE+REPENcE) versus controles. Participaram 111 crianças, dividida em três grupos: grupo 1 recebeu uma intervenção mista com os programas PENcE e REPENcE, grupo 2 realizou somente o PENcE, e grupo 3 foi o grupo controle (currículo escolar). O grupo submetido à intervenção mista apresentou na avaliação pós-intervenção desempenho superior em um maior número de domínios, como, iniciação, velocidade de processamento, consciência corporal, e comunicação das emoções. Deste modo, percebe-se que um programa focado em habilidades de RE pode potencializar e incrementar os desfechos de um programa de estimulação cognitiva exclusivamente de FE.
... The d2 Test of Attention (Brickenkamp & Zillmer, 1998) is one of the most widely used neuropsychological tests for measuring attention (Arán Filipetti et al., 2022); it provides measures of selective attention, inhibitory control, and concentration (Brickenkamp, 2002). These cognitive skills are associated with the aforementioned attention network of Posner's model (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Posner & Rothbart, 2007;Rueda et al., 2012) and, specifically, the orienting network, which encompasses the selective attention and inhibitory control (Petersen & Posner, 2012) necessary for D2 performance. A normative study by Jiménez et al. (2012) observed that, in primary school children aged 6-12 years, there was an improvement in attentional ability-measured by the d2 test of attention (Brickenkamp, 2002)-as development progresses, which was supported by another recent study (Arán Filipetti et al., 2022). ...
The importance of attentional capacity for academic performance is highlighted by the increasing demands placed on students during primary school. Between the ages of 7 and 12, there is an evolutionary improvement in attentional capacity and the school environment is considered an appropriate setting in which to develop programmes to improve attention. Heart rate variability is an appropriate indicator of attentional capacity. For all these reasons, a heart rate variability biofeedback intervention focused on breathing was developed and implemented to improve attention. The intervention consisted of two phases. In the first phase, the school teachers were trained to develop the intervention; in the second, students received five individual sessions from their teachers. In each individual session, they learned to breathe to increase their heart rate variability. A total of 272 girls and 314 boys (N = 586) aged 7–12 years participated in the programme. To study the impact of the intervention on three primary school age groups, the attention of Control and Experimental groups was assessed before and after the implementation of the programme. According to the data obtained, despite developmental improvements, the students who participated in the programme showed an increase in heart rate variability and an improvement in attentional capacity, with a greater impact on the first cycle of primary school. The usefulness of heart rate variability biofeedback interventions in improving attention in primary school is discussed and arguments for their use in children are presented.
... It allows one to attribute mental states to oneself and to others in terms of emotions, beliefs, thoughts, desires, intentions, and behaviors (Hughes et al., 2007;Oberle, 2009). There are a well-established relations among SR, EF, and ToM, where moderate-to-strong positive correlations are commonly found starting from the preschool years (Blair & Ursache, 2011;Carlson & Moses, 2001;Jones et al., 2016;Müller et al., 2012;Pellicano, 2010). In particular, the positive association between EF and ToM has been extensively studied (i.e., Bock et al., 2015;Carlson & Moses, 2001). ...
Self-regulation (SR; emotion-related, and behavioral), executive function, and theory of mind (ToM) all play an important role in child socioemotional functioning (SEF). However, much remains unknown about the interplay among these abilities when facing various challenging situations. Additionally, the role of these abilities in child SEF has not yet been studied among minority children from an Eastern culture. Thus, we conducted one study with two models to examine the combined contribution of these core abilities, concurrently, to children’s SEF during the transition to kindergarten, and longitudinally (about 3 years later) to children’s SEF during COVID-19. Overall, 202 kindergarten children (aged 4.9–6.5 years) participated, of which 136 of them in the longitudinal follow-up (aged 8.83–10.6 years). We used behavioral tasks and teacher and maternal reports. Mothers also reported their own distress during the COVID-19 pandemic. During the transition to kindergarten, we found that emotion-related SR was positively related to children’s SEF. We also found that emotion-related SR moderated the relation between inhibition and ToM. In the follow-up study, we found that emotion-related SR in kindergarten significantly predicted children’s SEF during the COVID-19 crisis, directly and indirectly, through children’s SEF in kindergarten and their maternal COVID-related distress. Moreover, emotion-related SR moderated the longitudinal association between children’s ToM at kindergarten age and their SEF during the COVID-19 crisis. Our findings highlight the central role that emotion-related SR plays in children’s ability to face different challenges.
