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Fluctuations of the Mer de Glace (Mont Blanc area, France) AD 1500-2050: an interdisciplinary approach using new historical data and neural network simulations
... Même s'il existe des sources d'images isolées plus tôt dans le massif du Mont-Blanc, des images qualitativement fiables n'apparaissent qu'à partir de 1770 et surtout après 1780 [8]. Dans un style similaire aux oeuvres de Caspar Wolf, nous trouvons un tableau de Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg montrant la voûte de la Mer de Glace en 1787. ...
... Depuis 1789, Jean-Antoine Linck (1766-1843) dessine principalement des paysages alpins de la Savoie au Saint-Gothard. Il a une préférence élève, qui partageait son souci d'exactitude [8]. En 1788, Charles-François Exchaquet, un ingénieur suisse, achève le premier plan-relief du massif du Mont-Blanc, qui représente probablement la topographie des glaciers de l'année précédente. ...
... Cependant, de nombreux croquis au crayon ont été conservés [33]. Bien que nombre de ses oeuvres ne soient malheureusement pas exactement datées par l'artiste, nous pouvons affirmer que l'oeuvre de Linck représentait tout le développement des glaciers de la région du Mont-Blanc depuis la fin du XVIII e siècle au maximum des glaciers du XIX e siècle vers les années 1820 [8]. ...
Cet article est consacré à l'apport des sources historiques, en particulier iconographiques, pour l'étude des fluctuations et de l'aspect de plusieurs glaciers des Alpes occidentales et centrales au XVIIIe siècle. Ces fluctuations constituent des indicateurs très sensibles de la variabilité du climat dans cette période du Petit âge glaciaire.
This article discusses the contribution of historical sources, particularly iconographic sources, to the study of the fluctuations and appearance of several glaciers in the western and central Alps in the 18th century. These fluctuations are highly sensitive indicators of climate variability in this period of the Little Ice Age.
... Autant que l'observation de l'Arche, la possibilité de tirer au pistolet semble être une motivation pour la visite puisqu'un avertissement sur cette pratique est présent dans de nombreux guides touristiques. Dès les années 1850 qui marquent la fin du PAG, le front de la Mer de Glace recule (Nussbaumer et al., 2007). C'est également à peu près à cette date qu'une grotte de glace artificielle appelée "la grotte de cristal" est construite à côté de l'arche naturelle. ...
... Le front de la Mer de Glace a connu de nombreuses variations pendant et depuis la fin du Petit Âge Glaciaire (PAG ; voir Partie 2, Chapitre 6). De 1600 à 1850 environ, le front a connu six avancées et reculs successifs d'une moyenne de 500 m chacun (Nussbaumer et al., 2007). ...
... Cette attraction de la vallée de Chamonix est décrite dans tous les guides touristiques, récits de voyage et correspondances entre 1742 et 1872, où il est fait mention de son caractère changeant. Par exemple, le guideManget publié en 1844 indique que la taille de l'arche de glace varie d'une année à l'autre, voire parfois ne se forme pas comme en 1842-43, période de recul du front(Nussbaumer et al.,2007). ...
After being perceived negatively by the inhabitants of mountain areas, glaciers have been promoted as a tourist attraction for over two centuries. The first visits to the Arveyron Arch (Chamonix) in the 18th century were followed by cog railways and cable cars that allow access to the largest glaciers in the Alps and in the world in just a few dozen minutes. Thus, glacier tourism today includes practices and touristic sites that are emblematic of certain mountain territories. However, rising temperatures and the extremely rapid glacier retreat also make these glacier sites markers of climate change. The Mer de Glace in France, the Rhone glacier in Switzerland and the Pasterze glacier in Austria are among the major glacier tourist sites that are experiencing the full force of landscape changes linked to the retreat of the cryosphere. What do these changes imply for the operators of these glacier tourism sites? And for their visitors? Using mixed methodologies, this PhD thesis attempts to answer these two questions for six major Alpine glacier tourism sites. In essence, the results show that glacial tourism sites are largely impacted by climate change and the glaciological and geomorphological changes it brings to mountain territories. These impacts lead to difficulties in site management, itinerary issues, difficulties in carrying out certain activities which may become more dangerous, or a decrease in the attractiveness of the sites through less attractive glacial activities or through a "landscape degradation" feared by the site managers. However, our results with visitors to the sites show that this "degradation" of the landscape does not drastically reduce visitors' satisfaction with the glacial landscape: the negative judgements are limited to glaciers or paraglacial forms, but only slightly affect visitors' general appreciation of the landscape. At the same time, a new form of tourism - last chance tourism - is developing around glaciers and shows that they are now considered as "endangered species". Furthermore, the site managers in question are implementing strategies for adapting to climate change that are mainly reactive and which raise the question of their long-term sustainability. This question is even more important as glacier modelling for the year 2050 suggests that current adaptations will not be sufficient.
... In the European Alps, the later phase of the LIA, that is the late 16th to the mid-19th centuries, is reasonably well constrained mainly owing to historical descriptions, maps and drawings of that period (e.g. Nicolussi, 1993;Nussbaumer and Zumbühl, 2012;Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Zumbühl, 1980;Zumbühl and Holzhauser, 1988). In contrast, knowledge on the timing and evolution of the glacier advance at the onset of the LIA is still limited. ...
... However, no proofs hitherto exist for glacier maxima until the main LIA phase (Figure 6). Historical observations of the Lower Grindelwald Glacier and the Mer de Glace from 1530/1570 document that their glacier termini were in advanced positions, but c. 300 and 1200 m, respectively, behind later LIA maxima (Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Zumbühl et al., 1983). During this intermediate LIA phase, lasting from c. 1380 to 1575, summer temperatures (Büntgen et al., 2011) were on average higher than during the early LIA but still −0.24°C ...
... By contrast, for several Alpine glaciers the variability during the last and main, that is the longest and often most intensive phase of the LIA, lasting from c. 1575 to 1860, is exceptionally well documented through observations, drawings, maps and measurements of that period (e.g. Nicolussi, 1993Nicolussi, , 2013Nussbaumer and Zumbühl, 2012;Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Zumbühl, 1980). During this period, mean summer temperatures (Büntgen et al., 2011) were −0.82°C below the 20th century mean, and thus only slightly cooler compared to values reconstructed for the early LIA phase (with −0.73°C). ...
The term ‘Little Ice Age’ (LIA) is classically used to define a period of repeated and extensive glacier advances during the last millennium. In the meanwhile, this term is also used to address the period of relatively low temperatures between the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA), or Medieval Warm Period, and present-day warming. The end of the LIA is generally set to the mid or late 1800s CE, however, the published onset dates of the LIA are more variable from the mid 1200s to the late 1500s. At Mont Miné and Morteratsch glaciers, Swiss Alps, we sampled and subsequently analysed detrital as well as in situ tree remnants from the early LIA period. At both glaciers, trees with lifespans of up to about 400 years were buried at various lateral moraine sites. The corresponding advance of both glaciers can be traced from the 1280s until the 1310s. At Morteratsch glacier, this early LIA advance phase culminated likely around 1375 CE. Evidence collected at both glaciers indicates that the ice surfaces were at least c. 12–15 m from the lateral moraine crests deposited during the maximum extent of the LIA. This suggests a similar (though very slightly weaker) magnitude than later LIA advances at our sites. The advances of Mont Miné and Morteratsch glaciers coincide with relatively cool summer temperatures from the late 1200s to the late 1300s. Taken together, the onset of the Little Ice Age in the Alps can be considered to be c. 1260 CE. The Little Ice Age was not a uniform period, but had several phases as can be derived from the records of Alpine glaciers and summer temperatures. We propose a subdivision of the LIA in the European Alps into an early (1260–1380 CE), an intermediate (1380–1575 CE) and a main (1575–1860 CE) phase.
... Autant que l'observation de l'Arche, la possibilité de tirer au pistolet semble être une motivation pour la visite puisqu'un avertissement sur cette pratique est présent dans de nombreux guides touristiques. Dès les années 1850 qui marquent la fin du PAG, le front de la Mer de Glace recule (Nussbaumer et al., 2007). C'est également à peu près à cette date qu'une grotte de glace artificielle appelée "la grotte de cristal" est construite à côté de l'arche naturelle. ...
... Le front de la Mer de Glace a connu de nombreuses variations pendant et depuis la fin du Petit Âge Glaciaire (PAG ; voir Partie 2, Chapitre 6). De 1600 à 1850 environ, le front a connu six avancées et reculs successifs d'une moyenne de 500 m chacun(Nussbaumer et al., 2007).Entre 1860 et 2019, le front du glacier a ensuite connu un retrait d'environ 1,5 km(Vincent et al., 2019). En termes d'épaisseur de glace, différents profils le long de la langue glaciaire sont mesurés chaque année dans le cadre du programme GLACIOCLIM(Vincent et al., 2007) et montrent une perte d'épaisseur d'environ 175 m entre 1890 et 2019 au niveau du site du Montenvers (Vincent et al., 2019). ...
... Le jeu de données sur les fluctuations de la Mer de Glace provient de deux sources : la reconstitution de la position du front du glacier entre 1570 et 2003 parNussbaumer et al. (2007), et les mesures du front du glacier par Glacioclim(Vincent et al., 2007). Les profils altimétriques de Glacioclim depuis 1880 complètent ce jeu de données homogénéisé entre 1570 et 2019 (Figure 31).Figure 31. ...
Depuis la mise en tourisme des « glacières » de Chamonix en 1741, les paysages glaciaires contribuent fortement à l’attractivité des territoires alpins, et donc à leur économie. Le recul généralisé des glaciers lié au changement climatique en cours engendre de profonds changements paysagers qui impactent de nombreux sites touristiques de l’arc alpin. Le travail doctoral proposé sur l’avenir des activités touristiques liées aux paysages englacés, novateur et pluridisciplinaire, s’empare d’une question sensible pour les acteurs du tourisme et de l’aménagement en montagne. Il se propose d’y répondre : 1.en établissant une typologie des sites touristiques en contexte glaciaire, qui intègre sur la longue durée leur développement et la dynamique des glaciers correspondants, 2.en étudiant l’évolution interannuelle de leur fréquentation depuis les années 1980, caractérisées par la dernière avancée glaciaire alpine, 3.en explicitant les représentations et attentes du public au moyen d’enquêtes accompagnées d’une approche photographique, 4.en proposant une approche méthodologique applicable à plusieurs échéances à partir d’une analyse critique des aménagements passés et actuels. L’étude sera prioritairement conduite à l’échelle des Alpes occidentales, éventuellement étendue aux Alpes centrales et orientales, afin de permettre une dimension comparative. Les résultats enrichiront les connaissances actuelles sur les conséquences économiques du changement climatique en montagne. Ils contribueront à fonder les prises de décisions des gestionnaires d’infrastructures (refuges, téléphériques, buvettes) et des décideurs locaux (communes, communautés de communes, syndicats) et régionaux quant à l’évolution des produits touristiques proposés en contexte glaciaire.
... At the Montenvers site, ice thickness decreased by 140 m between 1986 and 2020 (own measurement). Past fluctuations of the Mer de Glace have also been studied and allow one to understand to a good extent how its front has evolved since the end of the 16 th century (Nussbaumer et al., 2007). ...
... Concerning the fluctuations of the Mer de Glace over time, the paper uses data from multiple sources. Several of these, including historical images, maps and texts, have been used previously by Nussbaumer et al. (2007) to reconstruct the development of the position of the Mer de Glace's front between 1570 and 2003. These sources are supplemented with measurement data for the front of the glacier published by GLACIOCLIM, a programme which provides access to measurements of several glaciers around the world that, at the time of publication of this article, is still ongoing (Vincent et al., 2007). ...
... According to multiple guidebooks, the ice arch did not form during or around the period of 1842-43, which corresponds with a period of retreat of the Mer de Glace front (Nussbaumer et al., 2007). According to the guidebooks, the ice arch continued to be visited throughout the first half of the 19 th century but disappeared in the 1870s. ...
Climate change induces profound changes in mountain territories that affect the activities pursued there. Tourism is one activity that is strongly impacted by these changes. Most research on tourism in mountain regions has focused on winter sports tourism, but glacier tourism, a summer activity, is also severely affected by climate change-induced phenomena, including glacier retreat and other geomorphological processes. Given that Alpine glacier tourism has been pursued since the 18 th century and glaciers have been changing throughout this period, this article aims to examine the adaptations implemented by glacier tourism operators since the activity's beginnings. Through analysis of historical documents, glaciological surveys and semi-structured interviews, this paper reveals how tourism activities around the Mer de Glace (the largest French glacier) have been impacted by glacier fluctuations since the first visit to the area in 1741. The study reveals that these developments have mainly been driven by glacier retreat and associated paraglacial dynamics. More recently, the shortening of the period of snow cover on the glacier has also impacted tourism activities. Most of the adaptation strategies implemented by tourism operators during the period in question are found to be reactive, consisting in the installation of safety equipment, the renovation of access points or the building of new structures to allow tourist activities to continue despite the consequences of glacier retreat. Other strategies, such as the adoption of new activities by workers previously specialised in another, are identified that could be considered transformative strategies, although these were only adopted by workers when their activity was no longer feasible. The analysis of materials from 1741 to the present also reveals that the recent impacts of climate change on glacier tourism are much more significant and diverse than those produced by past fluctuations. Therefore, it is important that stakeholders take suitable measures to ensure the sustainable future of the Mer de Glace and other glacier tourism destinations.
... We proceeded with subsequent steps of sample preparation according to 165 the LDEO protocol (LDEO, 2012b). Isotope ratios ( 10 Be/ 9 Be) in samples were measured at CAMS-LLNL using the 07KNDSTD3110 standard with a 10 Be/ 9 Be ratio of 2.85×10 -12 (Nishiizumi et al., 2007). ...
... Samples were analyzed at the CAMS-LLNL. All samples were measured against the 07KNSTD3110 standard with a ratio of 2.85 x 10 -12 (Nishiizumi et al., 2007). Two procedural blanks were processed with each batch of samples with ratios ranging from 2.8 to 9.1 x 10 -16 (supplements Table S2 ...
... Three consistent boulder ages from J1 are aggregated to a mean age of 260 ±25 yrs and indicate an advance of Jamtalferner between c. 1735 and 1790 CE. A recent geochronological study in the adjacent Ochsental comes to remarkably similar results with boulder ages from the LIA moraine yielding a mean age of 260 ±30 yrs ( Alps at the Lower Grindelwald glacier (Zumbühl and Nussbaumer, 2018) and in the Western Alps at the Mer de Glace (Nussbaumer et al., 2007). High glacial activity during the second half of the 18 th century with termini coming close to, or reaching their LIA maximum, is congruent with a phase of decreased summer temperatures detected in proxy records in the vicinity of our study site ( Fig. 8a-b) (Ilyashuk et al., 2019;Larocque-Tobler et al., 2010a;Fohlmeister et al., 2013;Vollweiler et al., 2006), and with reconstructed summer and mean annual temperatures from Greenland ice cores (Fig. 8d) (Kobashi et 355 al., 2017;Buizert et al., 2018). ...
Glaciers preserve climate variations in their geological and geomorphological records, which makes them prime candidates for climate reconstructions. Investigating the glacier-climate system over the past millennia is particularly relevant because, first, the amplitude and frequency of natural climate variability during the Holocene provides the climatic context against which modern, human-induced climate change must be assessed. Second, the transition from the last glacial to the current interglacial promises important insights into the climate system during warming, which is of particular interest with respect to ongoing climate change. Evidence of stable ice margin positions that record cooling during the past 12 ka are preserved in two glaciated valleys of the Silvretta Massif in the Eastern European Alps, the Jamtal (JAM) and the Laraintal (LAR). We mapped and dated moraines in these catchments including historical ridges using Beryllium-10 Surface Exposure Dating (10Be SED) techniques, and correlate resulting moraine formation intervals with climate proxy records to evaluate the spatial and temporal scale of these cold phases. The new geochronologies indicate two moraine formation intervals (MFI) during the Early Holocene (EH): 10.8 ± 0.7 ka (n = 9) and 11.2 ± 0.8 ka (n = 12). Boulder ages along historical moraines (n = 6) imply at least two glacier advances during the Little Ice Age (LIA; c. 1250–1850 CE), around 1300 CE and in the second half of the 18th century. An earlier advance to the same position may have occurred around 500 CE. The Jamtal and Laraintal moraine chronologies provide evidence that millennial scale EH warming was superimposed by centennial scale cooling. The timing of EH moraine formation is contemporaneous with brief temperature drops identified in local and regional paleoproxy records, most prominently with the Preboreal Oscillation (PBO), and is consistent with moraine deposition in other catchments in the European Alps, and in the Arctic region. This consistency points to cooling beyond the local scale and therefore a regional or even hemispheric climate driver. Freshwater input sourced from the Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS), which changed circulation patterns in the North Atlantic, is a plausible explanation for EH cooling and moraine formation in the Nordic region and in Europe.
... Direct measurements of seasonal and annual glacier mass balance, which are available for the past six decades, allow us to quantify the response of a glacier to climatic changes. The variations of a glacier front position represents an indirect, delayed, filtered and enhanced response to changes in climate over glacierspecific response times of up to several decades ( Zumbühl, 1980;Zumbühl et al., 1983;Karlén, 1988;Zumbühl and Holzhauser, 1988;Luckman, 1993;Tribolet, 1998;Nicolussi and Patzelt, 2000;Holzhauser et al., 2005;Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Zumbühl et al., 2008;Masiokas et al., 2009;Nesje, 2009;Holzhauser, 2010;Nussbaumer and Zumbühl, 2011). However, the majority of the data remains inaccessible to the scientific community, which limits the verification and direct comparison of the results. ...
... The investigated glaciers in the western and central Alps show several periods of marked advances during the LIA, that are similar or even larger than LIA extent around AD 1850. Reconstructions reveal dramatic glacier advances that started in the late 16 th century, overran cropland and hamlets, and reached maximum lengths at ca. AD 1600 and 1640 (Zumbühl, 1980;Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Steiner et al., 2008). Further maxima in glacier extent were reached around AD 1720, 1780, 1820 and 1850. ...
... Based on the available evidence, Glaciar Frías (northern Patagonian Andes) probably contains the best-documented history of fluctuations since the LIA in southern South America, covering the period between AD 1639-2009. (Nussbaumer et al., 2007) (Nussbaumer et al., 2007). ...
... Direct measurements of seasonal and annual glacier mass balance, which are available for the past six decades, allow us to quantify the response of a glacier to climatic changes. The variations of a glacier front position represents an indirect, delayed, filtered and enhanced response to changes in climate over glacierspecific response times of up to several decades ( Zumbühl, 1980;Zumbühl et al., 1983;Karlén, 1988;Zumbühl and Holzhauser, 1988;Luckman, 1993;Tribolet, 1998;Nicolussi and Patzelt, 2000;Holzhauser et al., 2005;Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Zumbühl et al., 2008;Masiokas et al., 2009;Nesje, 2009;Holzhauser, 2010;Nussbaumer and Zumbühl, 2011). However, the majority of the data remains inaccessible to the scientific community, which limits the verification and direct comparison of the results. ...