... Additionally, EF is closely linked to emotional regulation, which is the ability to manage and respond to emotional experiences in a healthy way through inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. Studies have demonstrated that individuals with strong EF skills are better at regulating their emotions, contributing to better mental health and social relationships (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Moreover, digital learning often emphasizes individual interaction with technology rather than collaborative, face-to-face interaction. ...
This report explores the potential implications of rapidly integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications into children's environments. The introduction of AI in our daily lives necessitates scrutiny considering the significant role of the environment in shaping cognition, socio-emotional skills, and behaviors, especially during the first 25 years of cerebral development. As AI becomes prevalent in educational and leisure activities, it will significantly modify the experiences of children and adolescents, presenting both challenges and opportunities for their developmental trajectories. This analysis was informed by consulting with 15 experts from pertinent disciplines (AI, product development, child development, and neurosciences), along with a comprehensive review of scientific literature on children development and child-technology interactions. Overall, AI experts anticipate that AI will transform leisure activities, revolutionize education, and redefine human-machine interactions. While AI offers substantial benefits in fostering interactive engagement, it also poses risks that require careful considerations, especially during sensitive developmental periods. The report advocates for proactive international collaboration across multiple disciplines and increased research into how technological innovations affect child development. Such efforts are crucial for designing a sustainable and ethical future for the next generation through specific child-centered regulations, and helping to educate all potential stakeholders (regulators, developers, parents and educators, children) about responsible AI use and its potential impacts on child development.
... It involves mechanisms of detection (target detection/error detection), conflict, and cognitive control (inhibition and switching/flexibility)" (Rueda et al. 2023, p. 4). Intertwined with the more general set of executive functions, this attention network enables carrying out goal-directed and flexible actions, and adaptability to changes in the environmental conditions and/or requirements (Blair and Ursache 2011;Rueda et al. 2012Rueda et al. , 2023Welsh and Pennington 1988). Current formulations propose that executive attention actually involves two brain networks, one entailing processes that enable a general maintenance of task performance (i.e., the cingulo-opercular system), and the other entailing processes that enable online response adjustments on a trial-by-trial basis (i.e., the fronto-parietal system) (Dosenbach et al. 2007(Dosenbach et al. , 2008Petersen and Posner 2012;Rueda et al. 2015;Sestieri et al. 2014). ...
This study aimed to investigate two specific behavioral manifestations of the executive attention systems in preschoolers and kindergarteners, beyond the unique contribution of intelligence. We tested post-error slowing [RT¯Post-error trial−RT¯Not post-error trial] as a marker of reactive control and delayed disinhibition as a novel marker for proactive control. One hundred and eighty preschool- and kindergarten-aged children, as well as their mothers (final sample: 155 children and 174 mothers), performed an adapted task based on Go/NoGo and Stroop-like paradigms—the emotional day-night task. The children showed reliable post-error slowing and delayed disinhibition (mean size effects of 238.18 ms and 58.31 ms, respectively), while the adult size effects were 40–50% smaller. The post-error slowing effect was present for both sexes in all the tested ages, while the delayed disinhibition effect was present only for girls. Both effects showed large individual differences that became smaller in adulthood. Our findings emphasize the earlier maturation of reactive control compared to proactive control, and the earlier maturation of proactive cognitive control in girls compared to boys.
... During the preschool years, behavioural self-regulation is found to be one of the most important competencies, since it equips children for an effective learning engagement (Blair, 2002). The conceptualization of behavioural selfregulation relies on components such as executive functions (attention, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, and working memory) (Blair & Ursache, 2011;McClelland & Cameron Ponitz, 2012;Wanless et al., 2011), although the role each plays in regulating behaviour is still debatable. In light of this, the literature seems to indicate that the processes involved in self-regulation show dramatic development in three-to five-yearold children (Jones, Rothbart, & Posner, 2003;Welsh et al., 2010). ...
Recent studies have emphasized the importance of children’s ability to control their behaviours, thoughts, and emotions. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between behavioural self-regulation, motor coordination and social-emotional competencies in Romanian preschool children. We assessed 120 preschoolers using measures of behavioural self-regulation, gross motor coordination, and social-emotional competencies. Results revealed that there are no significant relations between behavioural self-regulation and gross motor coordination, nor between behavioural self-regulation and social-emotional skills. Interestingly, no gender differences emerged in terms of behavioural self-regulation, gross motor coordination, and social competencies. The only gender-related difference was found concerning emotional competencies, with girls outperforming boys. Further studies should investigate longitudinally the relations among these constructs, and also in relations with other factors, such as the preschool setting, the socio-economic status, and children’s academic achievement.
... For instance, Miyake et al. (2000) revealed a three-factor structure as shifting (function of attentional flexibility), updating (function of WM), and inhibition (function of IC) which are moderately related to each other. AF references a person's ability to focus and pay attention to a task voluntarily, to maintain attention even in the presence of distracting stimuli, to shift attention to a different task when necessary, and to adjust behavior according to a new situation (Blair & Diamond, 2008;Blair & Ursache, 2011). WM is remembering and updating information in the learning and implementation process (Gathercole & Pickering, 2000). ...
Purpose: Socio-dramatic play is important for supporting self-regulation skills in early childhood, and the complexity level of socio-dramatic play may increase the need for self-regulation skills. This study examined the relationship between the self-regulation skills of 60- to 86-month-old preschoolers and the complexity of socio-dramatic play better to understand the link between socio-dramatic play and self-regulation skills. Methodology: This study was designed as associational research to examine whether self-regulation skills based on teachers' and mothers' views relate to socio-dramatic play's aspects and complexity levels. The participants consisted of 51 preschool children attending two public schools in Turkey. Children's self-regulation skills (attention, working memory, and inhibitory control) were measured using self-regulation scales with teacher and mother forms. The socio-dramatic play was assessed using an observational tool consisting of three aspects (symbolic agent, symbolic substitution, and symbolic complexity). Findings: Findings revealed that self-regulation skills (inhibitory control and attention) showed a statistically significant difference in favor of children who engaged in sociodramatic play with high symbolic complexity. The working memory did not differ significantly regarding symbolic complexity. The teacher and mother reports revealed that self-regulation skills' attention, working memory, and inhibitory control dimensions did not relate to the aspects of symbolic agent and symbolic substitution. Highlights: These findings indicate that only the symbolic complexity aspect of socio-dramatic play is positively associated with preschoolers' self-regulation skills (inhibitory control and attention). Results were discussed concerning the literature on socio-dramatic play and self-regulation.
... Recently, there is increasing attention being paid to the empirical links between contemplative practices such as mindfulness and yoga and the construct of self-regulation, and in fact, how self-regulation is demonstrated to be the theoretical basis and one of the main mechanisms through which such contemplative practices enhance social emotional wellbeing and mental health (Bergen-Cico et al., 2015). Self-regulation is influenced by the dynamic interactions between top-down cognitive processes such as sustained attention and inhibitory control and bottom-up processes such as physiological arousal and stress reactivity (Blair & Ursache, 2011). Mindfulness based practices including meditation and yoga promote the same processes by enhancing attention, achieving greater control, reducing stress, thereby promoting self-regulation (Tang et al., 2012;Zelazo & Lyons, 2012). ...
Background
Adolescence is a critical period for social emotional development. The need to focus on social emotional competencies is exacerbated by the COVID 19 pandemic.
Objective
This systematic review paper provides a collective account of mindfulness interventions conducted exclusively with adolescent students in an educational setting (mean age 11 to 18) with the sole focus on social emotional and behavioral competencies primarily as outlined by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (Safe and sound: an educational leader’s guide to evidence-based social and emotional learning programs, Author, Chicago, IL, 2003, 2011).
Method
Mindfulness literature in the past 15 years, i.e., Jan 2008–Feb 2023 was reviewed. Additionally, the type of intervention implemented, dosage, delivery, measures used, and targets of intervention were examined. All the articles were also assessed for their methodological quality using the EPHPP quality assessment tool for quantitative studies (Effective Public Health Practice Project in Quality assessment tool for quantitative studies, Effective Public Health Practice Project, Hamilton, ON, 1998. https://merst.ca/ephpp/).
Results
With less than one third of the 30 included studies rated as strong, there appears to be moderate evidence for the effectiveness of MBIs on adolescent social emotional competencies. Overall, there appears to be mixed evidence for the effectiveness of MBIs on adolescents’ self-awareness, social awareness, social skills, with relatively more consistent evidence that MBIs positively impact their self-management (e.g., emotional regulation). We classify broader characteristics of the MBIs that could help explain some of the differences in effectiveness into three categories: intervention implementation related (e.g., dosage), method related (e.g., psychometric properties), and participant related (e.g., age and gender).
Conclusion
Future work on MBIs in schools needs to consider the quality of and factors known to impact effective implementation and resultant social emotional outcomes.