... The investigated glaciers in the western and central Alps show several periods of marked advances during the LIA, that are similar or even larger than LIA extent around AD 1850. Reconstructions reveal dramatic glacier advances that started in the late 16 th century, overran cropland and hamlets, and reached maximum lengths at ca. AD 1600 and 1640 (Zumbühl, 1980;Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Steiner et al., 2008). Further maxima in glacier extent were reached around AD 1720, 1780, 1820 and 1850. ...
... Based on the available evidence, Glaciar Frías (northern Patagonian Andes) probably contains the best-documented history of fluctuations since the LIA in southern South America, covering the period between AD 1639-2009. (Nussbaumer et al., 2007) (Nussbaumer et al., 2007). ...
... The combination of the different types of information on glacier length fluctuations across the globe has a large potential for the reconstruction of a worldwide picture of past glacier changes. In this paper we describe a data set of glacier Glazovsky et al. (2009), I. Solovjanova, personal communication, 20062 Zeeberg and Forman (2001), this study; 3 Yde and Knudsen (2007); 4 O. Sigurdsson, personal communication;2008 5 Østrem et al. (1977), Nesje et al. (2008), Nussbaumer et al. (2011); 6 Weeks (2011), Wiles and Calkin (1994), Le Bris et al. (2011); 7 Koch et al. (2009);8 De Smedt and Pattyn (2003); 9 Beschel (1950), Greuell (1992), Fischer et al. (2013); 10 Heliker et al. (1984), Granshaw and Fountain (2009); 11 Nussbaumer et al. (2007); 12 Laverov (2004), Panov (1993), Zolotarev (2009); 13 Aizen et al. (2006); 14 Schmidt and Nüsser (2009); 15 Kaser and Osmaston (2002), Taylor et al. (2006); 16 Rabatel et al. (2008); 17 Araneda et al. (2009), Le Quesne et al. (2009; 18 Villalba et al. (1990), Leclercq et al. (2012a);19 McKinzey et al. (2004), Williams Jr. and Ferrigno (1989), B. Fitzharris, personal communication, 199320 Cook et al. (2005). length fluctuations that combines different sources of information. ...
... Historical sources in reconstruction include pictures (i.e., paintings, sketches, early photographs) as well as written documents, such as those about the advances over farmland of Glacier des Bossons and Nigardsbreen (Østrem et al., 1977;Bogen et al., 1989;Nussbaumer and Zumbühl, 2012). For the European glaciers there is a wealth of documents, resulting in long and detailed glacier length records (e.g., Zumbühl, 1980;Nussbaumer et al., 2007Nussbaumer et al., , 2011. Historical information is less abundant in other regions of the world, but on several occasions historical information could be used for the reconstruction of glacier fluctuations. ...
... Some of the monitored Icelandic glaciers show surging behavior and are therefore not included. For the Alps and Scandinavia there are also records with a high resolution prior to the 20th century, owing to the large amount of available historical information in these regions (e.g., Zumbühl, 1980;Zumbühl and Holzhauser, 1988;Nussbaumer et al., 2007Nussbaumer et al., , 2011. Central Europe has by far the most length records, but prior to 1800 the number of available records is comparable to the regions Southern Andes and low latitudes. ...
Glacier fluctuations contribute to variations in sea level and historical
glacier length fluctuations are natural indicators of past climate change. To
study these subjects, long-term information of glacier change is needed. In
this paper we present a data set of global long-term glacier length
fluctuations. The data set is a compilation of available information on
changes in glacier length worldwide, including both measured and
reconstructed glacier length fluctuations. All 471 length series start before
1950 and cover at least four decades. The longest record starts in 1535, but
the majority of time series start after 1850. The number of available records
decreases again after 1962. The data set has global coverage including
records from all continents. However, the Canadian Arctic is not represented
in the data set. The available glacier length series show relatively small
fluctuations until the mid-19th century, followed by a global retreat. The
retreat was strongest in the first half of the 20th century, although large
variability in the length change of the different glaciers is observed.
During the 20th century, calving glaciers retreated more than
land-terminating glaciers, but their relative length change was approximately
equal. Besides calving, the glacier slope is the most important glacier
property determining length change: steep glaciers have retreated less than
glaciers with a gentle slope.
... The European Alps (Fig. 1a) are among the best-documented regions worldwide concerning Holocene glacier variations (Nicolussi and Patzelt, 2001;Holzhauser et al., 2005;Joerin et al., 2006Joerin et al., , 2008Nicolussi et al., 2006;Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Holzhauser, 2010;Luetscher et al., 2011;Goehring et al., 2011Goehring et al., , 2012Nicolussi and Schlüchter, 2012;Nussbaumer and Zumbühl, 2012;Schimmelpfennig et al., 2012Schimmelpfennig et al., , 2014). Even so, distribution of dated sites is spatially heterogeneous. ...
... Klok and Oerlemans (2003) used a close formula to calculate an 'analytical length response time', obtaining a value of 56 years for MdG. These data indicate that MdG is able to respond to decadal-scale cold events within an advance/retreat secular trend (Reynaud and Vincent, 2000;Nussbaumer et al., 2007). ...
... The outermost frontal moraine ridges are located in the main valley floor (not visible on Fig. 2) and were deposited during the late stages of the LIA (Mougin, 1912;Wetter, 1987;Nussbaumer et al., 2007 and references therein for a comprehensive overview of previous works on MdG). Total glacier retreat from LIA maxima positions reached in 1644 and 1821 AD ( Nussbaumer et al., 2007) amounts to 2.57 km. ...
... La comparaison de tableaux anciens avec la situation actuelle, examinée sur place, ainsi que le relevé des moraines permettent de déterminer les anciennes positions du front du glacier. Finalement, l'histoire de la Mer de Glace a pu être reconstituée par une centaine de documents historiques [Nussbaumer et al., 2007]. Les dessins de Jean-Antoine Linck (1766-1843) et de Samuel Birmann (1793-1847, ainsi que les cartes de James David Forbes (1809-1868) et d'Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879) sont d'excellents exemples qui donnent une représentation remarquable de la Mer de Glace. ...
... À l'exception de certaines réavancées mineures (dont la dernière en 1991-1995), le glacier s'est retiré continuellement depuis les années 1850 jusqu'à aujourd'hui sur plus de 2 km. Au XX e siècle, la Mer de Glace montre une perte de volume considérable qui a eu lieu principalement dans sa partie inférieure [Nussbaumer et al., 2007]. ...
... En outre, deux scénarios de climat [Frei, 2004] sont appliqués pour simuler les fluctuations du glacier dans le futur. Les reconstructions annuelles des changements de longueur de la Mer de Glace [Nussbaumer et al., 2007] ont servi comme donnée cible. Toutes les données d'input pour le modèle étaient lissées avec un filtre passe-bas de Gauss de 20 ans. ...
... The European Alps (Fig. 1a) are among the best-documented regions worldwide concerning Holocene glacier variations (Nicolussi and Patzelt, 2001;Holzhauser et al., 2005;Joerin et al., 2006Joerin et al., , 2008Nicolussi et al., 2006;Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Holzhauser, 2010;Luetscher et al., 2011;Goehring et al., 2011Goehring et al., , 2012Nicolussi and Schlüchter, 2012;Nussbaumer and Zumbühl, 2012;Schimmelpfennig et al., 2012Schimmelpfennig et al., , 2014. Even so, distribution of dated sites is spatially heterogeneous. ...
... Klok and Oerlemans (2003) used a close formula to calculate an 'analytical length response time', obtaining a value of 56 years for MdG. These data indicate that MdG is able to respond to decadal-scale cold events within an advance/retreat secular trend (Reynaud and Vincent, 2000;Nussbaumer et al., 2007). ...
... The outermost frontal moraine ridges are located in the main valley floor (not visible on Fig. 2) and were deposited during the late stages of the LIA (Mougin, 1912;Wetter, 1987;Nussbaumer et al., 2007 and references therein for a comprehensive overview of previous works on MdG). Total glacier retreat from LIA maxima positions reached in 1644 and 1821 AD (Nussbaumer et al., 2007) amounts to 2.57 km. ...
Holocene glacier records from the western European Alps are still sparse, although a number of sites are well suited to constraining pre-and early-Little Ice Age (LIA) glacier advances. The present study provides the first dendrochronologically-based and calendar-dated Neoglacial glacier chronology for the Mont Blanc massif, French Alps. It is based on the analysis of over 240 glacially buried Pinus cembra subfossil logs and wood remains found either embedded-in-till or as detrital material in the Mer de Glace right lateral moraine. Only a few of the samples were found to be 'formally in situ' but we show that some logs were 'virtually in situ' (not rooted but showing little or no evidence of reworking) and could be used to accurately reconstruct past glacier margin behavior in space and time. Uncertainties regarding the other samples may relate to original growth location and/or to outer wood decay. The resulting dates (followed by a 'þ') were therefore considered maximum-limiting ages for glacier advances. The main burial events e interpreted as glacier advances e occurred between ca 1655þ and 1544þ BC, between ca 1230þ and 1105þ BC, between ca 1013þ and 962þ/937þ BC, at ca 802e777 BC, after 608þ BC, between 312 and 337 AD, between ca 485þ AD and 606þ AD, between 1120 and 1178 AD, between ca 1248 and 1278þ/1296 AD, and after 1352þ AD. These advances predate the late LIA maxima known from historical sources. The magnitude of the advances gradually increased to culminate in three near-Neoglacial maxima during the 7th, 12th and 13th centuries AD, followed by a first LIA/Neoglacial maximum in the second half of the 14th century AD. The pattern of Neoglacial events described here is coherent with Central and Eastern Alpine glacier chronologies. This indicates marked synchronicity of late Holocene glacier variability and forcing at a regional scale, although occasional differences could be detected between 'Western' and 'Eastern' records. The Mer de Glace record also confirms the link between the timing of sediment erosion in a high-elevation glaciated Alpine catchment and subsequent deposition in the sub-alpine Lake Bourget.