... The concept of self-regulation has been widely investigated in psychology and a wide array of models have been used to describe this aspect of human functioning (Baumeister et al., 2007;Hofmann et al., 2009;Inzlicht et al., 2021). Self-regulation can be defined as the ability to alter one's own automatic responses and inner states, to pursue long-term goals and adapt to one's environment (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996;Blair, 2016;Carver & Scheier, 1982;Karoly, 1993;Lerner et al., 2011;McClelland, Geloof, Cameron, & Wanless, 2015;Nielsen, 2019). Conceptualisations of self-regulation vary with respect to the focus of their scrutiny (i.e., how self-regulation operates versus how it is developed) and the level of their analysis (i.e., interindividual differences versus intrapsychic processes involved; Inzlicht et al., 2021;McClelland et al., 2015). ...
... Other work on self-regulation stresses the modulation of emotions and behaviors in real-world contexts to engender positive social relations with family, peers, and teachers (Blair & Raver, 2015). Indeed, emotional regulation may also develop reciprocally with EF, as early emotional regulation may lay the foundation for the development of the more complex cognitive skills involved in EF (Blair & Ursache, 2011). ...
The current paper reports long-term impacts of the Chicago School Readiness Project (CSRP) on measures of achievement, cognitive functioning, and behavioral regulation taken toward the end of students’ high school careers. The CSRP was a self-regulation-focused early childhood intervention implemented in Head Start centers serving high-poverty neighborhoods in Chicago. The intervention was evaluated through a cluster randomized control trial, providing us with rare longitudinal evidence from an experimental study. However, the study was limited by issues with low power and baseline differences between experimental groups. Here, we report on follow-up data taken approximately 11–14 years after program completion, including measures of participants’ (N = 430) academic achievement, executive functioning, emotional regulation, and behavioral problems, and we provide a range of analytic estimates to address the study’s methodological concerns. Across our estimates, we found little evidence that the program had lasting impacts on indicators of late-adolescent functioning. Main effects were estimated with some imprecision, but nearly all models produced null effects across the broad array of outcomes considered. We also observed few indications that effects were moderated by posttreatment high school quality or later assignment to a light-touch mindset intervention. Implications for developmental theory and early childhood policy are discussed.
... EFs make it possible for people to concentrate on multiple information flows at the same time, to monitor their execution, to make decisions considering the information available, to review their plans, and to manage to inhibit preponderant automatic responses that are not adaptive (Diamond, 2013b). EFs play a crucial role in the self-regulation and self-control capacity of humans (Blair & Ursache, 2011); they are vital for daily development (Montoya et al., 2019;Zorza et al., 2017) and are a significant predictor of academic performance (Finch et al., 2019;Montoya et al., 2019;St. John et al., 2018). ...
The healthy development of cognitive functions, including executive functions, has been shown to depend mainly on the experiences and learning opportunities of people, especially during childhood. Over the past few years, researchers have been studying the impacts of diverse types of interventions on children's cognitive development in which computational thinking programs are a recent field. This pilot study evaluated the effect of computational thinking training based on the "Programming for Children" program on the executive functions of children aged 10 and 11 years: working memory, inhibition, and planning (N = 30). The results showed that children in the experimental group improved on tests of visuospatial working memory, cognitive inhibition, and sequential planning compared with the control group. However, tests of verbal working memory, memory strategy, and visual spatial planning did not show any observed changes. Although this was an exploratory study, and its findings should be interpreted cautiously due to the small sample size, the findings support the relevance and feasibility of conducting similar larger studies with larger samples.
... IC enables children to inhibit their strong internal tendencies or impulsive reactions and produce more appropriate responses (Diamond, 2013). Finally, CF enables children to shift and maintain their attention between different tasks consciously, even if there is a distraction in the environment (Blair & Diamond, 2008;Blair & Ursache, 2011;Rothbart & Posner, 2005). Studies indicate that SR has an integrated structure and that the components of WM, IC, and CF work in an integrated manner Tominey & McClelland, 2013;Wiebe et al., 2008;Willoughby et al., 2012). ...
The present study examined the relationship between children's behavioral self-regulation (BSR) skills and the teacher-child relationship (TCR). Furthermore, this study investigated the contribution of TCR, child age, family monthly income, and child gender on children's BSR assessed by the Revised Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders. Participants consisted of 292 children aged 42 to 77 months. The data were analyzed using Pearson product-moment correlation and multiple linear regression analysis. The results showed a moderately positive relationship between BSR skills and TCR's closeness subscale and a moderately negative relationship between BSR skills and TCR's conflict subscale. Except for child gender, the TCR's subscales, child's age, and family monthly income significantly predicted the total score of BSR skills. TCR closeness was the strongest predictor of BSR skills, followed by TCR conflict, child age, and family monthly income. The results suggest that teacher-child relationships are essential for children's BSR skills.