... To further improve the representativeness and coherence of the flow lines corresponding to glacier ice motion, our algorithm restricts the calculation of streamlines based on surface flow curvature and slope criteria. Consider planimetric ice flow with surface velocity u = (u v) T where u and v are functions of position x = (x y) T (Ng, Gudmundsson and King, 2018) and x and y are the Utm easting and Utm northing direction. The curvature (χ) and slope (S) are: ...
... Finally, we define glacier length as the length of the longest flow line of a glacier (Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Paul et al., 2009). Therefore, to estimate the three-dimensional length of the three glaciers, we automatically calculated the 3D length (x, y, z) of all streamlines, assuming surface-parallel flow and using the DEM to determine z (up-component). ...
The Southern Patagonian Icefield is experiencing rapid retreat and thinning in its calving glaciers. To better understand the dynamics of these changes, we generated ice flow line maps for the Viedma, Upsala, and Pio XI glaciers during 2017–2018. An evenly spaced streamline placement algorithm, integrating topographic and flow curvature criteria, was employed to calculate over 2,700 streamlines per glacier at a 50-meter resolution. The algorithm's performance was assessed by comparing the generated flow lines with manually digitized reference lines, resulting in a mean error, standard deviation, and root mean square error of 57.35, 33.62, and 66.46 meters, respectively. The resulting maps reveal detailed flow structures, highlighting flow lines from accumulation to ablation zones, increased velocities in central areas, tributary flows merging with main channels, and regions of flow convergence and divergence. Additionally, the glaciers' 3D lengths were estimated by identifying the longest ice flow lines, with Pio XI measuring 62.27 km, Viedma 54.49 km, and Upsala 51.24 km. We consider that the methodology used, along with the generated maps, provides excellent visual and analytical tools for identifying glacier areas, lengths, and shapes, defining ice origins and glacier catchment boundaries, and analysing zones of flow convergence and divergence—parameters that are critically important for understanding the dynamics, geometry, and evolution of glaciers in this region.
... A recent geochronological study in the adjacent Ochsental comes to remarkably similar results, with boulder ages from the LIA moraine yielding a mean age of 260 ± 30 years ( Fig. 8e; Braumann et al., 2020). Glacier advances during this period are also documented in the Eastern Alps, for instance at the Zillertal and at the Ötztal (Nicolussi, 2013; Pindur and Heuberger, 2010), in the Central Alps at the Lower Grindelwald glacier (Zumbühl and Nussbaumer, 2018), and in the Western Alps at the Mer de Glace (Nussbaumer et al., 2007). High glacial activity during the second half of the 18th century with termini coming close to or reaching their LIA maximum is congruent with a phase of decreased summer temperatures detected in proxy records in the vicinity of our study site (Fig. 8a-b; Fohlmeister et al., 2013;Ilyashuk et al., 2019;Larocque-Tobler et al., 2010a;Vollweiler et al., 2006) and with reconstructed summer and mean annual temperatures from Greenland ice cores ( Fig. 8d; Buizert et al., 2018;Kobashi et al., 2017). ...
... This result agrees well with an advance of glaciers in the adjacent Ochsental (Braumann et al., 2020). Contemporaneous advances have also been reported for glaciated areas beyond the Silvretta region, e.g., the Lower Grindelwald glacier, Mer de Glace, and glaciers in the Ötztal (Nicolussi, 2013;Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Pindur and Heuberger, 2010;Zumbühl and Nussbaumer, 2018). ...
Glaciers preserve climate variations in their geological and geomorphological records, which makes them prime candidates for climate reconstructions. Investigating the glacier–climate system over the past millennia is particularly relevant first because the amplitude and frequency of natural climate variability during the Holocene provides the climatic context against which modern, human-induced climate change must be assessed. Second, the transition from the last glacial to the current interglacial promises important insights into the climate system during warming, which is of particular interest with respect to ongoing climate change.
Evidence of stable ice margin positions that record cooling during the past 12 kyr are preserved in two glaciated valleys of the Silvretta Massif in the eastern European Alps, the Jamtal (JAM) and the Laraintal (LAR). We mapped and dated moraines in these catchments including historical ridges using beryllium-10 surface exposure dating (10Be SED) techniques and correlate resulting moraine formation intervals with climate proxy records to evaluate the spatial and temporal scale of these cold phases. The new geochronologies indicate the formation of moraines during the early Holocene (EH), ca. 11.0 ± 0.7 ka (n = 19). Boulder ages along historical moraines (n = 6) suggest at least two glacier advances during the Little Ice Age (LIA; ca. 1250–1850 CE) around 1300 CE and in the second half of the 18th century. An earlier advance to the same position may have occurred around 500 CE.
The Jamtal and Laraintal moraine chronologies provide evidence that millennial-scale EH warming was superimposed by centennial-scale cooling. The timing of EH moraine formation coincides with brief temperature drops identified in local and regional paleoproxy records, most prominently with the Preboreal Oscillation (PBO) and is consistent with moraine deposition in other catchments in the European Alps and in the Arctic region. This consistency points to cooling beyond the local scale and therefore a regional or even hemispheric climate driver. Freshwater input sourced from the Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS), which changed circulation patterns in the North Atlantic, is a plausible explanation for EH cooling and moraine formation in the Nordic region and in Europe.
... In contrast: (i) a complete overflow of the moraine by the glacier never occurred in 1818, 1850, and the 1920s-1930s, when Brenva experienced its major documented advance stages. For instance, the glacier margin in 1924 was overhanging the moraine crest by more than 20 m (Valbusa, 1924), and only recovered the crest of the distal section in 1927 (Valbusa, 1927); (ii) fronts of Mer de Glace and Unterer Grindelwalgletscher experienced in 1767 their maximal retreat for the period 1600e1860 À they would advance by more than 500 m during the 1770s (Nussbaumer et al., 2007); (iii) the flat shape of the Brenva front in the etching, especially on its right, does not correspond to the front of an advancing glacier. e If the glacier was flowing over the moraine, the overflow lobe would have: (i) reached a far more distant position than represented by Jallabert, beyond Perthud to the SW into the plain, and (ii) strongly eroded the narrow moraine crest formed by less consolidated till. ...
... Comparison of the Brenva RA chronology (red vertical lines and stripes; stripes: uncertainty of ages) with regional glacier and lacustrine records during the Neoglacial published by Le Roy et al. (2015). (a) Mer de Glace (Mont Blanc massif) dendro-based chronology (Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Le Roy et al., 2015); the 'reference altitudinal position' corresponds to the mean elevation of the glacier surface opposite the right lateral moraine obtained from the altitudinal position of the wood layers; (b) Great Aletsch Glacier (central Swiss Alps) dendro-based chronology (Holzhauser et al., 2005); (c) terrigenous input in Lake Le Bourget (Savoie, France) recorded by titanium content as a proxy of glacier activity of the North French Alps (Arnaud et al., 2012). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) ...
Infrequent rock avalanches (volume ≥1 Mm3) are long-runout processes, especially when travelling onto a glacier, that may threaten populated mountain valleys. Rock avalanches also have strong implications are for relief generation and destruction though time. Both consequences make reconstruction and dating of past events crucial, but dense clusters of events documented in one basin that may improve our knowledge of rock-avalanche frequency and triggering are very rare. Here we propose a chronology of seven of the rock-ice avalanches that affected a steep glacier basin on the southeast side of the Mont Blanc during the late Holocene. A geomorphological study of the runout deposits on the valley floor and the opposite side was combined with the analysis of historical sources and the use of absolute and relative dating methods, especially surface exposure dating with cosmogenic nuclides of 18 granite boulders from two deposits.These rock-ice avalanches are dated AD 1997 and 1920, with a rock volume in the range 2.4-3.6 and 2 × 106 m3, respectively; AD 1767, with a slightly shorter runout; AD 1000-1200, with a longer runout; c. AD 500, the runout of which is uncertain; c. 2500 BP, the determination of which is indirect; and c. 3500 years, with the longest runout.There is no distinct relationship between climatic periods and occurrence of these rock avalanches. Even for the two best documented ones, modelling suggests that the 1997 scar was characterized by a permafrost close to 0 °C, whereas in contrast, the 1920 scar was on the contrary located in cold permafrost.
... Information on glacier fluctuations before the onset of regular in-situ measurements have to be reconstructed from moraines, early photographs, drawings, paintings, prints, maps, written documents, and using a wide range of dating methods. Corresponding extensive research has been carried out and published in order to reconstruct the fluctuations of glaciers through the LIA and Holocene (e.g., Zumbühl 1980;Karlén 1988;Luckman 1993;Nicolussi and Patzelt 2000;Holzhauser, Magny, and Zumbühl 2005;Nussbaumer, Zumbühl, and Steiner 2007;Masiokas et al. 2009;Nesje 2009;Holzhauser 2010). However, the majority of corresponding data is not available to the scientific community, which presented a challenge to the reproducibility and direct comparison of the results. ...
... The database concept was developed based on reconstruction series of 15 glaciers in Europe (8 in western/central Alps and 7 in southern Norway) and 11 glaciers in the Argentinean portion of the southern Andes. The glacier reconstructions are based on the evaluation of pictorial, cartographical, and written documents, in accordance with data from preserved moraines (Nussbaumer & Zumbühl, 2011;Nussbaumer, Zumbühl, & Steiner, 2007;Tribolet, 1998;Zumbühl, 1980;Zumbühl & Holzhauser, 1988;Zumbühl, Messerli, & Pfister, 1983), including dendrogeomorphological and radiocarbon dating (Espizua, 2005;Espizua & Pitte, 2009;Masiokas et al., 2009). Among these glaciers, the Unterer Grindelwaldgletscher (central Swiss Alps) contains the best-documented series, with a total number of about 400 historical documents (Steiner, Zumbühl, & Andreas Bauder, 2008;Zumbühl, 1980). ...