... 3), refers to the skills involved to exert control over one's own actions, thoughts, and feelings in accordance with the social expectations of the environment (Willoughby et al., 2012;Blair and Raver, 2015;Korinek and deFur, 2016;Nigg, 2017). Scholars suggest that the construct of self-regulation is multidimensional and involves both conscious (i.e., top-down) and unconscious (i.e., bottom-up) biopsychosocial processes (Best and Miller, 2010;McClelland and Cameron, 2012;Blair, 2016;Nigg, 2017). The conscious aspect of self-regulation depends greatly on three executive function (EF) components: working memory (the ability to hold and manipulate information in shortterm memory), attentional flexibility (the ability to shift one's thoughts and attention when necessary), and inhibitory control (the ability to suppress a habitual response in favor of a more socially acceptable one; Best and Miller, 2010;Nigg, 2017;Gonzales et al., 2021). ...
The present study represents the first meta-analytic synthesis of the utility of a widely used early-childhood self-regulation measure, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task, in predicting children's academic achievement. A systematic review of the literature yielded 69 studies accessed from peer reviewed journals representing 413 effect sizes and 19,917 children meeting the complete set of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Robust variance analysis demonstrated that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was a consistent predictor of children's academic achievement across literacy, oral language, and mathematical outcomes. A moderator analysis indicated that in accordance with prior research, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task was more strongly associated with children's mathematics performance relative to their performance on language and literacy measures. The results of this meta-analysis suggest that the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task demonstrated statistically significant, positive associations with children's overall academic performance. These associations remained stable across different participant and measurement factors and are comparable to meta-analyses examining the self-regulation and academic association with multiple measures of self-regulation and executive function.
... Amongst others, processes that support this gradual development are increased physical and behavioral skills (e.g., moving away from unpleasant situations) as well as development of frontal cortical networks associated with attentional control. As such, the development of emotion regulation in infancy and early childhood can be seen as a crucial developmental phase in which children regulate their emotions mainly through behavioral strategies (21). In SCT, a few studies have provided initial evidence that the developmental trajectory of children with SCT can be different compared to nonclinical controls (18,22) with more pronounced behavioral problems in 4-to-6-yearolds compared to earlier years, thus highlighting the importance the role of age when studying children with SCT. ...
The presence of an additional X or Y chromosome (sex chromosome trisomies, SCT) is associated with an increased risk for neurodevelopmental difficulties, including socio-emotional problems, across the life-span. Studying emotion regulation in young children with SCT could signal deviations in emotional development that serve as risk markers to guide clinical care. This study explored the presence and variety of emotion regulation strategies in 75 SCT children and 81 population-based controls, aged 1 to 7 years, during a frustration-inducing event in which physiological (heart rate) and observational data (behavioral responses) were collected. Children with SCT were equally physiologically aroused by the event as compared to controls. However, they showed more emotion regulation difficulties in terms of behavior compared to controls that was not explicable in terms of differences in general intellectual functioning. Specifically, they had a more limited range of behavioral alternatives and tended to rely longer on inefficient strategies with increasing age. The field of practice should be made aware of these early risk findings regarding emotion regulation in SCT, which may potentially lay at the foundation of later socio-emotional problems, given the significant impact of emotion regulation on child and adult mental health outcomes. The current results may help to design tailored interventions to reduce the impact of the additional sex chromosome on adaptive functioning, psychopathology, and quality of life.
This chapter addresses the topic of equitable instruction using Artificial Intelligence for Executive Functioning skills of students with disabilities. The chapter will have the following content: Types of EF needs: This will outline varied EF needs with classroom examples on how the needs are reflected. Overview of AI tools for EF: AI has the potential to act as a digital assistant in creating to-do lists, prioritize, and set reminders like a personal assistant. This section will cover popular AI tools such as ChatGPT, Grammarly, PowerPoint Speaker Coach, Motion, LightKey, etc., with specific examples of use. Approaching EF needs from an equitable perspective using AI: This section will outline the AI tools that can help with EF, with specific application examples and uses. Cultural and linguistic diversity considerations will be included. Case study examples: This will include brief case studies of SWD with EF deficits in planning, prioritizing, organizing, problem solving, time management, etc.
This study explored specificity in the associations between early poverty and preschoolers’ behavioral and attentional regulation. In particular, there was an emphasis on delineating contextual factors (i.e., material hardship and household chaos) and parenting processes (i.e., maternal aggravation and maternal acceptance) as sequential mechanisms. The sample included 2850 families from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Results suggested that early poverty in infancy (age one) was associated with behavioral regulation and attentional regulation in preschool years (age five). Material hardship mediated the link between early poverty and behavioral regulation, while household chaos mediated the link between early poverty and attentional regulation. Additionally, maternal aggravation mediated the association between material hardship and behavioral regulation, while maternal acceptance mediated the associations between household chaos and attentional and behavioral regulation. Findings informed targeted interventions to alleviate hardship and chaos and promote positive parenting practices to bolster children’s self-regulation.
Introduction: Previous functional near-infrared (fNIRS) studies using Go/No-Go (GNG) tasks have focused on brain activation in relation to cognitive processes, particularly inhibitory control (IC). The results of these studies commonly describe right hemispheric engagement of the dorsolateral, ventromedial or inferior frontal regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Considering that typical healthy cognitive development is negatively correlated with higher cortisol levels (which may alter brain development), the overarching aim of the current study was to investigate how elevated stress (due to unforeseeable events such as the pandemic) impacts early cognitive development. Method: In this study, we examined fNIRS data collected from a sample of children (aged 2 – 4 years) during a GNG task relative to the response to stressors measured via hair cortisol concentrations. We acquired data in an ecological setting (Early Childhood Education and Care) during the coronavirus pandemic. Results: We found that children with higher stress levels and a less efficient inhibitory control recruited more neural terrain and our group-level analysis indicated activation in the left orbitofrontal area during IC performance. Conclusions: A contextual stressor may disrupt accuracy in the executive function of inhibitory control early in development. More research efforts are needed to understand better how an orbitofrontal network subserves goal-directed behavior.
The current study examined preschoolers’ attentional and behavioral regulation as unique predictors of
adolescent flourishing. Additional interests included the role of social competence and academic competence as
mediators and poverty-status as a moderator of these pathways. Data were drawn from the Future of Families and
Child Wellbeing Study and included an analytic sample of 2,266 ethnically and economically diverse families.
Children’s attentional regulation and academic competence were directly assessed during in-home visits,
behavioral regulation and social competence were parent-reported, and adolescent flourishing was self-reported.
Overall, results from multiple linear regression indicated that behavioral self-regulation at age 5 was associated
with adolescent flourishing at age 15. In addition, the findings from structural equation models that examined
mediation and moderation simultaneously indicated specificity in the pathways; attentional regulation positively
predicted social competence for the poor and the near-poor groups, while lack of behavioral regulation was
found to be negatively correlated with social competence for all three income groups. Furthermore, both
attentional regulation and behavioral regulation were associated with academic competence for the poor and
near-poor groups, but not for the non-poor group. Lastly, mediation analyses indicated that higher behavioral
regulation at age 5 was positively associated with social competence at age 9, which further were associated with
adolescence flourishing at age 15, for the non-poor group only. Implications of these findings for interventions
targeting early attentional and behavioral regulation among at-risk children are discussed.
Regulasi diri anak dapat diprediksi oleh parenting self-efficacy melalui peran mediasi oleh faktor-faktor yang melekat pada orang tua, tetapi peran faktor-faktor yang dimiliki anak dalam memperantarai hubungan keduanya belum diketahui. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah melihat peran salah satu faktor kognitif anak, yaitu executive function, sebagai mediator dalam hubungan antara parenting self-efficacy dan regulasi diri anak. Sebanyak 441 orang tua dari anak usia 48 hingga 72 bulan tanpa riwayat masalah perkembangan maupun psikologis mengikuti penelitian ini. Adapun alat ukur yang digunakan, yaitu Me as a Parent (MaaP) untuk mengukur parenting self-efficacy, Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI) untuk mengukur masalah executive function anak yang dipersepsikan orang tua, dan Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ) untuk mengukur regulasi diri anak yang juga dipersepsikan oleh orang tua. Analisis PROCESS Hayes menunjukkan hasil bahwa executive function anak secara partial memediasi hubungan antara parenting self-efficacy dan regulasi diri anak usia 48 hingga 72 bulan. Hasil penelitian ini mengimplikasikan bahwa upaya untuk meningkatkan parenting self-efficacy dan executive function anak penting untuk dilakukan agar regulasi diri anak dapat berkembang secara optimal.
Cognitive development involves not only the acquisition of new knowledge, but also the ability to inhibit prepotent responses from interfering with the execution of existing knowledge. At the same time, learning and performance requires not just attention to the task at hand, but also inhibiting distractors from depleting attentional or cognitive resources available for learning or performance. We first consider findings that elucidate how the executive function of inhibitory control plays a role in suppressing biases from previously learnt knowledge and heuristics in the transition from arithmetic to algebra word problem solving. Implications for the structuring of knowledge instruction to minimize needs for inhibition are discussed. Next, we consider a set of studies that examined the effects of a simple deep breathing technique taught to students to ameliorate the adverse effects of test anxiety by enhancing their inhibitory control of attentional focus. Findings elucidate how taking deep breathes before a test can reduce anxiety, enabling a better state-of-mind and allowing for better test performance. Implications for teaching students tools for self-regulation to optimize their affective and cognitive states, so as to maximize their potential for learning and performance, are discussed.