... 10 En plus d'être une attraction touristique de longue date, la Mer de Glace est également un glacier particulièrement suivi par les scientifiques. Ainsi, de nombreux travaux permettent de comprendre ses dynamiques depuis plusieurs siècles(Le Roy et al., 2015 ;Nussbaumer et al., 2007 ; Vincent et al., 2019). Les données du programme Glacioclim permettent notamment de montrer que le front de la Mer de Glace a reculé de 2,5 kilomètres depuis 1850 (dont un tiers depuis 1996) et que son épaisseur a été réduite de 100 mètres au niveau du Montenvers depuis 1991(Vincent et al., 2007). ...
L’entrée dans l’Anthropocène, défini comme l’ère dans laquelle les activités humaines deviennent des forces à même d’influencer le climat et l’environnement à l’échelle planétaire, induit de nombreuses questions pour le tourisme. S’ils ne sont pas les seuls, les sites touristiques glaciaires, et les pratiques afférentes, se transforment avec leur environnement. Ces transformations posent la question de l’influence du changement climatique sur les motivations des acteurs touristiques et permettent d’envisager plus spécifiquement l’avènement d’un tourisme réflexif. Entendu comme une prise de conscience par les touristes eux-mêmes des enjeux – ici, environnementaux – soulevés par les modes de vie actuels, le tourisme réflexif permet plus largement d’aborder les contradictions auxquelles sont confrontées les sociétés dans le cadre des défis de la transition écologique. À travers l’analyse de la mise en œuvre du projet de réhabilitation de l’un des sites glaciaires les plus connus de France, le Montenvers et sa Mer de Glace, cet article entend interroger les logiques du développement touristique d’un tel site tout en soulignant ses contradictions. Les entretiens menés avec les parties prenantes du site et du projet montrent une tension claire entre une logique de durabilité menant au tourisme réflexif et une logique économique d’investissement et de quête de rentabilité. Au-delà de ce cas d’étude, ce travail questionne plus généralement la figure du tourisme comme symbole des contradictions sociétales entre discours et pratiques à l’heure de l’Anthropocène.
... 1300 ± 100 years ago a rock avalanche with a volume possibly up to 12 Mm 3 occurred, overriding an already existing cone, which was most likely composed of polygenetic deposits. We compared the timing of the Frébouge rock avalanche to glacier advances and rock avalanches reconstructed at Brenva and Triolet (Holzhauser et al., 2005;Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Arnaud et al. 2012;Deline et al. 2015;Le Roy et al. 2015) (Figure 8). The Frébouge rock avalanche would have occurred when the 310 glaciers started to retreat, after the glacier advance peak recorded around 1.4 ka at Mer de Glace (Le Roy et al., 2015) or Aletsch (Holzhauser et al., 2005) (Figure 8), during the Göschenen Cold Phase II (ca. ...
Proglacial settings in the Alps are typically polygenetic, often characterized by a complex and discontinuous interplay between glacial, fluvial, and gravitational processes. These processes yield high volume of sediments, which usually exceeds the transportation capacity. The excessive proglacial sediment load leads to accumulation on slopes, and thus, to subsequent failures such as debris flows. Such failures can occur unexpectedly and harm the villages and infrastructure in the vicinity of proglacial environments. The northern slopes of the Ferret and Veny valleys in the Mont Blanc Massif are home to several polygenetic cones and are a stunning field laboratory for the exploration of the interplay between the glacial, fluvial, and gravitational processes. This study investigates one of the active and well-preserved polygenetic cones in these valleys, namely the Frébouge cone, to disentangle the geomorphic processes that contributed to its formation, and to reconstruct its evolution. To achieve these goals, detailed field, and remote mapping, 10Be surface exposure dating of different geomorphic features, and runout modelling with DAN3D® were applied. The geomorphological map revealed complex interactions of glacial, fluvial, debris flow, and rock and snow avalanche processes. The established chronology indicates two major fluxes of debris flows, the first one at ca. 2 ka, and the second at ca. 1 ka. In addition, a rock mass with a maximum volume of to 12 Mm3 collapsed in the upper reaches of the cone at 1.3 ± 0.1 ka and overran the cone, travelling more than 100 m up onto the opposite valley slope. Afterwards, the Frébouge Glacier overrode the cone several times leaving moraines and till, reaching its maximum extent ca. 300 years ago. This study underscores the untwisting of the complex interaction of surface processes in the Alpine valleys, which are prone to hit the urban areas and infrastructure.
... The Little Ice Age (or LIA) is a proposed climate interval during which glaciers expanded in mountain regions across the globe (Grove, 1988;Matthews and Briffa, 2005;Solomina et al., 2016), including the European Alps (Holzhauser et al., 2007;Nussbaumer et al., 2007), New Zealand (Lorrey et al., 2014), Alaska (Wiles et al., 1999), the Northern Rockies (Luckman, 2000), and the southern Andes (Masiokas et al., 2009). Glacier advance in the 17th century was favored by widespread but spatially and temporally heterogeneous cooling (Hegerl et al., 2011;Ljungqvist et al., 2019;Neukom et al., 2019) of mean annual temperatures on the order of ca. ...
The mid-17th century is characterized by a cluster of explosive volcanic eruptions in the 1630s and 1640s, climatic conditions culminating in the Maunder Minimum, and political instability and famine in regions of western and northern Europe as well as China and Japan. This contribution investigates the sources of the eruptions of the 1630s and 1640s and their possible impact on contemporary climate using ice core, tree-ring, and historical evidence but will also look into the socio-political context in which they occurred and the human responses they may have triggered. Three distinct sulfur peaks are found in the Greenland ice core record in 1637, 1641–1642, and 1646. In Antarctica, only one unambiguous sulfate spike is recorded, peaking in 1642. The resulting bipolar sulfur peak in 1641–1642 can likely be ascribed to the eruption of Mount Parker (6∘ N, Philippines) on 26 December 1640, but sulfate emitted from Komaga-take (42∘ N, Japan) volcano on 31 July 1641 has potentially also contributed to the sulfate concentrations observed in Greenland at this time. The smaller peaks in 1637 and 1646 can be potentially attributed to the eruptions of Hekla (63∘ N, Iceland) and Shiveluch (56∘ N, Russia), respectively. To date, however, none of the candidate volcanoes for the mid-17th century sulfate peaks have been confirmed with tephra preserved in ice cores. Tree-ring and written sources point to cold conditions in the late 1630s and early 1640s in various parts of Europe and to poor harvests. Yet the early 17th century was also characterized by widespread warfare across Europe – and in particular the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) – rendering any attribution of socio-economic crisis to volcanism challenging. In China and Japan, historical sources point to extreme droughts and famines starting in 1638 (China) and 1640 (Japan), thereby preceding the eruptions of Komaga-take (31 July 1640) and Mount Parker (4 January 1641). The case of the eruption cluster between 1637 and 1646 and the climatic and societal conditions recorded in its aftermath thus offer a textbook example of difficulties in (i) unambiguously distinguishing volcanically induced cooling, wetting, or drying from natural climate variability and (ii) attributing political instability, harvest failure, and famines solely to volcanic climatic impacts. This example shows that while the impacts of past volcanism must always be studied within the contemporary socio-economic contexts, it is also time to move past reductive framings and sometimes reactionary oppositional stances in which climate (and environment more broadly) either is or is not deemed an important contributor to major historical events.
... Le front de la Mer de Glace a connu de nombreuses variations pendant et depuis la fin du PAG. De 1600 à environ 1850, le front a connu six avancées et reculs successifs d'une moyenne de 500 m chacun (Nussbaumer et al., 2007). Le front du glacier a ensuite connu un retrait d'environ 1,5 km entre 1860 et 2019 (Vincent et al., 2019). ...
Le géotourisme s'intéresse à la valeur géoscientifique et à la compréhension des géosites et des géomorphosites, dont certains sites glaciaires font partie. Le tourisme glaciaire prend place sur ou autour des glaciers, mais ne s'inté-resse pas forcément à leur dimension géoscientifique. Sur la base d'une série d'entretiens réalisés avec des gestionnaires et des prestataires touristiques de deux sites glaciaires emblématiques en France et en Islande, cet article montre que le tourisme glaciaire d'aujourd'hui dépasse largement les considérations esthétiques et intègre des questions de compréhension du géopatrimoine et des impacts importants et rapides du changement climatique sur les paysages glaciaires, ce qui en fait une pratique géotouristique.
... The Little Ice Age (or LIA) is a proposed climate interval during which glaciers expanded in mountain regions across the globe (Lamb and Grove, 1989;Matthews and Briffa, 2005), including the European Alps (Holzhauser et al., 2007;Nussbaumer et al., 2007), New Zealand (Lorrey et al., 2014), Alaska (Wiles et al., 1999), the Northern Rockies (Luckman, 2000), and the 50 southern Andes (Masiokas et al., 2009). Glacier advance was favored by widespread but spatially and temporally heterogeneous cooling (Hegerl et al., 2011;Luterbacher et al., 2016;Ljungqvist et al., 2019;Neukom et al., 2019) of mean annual temperatures on the order of c. 0.6°C relative to the last millennium average across the Northern Hemisphere (NH) (Mann et al., 2009). ...