Lead (Pb) is a potentially hazardous metal that penetrates the bones and blood as well as other major organs including the skin, liver, kidneys, and brain after being absorbed by the body. It is the most abundant heavy metal found in nature and utilized for a variety of industrial purposes. Lead is used in the manufacturing of bearings and printing fonts, as well as in the manufacturing of sulfuric acid, cable coverings, soldering products, guards in nuclear power stations, shields, vessels for radiation emitting materials, paints, ceramics, chemicals, and building structures. It is advantageous for physiological and biochemical processes in living beings in low concentrations. However, when it surpasses a specific threshold, it causes significant health issues. Lead is extremely persistent in nature and its continued use causes serious toxicological impacts, such as renal failure, carcinogenicity, high blood pressure, hematological effects, brain damage, reproductive system complications (in both men and women), bone screening, heart diseases, and liver damage. The available treatments, such as chelation therapy and other types of medicines, can help to reduce its adverse effects. The objective of this review is to delineate the adverse effects of lead on the human body, spanning from childhood to adulthood. Lead is a cumulative toxicant that affects multiple body systems and is particularly harmful to young children. The second major goal of this study is to define lead contamination and identify its sources and levels.
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This chapter describes two sets of simple techniques—deep breathing and mindfulness-based practices—that have been successfully used in schools to help children cope with stress and anxiety, regulate emotions, and improve cognitive, social, and psychological well-being. Deep breathing can be easily taught to children and applied in a self-directed manner to immediately regulate adverse effects of anxiety, stress, or other negative affectivity and arousal, enhancing emotional and cognitive well-being. Though mindfulness-based practices may also be applied for immediate self-regulatory effects, practice over time brings additional benefits such as self-and-other awareness and compassion, and better intra- and interpersonal relationships. Both techniques can promote cognitive, emotional, and behavioral self-regulation, contributing towards resilience and well-being. The evidence supporting these techniques, their mechanisms, and how they complement positive psychology and social emotional learning are described. Applications in Asian school settings and issues related to implementation are discussed.
Background The relationship between physical activity and cognitive functions is well established, with regular exercise improving cognitive functions. However, there is less clarity surrounding the effect of exercise-induced fatigue on attention network particularly in those with a history of continuous physical activity.
Aims This research was aimed to determine whether exercise-induced fatigue can affect cognitive functions, especially those involved in attentional control (i.e., alerting, orientation, and executive functions) and to identify any differences in attentional control between active and inactive individuals after exercise-induced fatigue.
Methods We compared the performance of 24 physically active and inactive participants in the Attentional Network Task, which allows for the assessment of the executive, orienting and alerting networks. Under two conditions regarding exercise-induced fatigue (pre-fatigue and post-fatigue), we used sub-maximum aerobic endurance training to induce fatigue to the exhaustion point.
Results The results showed that fatiguing exercise improved alertness in both groups; however, the executive control network of the active group improved while the orienting and executive control networks of the inactive group performed worse.
Conclusions Depending on the participants' degree of physical activity and the particular task used to test each of these attention networks, exercise-induced exhaustion had a different impact on different attention networks.