The mid-17th century is characterized by a cluster of explosive volcanic eruptions in the 1630s and 1640s, deteriorating climatic conditions culminating in the Maunder Minimum as well as political instability and famine in regions of Western and Northern Europe as well as China and Japan. This contribution investigates the sources of the eruptions of the 1630s and 1640s and their possible impact on contemporary climate using ice-core, tree-ring and historical evidence, but will also look into the socio-political context in which they occurred and the human responses they may have triggered. Three distinct sulfur peaks are found in the Greenland ice core record in 1637, 1641–42 and 1646. In Antarctica, only one unambiguous sulfate spike is recorded, peaking in 1642. The resulting bipolar sulfur peak in 1641–1642 can likely be ascribed to the eruption of Mount Parker (6° N, Philippines) on December 26, 1640, but sulfate emitted from Koma-ga-take (42° N, Japan) volcano on July 31, 1641, has potentially also contributed to the sulphate concentrations observed in Greenland at this time. The smaller peaks in 1637 and 1646 can be potentially attributed to the eruptions of Hekla (63° N, Iceland) and Shiveluch (56° N, Russia), respectively. To date, however, none of the candidate volcanoes for the mid-17th century sulphate peaks have been confirmed with tephra preserved in ice cores. Tree-ring and written sources point to severe and cold conditions in the late 1630s and early 1640s in various parts of Europe, and to poor harvests. Yet the early 17th century was also characterized by widespread warfare across Europe – and in particular the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648), rendering any attribution of socio-economic crisis to volcanism challenging. In China and Japan, historical sources point to extreme droughts and famines starting in the late 1630s, and thus preceding the eruptions by some years. The case of the eruption cluster in the late 1630s and early 1640s and the climatic and societal conditions recorded in its aftermath thus offer a textbook example of difficulties in (i) unambiguously distinguishing volcanically induced cooling, wetting or drying from natural climate variability, and (ii) attributing political instability, harvest failure and famines solely to volcanic climatic impacts. This example shows that the impacts of past volcanism must always be studied within the contemporary socio-economic contexts, but that it is also time to most past reductive framings and sometimes reactionary oppositional stances in which climate (and environment more broadly) either is or is not deemed an important contributor to major historical events.
... Múltiples autores han trabajado la definición de longitud. cómo "la línea central de flujo más larga de un glaciar" (e.g, Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Leclercq et al . 2012). ...
Los glaciares de todo el mundo están presentando un retroceso en sus masas de hielo y nieve. Lo anterior puede causar una pérdida en los servicios ecosistémicos, vulnerabilidad al acceso a la red hídrica, una disminución hídrica de los cuerpos de agua dulce, un desequilibrio radiativo a causa del cambio en el albedo global.
En Colombia, el Volcán Nevado del Tolima (VNT) provee servicios ecosistémicos (paisajísticos, culturales, abastecimiento hídrico, regulación y soporte). Por lo anterior este trabajo analiza morfometricamente el retroceso glaciar del VNT, para ello se utilizan imágenes satelitales y aerofotografías (1959 - 2020). El procesamiento de los insumos se realiza mediante el método Ratio Band, en el cual se comparan diferentes valores de reclasificación propuestos por diferentes autores y una mejora propuesta en este proyecto. Adicionalmente, se realiza la delimitación manual de cada imagen y aerofotografía con el fin de tener los resultados más precisos. Cómo resultado el VNT resenta una pérdida del 75.1 % y 69.8 % en el área y perímetro respectivamente; una reducción de la longitud entre 0.333 - 0.708 metros y una pérdida altitudinal glaciar de 11 metros en promedio. Una revisión a distintas fuentes de información atribuyen el retroceso de los glaciares al cambio de las condiciones atmosféricas en especial de la
temperatura del aire, que modifica los procesos termodinámicos del glaciar.
... It was also possible to define the age of the LIA at 1810 CE considering that the Unit 6 that was covered since 1867 CE showed an ice covered time of 57 years. Recent studies suggest a double peak of advance during the LIA in the Alps; the first one is in the 1600, the other one in the first half of the 1800 (Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Carturan et al., 2014;Colucci, 2016). Our findings agreed with the second maximum phase of the LIA. ...
Knowledge about deglaciation after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in the mountain areas of the European Alps is still limited. In this study, we used Schmidt Hammer R-values (SH) and Crystallinity Ratio (CRF) indices of soils, together with historical data, to outline the glacial evolution of the Forni Glacier the biggest Italian glacier until some years ago, from the LGM to the present. The study area is in the Italian Central Alps, which has a well-known history after the LIA but many gaps before. By comparing results from the Forni Glacier and nearby Gavia Pass, we found that weathering rates may differ for the same lithology; therefore, SH requires a local calibration curve. A total of 6 different glacial phases were found in the study area before the LIA: 15 ka (phase I), 12.2 ka (phase II), 9.5 ka (phase III), 4.1 ka (phase IV), 3.2 ka (phase V), and 1.5 ka (phase VI). Phase I and phase II are common glacial phases in the Alps. Phase III was the biggest Holocene advance and the following were smaller than the LIA, accordingly to what happened in Triftjegletscher, a glacier on the northern side of the Alps with a similar catchment morphology. In the close Gavia Pass area, phase both phase III and phase V were larger than the LIA, suggesting that catchment morphology was more important than proximity for controlling Holocene glacial evolution. Interestingly, phase IV is rare in the Alps, but is contemporary to the 4 ka cold event. It was finally possible to identify the maximum of the LIA expansion in 1810 CE and this agree with recent studies that collocate one of the peaks of the LIA in the Alps in the first half of the 1800.
... Since the LIA, and particularly over recent times, Lys Glacier has undergone remarkable changes in all the investigated parameters of length, area, volume and debris cover. The terminus fluctuation curve for Lys Glacier is strikingly similar to that of other published curves for Mer de Glace (Mont Blanc region, France) and Unterer Grindelwald (Bernese Oberland, Switzerland), which share some of the longest records of terminus fluctuations for alpine glaciers [39,40], suggesting that in spite of the distance between these glaciers, the climatic setting with a predominant influence from westerly winds is similar. All three glaciers share two distinct advance phases during the LIA, interrupted by a period of retreat, which according to Vincent et al. [41] was caused by a decrease in winter precipitation; small differences however exist in the timing and magnitude of such advances: the maximum length of Lys Glacier in the past two centuries was reached in 1821, similarly to Mer de Glace (and Rosenlauigletscher, [40]), while the extent of Unterer Grindelwald and most other alpine glaciers peaked around the 1850s [40]. ...
Alpine glaciers respond to climate imbalance by adjusting their mass and length. In turn, these changes modify the glacial and periglacial environment, leading to increased supraglacial debris cover, the development of glacial lakes and glacier fragmentation. In this research, we investigated the evolution of Lys Glacier (Monte Rosa Group), by studying length, area and volume changes, and evolution of its supraglacial debris cover and proglacial lakes by means of historical sources and high-resolution aerial and satellite orthophotos. Lys Glacier retreated almost continuously, by nearly 2 km, from its maximum Little Ice Age position. More recently, the glacier lost 11.91% of its area between 1975 and 2014 and underwent fragmentation in 2009. Over the same period, glacier fragmentation and tongue stagnation affected the formation and rapid growth of a series of ice-contact lakes and led to a non-linear debris cover evolution. The glacier was also subjected to strong volume losses, with more than 135 m thinning on the ablation tongue from 1991 to 2014. Analysis of the meteorological records (1927–present) from the closest weather station reveals a considerable increase in average annual temperatures by more than 1°C from the mean of 1971–1989 to the mean of 1990–2017.
... Glacier front variation measurements have been carried out at a few hundred glaciers since the late 19th century (Fischer et al., 2018;SCNAT, 2017). These direct observations are extended by reconstruction of glacier front variations based on geomorphological evi dences, tree rings, pictorial sources, and historical documents through the LIA (Nuss baumer, Zumbühl, & Steiner, 2007;Pelfini & Smiraglia, 1988;Zumbühl & Holzhauser, 1988) and into the Holocene (Holzhauser, Magny, & Zumbühl, 2005;Joerin, Stocker, & Schlüchter, 2006;Nicolussi & Patzelt, 2000). These datasets prominently document the glacier maxima of the LIA and provide evidences of longer periods with reduced glacier extents during the early Holocene ( Figure 4). ...
Like many comparable mountain ranges at lower latitudes, the European Alps are increasingly losing their glaciers. Following roughly 10,000 years of limited climate and glacier variability, with a slight trend of increasing glacier sizes to Holocene maximum extents of the Little Ice Age, glaciers in the Alps started to generally retreat after 1850. Long-term observations with a monitoring network of unique density document this development. Strong acceleration of mass losses started to take place after 1980 as related to accelerating atmospheric temperature rise. Model calculations, using simple to high-complexity approaches and relating to individual glaciers as well as to large samples of glaciers, provide robust results concerning scenarios for the future: under the influence of greenhouse-gas forced global warming, glaciers in the Alps will largely disappear within the 21st century. Anticipating and modeling new landscapes and land-forming processes in de-glaciating areas is an emerging research field based on modeled glacier-bed topographies that are likely to become future surface topographies. Such analyses provide a knowledge basis to early planning of sustainable adaptation strategies, for example, concerning opportunities and risks related to the formation of glacial lakes in over-deepened parts of presently still ice-covered glacier beds.
... La carte de la pente a été créée dans ESRI Arc GIS à partir du MNT en appliquant l'outil « pente ». Dans le massif des Grandes Rousses, les glaciers sont affectés par une période de crue entre 1820 et 1830 (SITZMANN 1961) tandis que le front de la Mer de Glace subit une période de retrait interrompue par deux légères poussées en 1825 et en 1835 (NUSSBAUMER et al. 2007). ...
The glacier variations in the Drac Blanc catchment (Massif des Écrins, French Alps)
hadn’t until today been subjected to a detailed investigation. During fieldwork in April
2015, the moraines in the Rougnoux valley were studied and a relative chronology was
established.
In the fieldwork report, DI COSTANZO and HOFMANN (2015a) established a relative
chronology of the moraines based on a morphometric investigation of the glacial
deposits in the Rougnoux valley. In addition, the authors estimated the volume of the
glacier for each stage based on SRTM data and a power law established by BAHR et
al. (1997).
The aim of this study is to improve the relative chronology of the moraines based on
interpretation of a digital elevation model (DEM). The DEM was developed using over
20 aerial photographs based on the ‘Structure from motion’ approach (WESTOBY et al.
2012, FONSTAD et al. 2013).
Another goal of this study is to estimate the age of the different moraine stages in the
Rougnoux valley. This estimation is based on a further investigation of the soils located
on the moraines. In order to study the development of these soils, four profiles from
the different stages of moraines were created and described. This description is based
on the German classification of soils (AD-HOC-ARBEITSGRUPPE BODEN 2005).
In addition, the altitude of the glacier equilibrium line (ELA) was calculated for each
stage of moraines based on the THAR method (BAKKE/NESJE 2011) to link them to a
general glacier advance in the Alps. The accurate DEM enabled the approximate
calculation of the glacier’s volume for each moraine stage. The estimation of the
volume is based on a power law established by BAHR et al. (1997).
In the Rougnoux valley, four moraine stages and one sub-stage were identified through
the interpretation of the DEM and the morphometric investigation of the glacial
deposits. The stage IV moraines are located near the firn field in the upper part of the
valley. The other stages (I, II, II-III and III) are further down the valley.
On the stages I-III moraines, brown soils were identified.
89
The results of the description of the soils according to AD-HOC-ARBEITSGRUPPE BODEN
(2005) suggested that these moraines can’t be linked to a glacier advance in the end
of the Little Ice Age. Thanks to the estimation of the glacier equilibrium line for the
stages I, II, II-III and III, it was also possible to rule out that these moraines were
deposited in the first part of the Little Ice Age.
It seems very likely that the stages I-III moraines were deposited during the Egesen
stadial in the Younger Dryas cold period. This hypothesis is based on the ELA
depression, together with the observation of the well preserved moraines and the
comparison with other studies focussing on glacier oscillations of the transition
between the Alpine Lateglacial and the Holocene. The lack of vegetation and soil on
the moraine stage IV suggests that this moraine stage dates back to the end of the
Little Ice Age.
The comparison with other studies dealing with glacier fluctuations in the French Alps
showed that preboreal moraines are usually present downwards from the Younger
Dryas moraines. From these studies, an alternative hypothesis was formulated
according to which the stage III moraines in the Rougnoux valley can be attributed to
the preboreal climatic oscillation and the stages I, II and II-III to the Egesen stadial.
The estimation of the glacier’s volume showed that it decreased from 0,068 km³ (stage
I) to 0,001 km³ (stage IV). The retreat of the glacier led to a change in the hydrologic
regime of the Rougnoux creek. It seems very likely that the Rougnoux creek shifted
into a nival regime, due to the disappearance of the glacier and thus of its contribution
to the runoff.
This study enabled the first identification of moraines in the Drac Blanc River
catchment, and thus exposed a glacier advance in the transition between the
Lateglacial and the Holocene. The study therefore contributes to a better
understanding of glacier fluctuations in the southern part of the Massif des Écrins.
... Its front end moved 2.7 km uphill. Nevertheless, this retreat is not linear and has been interrupted by three small periods of glacial advance: 1890-96, 1923-31 and 1970-95 (Reynaud and Vincent, 2000, Nussbaumer et al., 2007. the ice thickness reduced 166 m. (GLACIOCLIM data; lgge.ujf-grenoble.fr/ServiceObs/) with an annual average loss of 4.0 ± 0.2 m. between 2000 and 2008 (Berthier and Vincent, 2012). ...
Glacial shrinkage and the gravitational processes associated with it, which are characteristic of global warming effects in high mountain environments, are affecting mountaineering routes more and more, including access routes to high altitude refuges. These changes have almost never been studied. Also, this research seeks to identify and explain the evolution of access trails to five refuges, located in the Mer de Glace basin (Mont Blanc massif), over more than a century. This glacier is the largest in France (L = 11.5 km, SA = 30 km²) is a major Alpine tourist attraction since 1741 and is the birthplace of mountaineering. This work is based on a three-step methodology: 1) collection and analysis of maps, climbing guidebooks and photographs, 2) semi-structured interviews and 3) analysis of high-resolution digital terrain models obtained through terrestrial laser scanning.While there was not a significant evolution during most of the 20th century, glacier thickness loss and the associated erosion of lateral moraines have resulted in numerous modifications made to the access trails since the 1990s. Despite these adaptations, the danger they pose continues to rise, and the necessity to equip them is ever more important (633 m. of ladders at present), which raises doubts about the future accessibility of such high mountain refuges.
... Après la dernière récurrence du Petit Âge Glaciaire (1852), le glacier accuse un retrait très marqué : son front a reculé de plus de 2,7 km. Cependant, ce retrait n'est pas linéaire et a été interrompu par trois petites crues : 1890-1896, 1923-1931et 1970-1995(Reynaud et Vincent, 2000, Nussbaumer et al., 2007. Depuis 1995, le retrait s'accélère nettement avec des valeurs de retrait de -40 m/an environ (Vincent, 2010). ...
Le retrait glaciaire et les processus gravitaires associés, caractéristiques de l’évolution des milieux de haute montagne induite par le réchauffement climatique, affectent de plus en plus fortement les itinéraires d’alpinisme dont les sentiers d’accès aux refuges de haute altitude. Alors que ces changements n’ont quasiment fait l’objet d’aucune étude, cette recherche tente de caractériser et d’expliquer l’évolution sur un peu plus d’un siècle des accès aux cinq refuges situés autour de la Mer de Glace (massif du Mont Blanc), le plus grand glacier français (L = 11,5 km, S = 30 km2), haut lieu du tourisme alpin depuis 1741 et berceau de l’alpinisme. Ce travail repose sur une méthodologie en 3 étapes : 1) récolte et analyse de cartes, de topo-guides et de photographies, 2) conduite d’entretiens semi-directifs et 3) analyse de modèles numériques de terrain à haute résolution acquis par balayage laser terrestre. Si l’essentiel du xxe siècle ne présente pas d’évolution marquée, la perte d’épaisseur du glacier et la dégradation associée des moraines latérales ont donné lieu à de nombreuses modifications des itinéraires à partir des années 1990. Malgré ces adaptations, leur dangerosité s’accroit et la nécessité de les équiper est sans cesse plus importante (633 m d’échelles actuellement), remettant en question l’accessibilité future des refuges.
... The Mer de Glace is an appropriate laboratory for validating the application of OSL surface exposure dating for paleo-glacier reconstruction. Numerous studies have provided detailed reconstructions of Mer de Glace fluctuations from the LGM towards the Holocene and present day (Coutterand and Buoncristiani, 2006;Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Vincent et al., 2014;Le Roy et al., 2015). The Montenvers site ( Fig. 1) was chosen as an optimal study site as the evolution of glacier thickness since the LIA has been reconstructed by Vincent et al. (2014) using historical maps, aerial photogrammetry and satellite-derived digital elevation models (see Supplementary Material A1 for details). ...
Providing quantitative constraints on late Pleistocene glacier fluctuations remains an important challenge for understanding glacier response to past and future climate changes. In most mountainous settings, paleo-glacier reconstructions are limited because they often lack precise temporal constraints. Different geochronological methods have been developed and applied to date specific geomorphological or sedimentological markers for paleo-glacier dynamics. Recently, OSL (Optically Stimulated Luminescence) surface exposure dating has been introduced and provides us with an opportunity to improve paleo-glacier reconstructions. This method is based on the sensitivity of the OSL signal from rock minerals to light, resulting in bleaching of the OSL signal within the upper first millimeters of the exposed rock surface, a process that depends on the exposure age, the rock type and the local setting (e.g. topographic shielding, bedrock orientation etc.). Here, we investigate the potential of OSL surface exposure along a vertical cross-section of polished bedrock surfaces with known post-LIA (Little Ice Age) exposure ages (from 3 to 137 years) along the Mer de Glace glacier (Mont Blanc massif, France). The infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) signals from rock slices exhibit increasingly deep bleaching profiles with elevation and thus exposure age, which is consistent with progressive glacier thinning since the LIA. Our results show that OSL surface exposure dating can be applied to periglacial environments, and is a promising tool for high-resolution reconstruction of ice extent fluctuations, both in space and time.
... Based on various climate change data, such as those of tree rings [5], glacial retreat [6] and river ice breakup [7], Akasofu [8] showed that global warming began as early as 18001850 and not after CO 2 began to increase very rapidly around 1946. Further, among these factors, the sea level increase from about 1850 to 2000 was also almost linear, though with a slightly decreasing rate [9]. ...
The rise in global average temperature over the last century has halted since roughly the year 2000, despite the fact that the release of CO2 into the atmosphere is still increasing. It is suggested here that this interruption has been caused by the suspension of the near linear (+ 0.5 °C/100 years or 0.05 °C/10 years) temperature increase over the last two centuries, due to recovery from the Little Ice Age, by a superposed multi-decadal oscillation of a 0.2 °C amplitude and a 50~60 year period, which reached its positive peak in about the year 2000—a halting similar to those that occurred around 1880 and 1940. Because both the near linear change and the multi-decadal oscillation are likely to be natural changes (the recovery from the Little Ice Age (LIA) and an oscillation related to the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), respectively), they must be carefully subtracted from temperature data before estimating the effects of CO2.