Izvršne funkcije (IF) su svrsihodne ka cilju usmjerene aktivnosti. Razvojni profil djeteta predškolske dobi kreira se procjenom kroz pet razvojnih područja: kognitivno, komunikacijsko, socioemocionalno, fizičko i adaptivno ponašanje. Cilj ovog istraživanje je utvrditi uticaj različitih komponenti IF na razvojne domene djece sa poteškoćama u razvoju predškolske dobi (DPR) i uporediti ih sa djecom neurotipičnog razvoja (DTR), te ispitati uticaj socioekonomskog statusa porodice na razvoj IF. Metode: Uzorak je obuhvatio 120 djece iz redovnnih i specijaliziranih predškolskih ustanova iz Bosne i Hercegovine. Starosna dob djece je pet i šest godina. Socioekonoomski status je ispitan kroz stručnu spremu roditelja i uzorak čine roditelji DPR i to 28 roditelja sa visokom stručnom spremom (VSS) i 32 roditelja sa srednjom stručnom spremom (SSS), te roditelji DTR 25 roditelja sa VSS i 35 roditelja sa SSS. Instrumenti: Profili djece ispitani su Razvojnom procjenom male djece (Developmental Assessment of Young Children, DAYC-2, Swartmiller 2014), a izvršne funkcije pomoću predškolske verzije Inventara za procjenu izvršnih funkcija (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions; BRIEF-a, Giola et al., 2003). Dobijeni rezultati ukazuju na postojanje značajno nižih statističkih povezanosti IF sa domenima razvoja kod DPR u odnosu na TPR. Kod DPR postoji statistički značajna povezanost u korist roditelja sa VSS u komponentama: preusmjeravanje (t=-2,53; p=0,01), emocionalna kontrola (t=-2,46; p=0,01), a kod DTR inhibicija (t=2,26; p=0,02), emocionalna kontrola (t=2,26; p=0,05) i radna memorija (t=2,51; p=0,01). Zaključak: Istraživanje pokazuju različitu povezanost IF i razvojnih domena kod DPR i DTR. Djeca višeg socioekonomskog statusa pokazuju povezanost sa više komponenti IF.
Play is an integrative process, and the skills acquired in it-overcoming impulses, behavior control, exploration and discovery, problem-solving, reasoning, drawing conclusions, and attention to processes and outcomes are foundational cognitive structures that drive learning and motivation. Loose parts play is a prominent form of play that many scholars and educators explicitly endorse for cognitive development (e.g., divergent thinking, problem-solving). It is unique among play types because children can combine different play types and natural or manufactured materials in one occurrence. While educators and policymakers promote the benefits of loose parts play, no previous research has explored the direct relationship between preschool-age children's indoor loose parts play experiences and cognitive development. We address this gap by bringing together the relevant literature and synthesizing the empirical studies on common play types with loose parts, namely object and exploratory, symbolic and pretend, and constructive play. We also focus on studies that examine children's experiences through loose parts, highlighting the impact of different play types on learning through the reinforcement of cognitive skills, such as executive function , cognitive self-regulation, reasoning, and problem-solving. By examining the existing literature and synthesizing empirical evidence, we aim to deepen our understanding of the relationship between children's play with loose parts and its impact on cognitive development. Ultimately, pointing out the gaps in the literature that would add to the body of knowledge surrounding the benefits of play for cognitive development and inform educators, policymakers, and researchers about the significance of incorporating loose parts play into early childhood education.
The current study examined the relations between children's cognitive and emotion abilities with their likelihood to tell a lie for personal gain in a tempting situation. These relations were examined using behavioral tasks and questionnaires. A total of 202 Israel Arab Muslim kindergarten children participated in this study. Our results showed that behavioral self-regulation was positively associated with children's likelihood to tell a lie for personal gain. Children with higher behavioral self-regulation actually tended to lie more for their own gain, suggesting that the likelihood to tell a lie might be related to children's ability to mobilize and integrate their cognitive abilities to self-regulate their behavior. In addition, through exploratory analysis, we found a positive relation between theory of mind and children's likelihood to tell a lie, which was moderated by inhibition. Specifically, only among children with low inhibition was there a positive correlation between their theory of mind and the likelihood to lie. Moreover, age and gender were related to children's lie-telling; older children tended more to lie for their own gain, and this likelihood was higher for boys than for girls.
Abstract
Introduction: Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES), including tDCS and tRNS, can improve neuropsychological
and cognitive deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Here, we investigated the effectiveness of
various tES modes combined with working memory training in children and adolescents with ADHD.
Materials and Methods: Participants in this study consisted of a cohort of 13- to 17-year-old adolescents
(N=45)who were diagnosed with ADHD in 2018. They were randomly assigned to three groups: tDCS, tRNS, and the
active control (sham). The three groups received five sessions of tES either as an intervention or sham on the left and
right prefrontal areas (F3 and F4). In addition to tES, Dual n-Back training was also used in the three groups.
Wechsler's Digit Span subtest and resting state EEG data were collected before and after brain stimulation.
Results: Analysis of variance showed significant differences between the groups in some EEG channels (p .05). The
absolute power analysis of the brain waves data in the pre-testand post-test phases revealed that the tDCS group had
the greatest changes compared to the other two groups and that most changes in the absolute power related to theta,
delta and alpha bands were found in the frontal and occipital regions.
Conclusions: Based on the results, we concluded that tES over the prefrontal area induced cortical changes in
children and adolescents with ADHD. Thus, it seems that various methods of tES can be used in combination with
other common types of intervention to treat ADHD.
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