... With the romantic enthusiasm of the 18 th century, the seemingly 'pure, untouched and eternal' snow and ice of glaciers in the European Alps became an important international tourist attraction and, in combination with the cultivated Alpine garden landscapes of the surrounding habitats, were also more and more perceived as a strong symbol for an intact relation between humans and their environment (Figure 1; cf. Nussbaumer et al. 2007). In the meantime, the continued and worldwide shrinking of such ice bodies and their possible disappearance in a rather near future turned mountain glaciers into unique demonstration objects of fast climate change at a global scale in policy-oriented observing systems (UNEP 2007, WGMS 2008). ...
... Seither hat sich die Quellenlage verbessert, und mit Hilfe der Dendrochronologie konnten weitere Hochstände jahrgenau datiert werden (z. B. Zumbühl 1980, Holzhauser, Magny & Zumbühl 2005, Nussbaumer, Zumbühl & Steiner 2007, Zumbühl 2009 (nach Zech & Wilke 1977und Heuberger & Türk 2004. -Synopsis of radiocarbon samples, lichen samples and soil chronosequence studies from the glacier forefield of the Hornkees with the assigned periods of moraine accumulation (according to Zech &Wilke 1977 andTürk 2004: 52 ff.). ...
Holocene glacier history at the Zemmgrund in the Ziller Valley Alps, Tyrol/Austria (Eastern Alps)
The Holocene history of three glaciers – Waxeggkees (WK), Hornkees (HK), and Schwarzensteinkees (SSK) – was investigated in this survey. The three glaciers are located in the Upper Zemmgrund (the Ziller Valley region of Tirol) in the eastern Austrian Alps. Northern orographic precipitation dominates local rain- and snowfall patterns. The area is relatively open to the north and therefore considerably wetter than the central Alps west of the Brenner Pass. Most moisture falls in the summer, as winter precipitation is mostly derived from relatively dry continental systems. The Upper Zemmgrund is well protected by nearly circular (approx. 270°) extending ridge framing that creates a small fertile region that is especially noticeable on hillsides with southern exposure. All three glaciers face north, and at the end of the Little Ice Age (ca. 1850), they covered a total area of 18.3 km² (WK 5.4 km², HK 5.7 km², and SSK 7.2 km²) with an average equilibrium line at 2,630 m above sea level (a.s.l.). Between 1850 and 1980, the equilibrium line rose by 120 to 130 m and the glaciers lost about 40% of their area.
The dates of glacier advances during the Holocene were found with various geomorphological and stratigraphic methods. Direct measurements were made in the forefields of the glaciers. Historical texts and images were consulted to help confirm some of the results. A total of 45 radiocarbon samples were taken during the study and supplemented with an additional 15 samples from previously published research. Unfortunately, the advances could not be pinpointed stratigraphically, so stratigraphic data provide only a general limit on the age of the most recent deposition. Earlier attempts to date the advances were made by Zech and Wilke (1997), with lichenometric field mapping and soil chronosequences, and by Wintges and Heuberger (1981a, 1981b) and Wintges (1984), who investigated crescentic gouges.
Almost all of the terminal moraines of the three glaciers have been formed relatively recently, during the Little Ice Age. Older moraines were mostly subsumed by glacier advances during this period. Behind the terminal area, moraine systems form small belts and provide evidence of glacier fluctuations during the Little Ice Age. Very high lateral moraines, which are especially distinct at WK, line the sides of the forefields. They were not deposited entirely during the 1850 glacial maximum; instead, they have slowly grown over the whole course of the glaciers’ Holocene history. These lateral moraines form a conspicuous barrier with younger vegetation on the inside. Moraine accumulation after 1850 is well-documented due to a nearly complete set of measurements made by the Alpenverein since 1881.
While it was not possible to calculate exact dates for advances during the Late Glacial period, depositions at the study sites made it possible to either directly measure or stratigraphically limit Postglacial maxima. Evidence of seven maxima was found at WK, ten at HK, and two at SSK. During the early and middle Holocene, the glaciers were relatively dormant, advancing around 5740 and 5550 BCE only. During the second millennium BCE, a period of more active glacier advance began, with maxima detected between 1520–1210 and between 1120–760 BCE. Glaciers advanced once during the Roman Era, with a maximum around 10–240 CE. The previous millennium is marked by frequent glacier advances: maxima occurred around 1030–1250 and 1170–1410, after 1440, shortly before 1600, ca. 1650, ca. 1700, around 17601790, and ca. 1850 CE (comp. Tab. 7). Abb. 27 shows evidence of the various glacial advances and their maximum extension size in the forefields of the three glaciers. Vollenweiler et al. (2006) provides a comparable history of active glaciation from the High Middle Ages until the 20th century.
As shown in figure (Abb.) 28, the results from the Zemmgrund correspond to current knowledge of the climate history of the Eastern Alps during the Holocene. The Löbben fluctuation in the second millennium BCE marks the end of the long warm period of the early and middle Holocene, which pushed glacier tongues higher and raised the timberline above modern levels (e.g. Slupetzky 1993, Baroni & Orombelli 1996, Nicolussi & Patzelt 2000, Hormes, Müller & Schlüchter 2001, Nicolussi et al. 2005, Joerin, Stocker & Schlüchter 2006, and Joerin et al. 2008), and which was interrupted only by short but very prominent cold snaps such as the “8200 event,” the “Frosnitz fluctuation,” and the “CE–4” (e.g. Patzelt 1977, Zoller 1977, Alley et al. 1997, and Haas et al. 1998). The late Holocene, covering the last 4,000 years, has been generally cold, with more Alpine glacier fluctuation and a lower timberline than the early or middle Holocene. Occasional short warm periods, such as the Roman Era and the Medieval Warm Period, have caused the glaciers to retreat temporarily. The modern period, including the Little Ice Age, has seen the coldest temperatures, in general, of the entire Holocene Era (e.g. Veit 2002, Büntgen et al. 2005, North Greenland Ice Core Project Members 2004, Holzhauser, Magny & Zumbühl 2005, Wanner et al. 2008, Ivy-Ochs et al. 2009, and Wanner 2009). Only small to medium sized Alpine glaciers grew as much during the short cold periods of the early or middle Holocene as they later grew during modern times. The largest Alpine glaciers’ maximum extensions during the early and middle Holocene are distinctly smaller than more recent maxima (e.g. Nicolussi & Patzelt 2001).
These results are generally consistent with previous attempts at understanding Holocene glacier fluctuations in the eastern Alps. Field work for this study was begun as early as the 1950s, and swifter publication would have enabled the truly groundbreaking nature of the research to be recognized. More importantly, this study closes the historical research gap in the centre of the main Alpine crest between the wellstudied west (Ötztal and Stubai Alps) and east (Hohe Tauern). Further paleoglaciological research possibilities abound in the Zemmgrund; dendrochronology seems an especially fertile avenue of investigation.
... Several authors have defined glacier length as the length of the longest flow line of a glacier (e.g., Nussbaumer et al., 2007;Paul et al., 2009;Leclercq et al., 2012). Such a concept is reasonable because of linking length to glacier flow, one of the basic processes controlling the geometry of glaciers. ...
Glacier length is an important measure of glacier geometry. Nevertheless,
global glacier inventories are mostly lacking length data. Only recently
semi-automated approaches to measure glacier length have been developed and
applied regionally. Here we present a first global assessment of glacier
length using an automated method that relies on glacier surface slope,
distance to the glacier margins and a set of trade-off functions. The method
is developed for East Greenland, evaluated for East Greenland as well as for
Alaska and eventually applied to all ~ 200 000 glaciers around the
globe. The evaluation highlights accurately calculated glacier length where
digital elevation model (DEM) quality is high (East Greenland) and limited accuracy on low-quality DEMs
(parts of Alaska). Measured length of very small glaciers is subject to a
certain level of ambiguity. The global calculation shows that only about
1.5% of all glaciers are longer than 10 km, with Bering Glacier
(Alaska/Canada) being the longest glacier in the world at a length of
196 km. Based on the output of our algorithm we derive global and regional
area–length scaling laws. Differences among regional scaling parameters
appear to be related to characteristics of topography and glacier mass
balance. The present study adds glacier length as a key parameter to global
glacier inventories. Global and regional scaling laws might prove beneficial
in conceptual glacier models.
... The first topographic measurements were performed on the ablation area of Mer de Glace by Joseph Vallot at the end of the 19th century (Vallot, 1905; Reynaud, 1973; Lliboutry and Reynaud, 1981; Nussbaumer and others, 2007). From 1910 to 1960, 'Les Eaux et Forêts' institute, which was in charge of forest and hydrology measurements (Mougin, 1933), measured the surface elevations of three cross sections. They added another cross section named 'Trelaporte' in 1922. ...
Simulations of glacier evolution are needed to assess future changes in the runoff regime of mountain catchments. A simplified parameterized model is applied here to simulate future thickness changes and glacier retreat of Mer de Glace, French Alps. A normalized thickness change function
describing the spatial distribution of surface-elevation changes as a function of elevation has been determined. The model reveals that under present climatic conditions Mer de Glace will continue to shrink dramatically in the coming decades, retreating by 1200 m between now and 2040. The
method has certain limitations related to the uncertainties of the normalized function based on thickness change data. An error of 10% in the normalized function leads to uncertainties of 46%, 30% and 18% in Mer de Glace front, surface area and glacier-wide mass-balance changes respectively
in 2040. Because the difference of the normalized function largely exceeds 10% from one glacier to another, even within a given glacier size class and elevation range, it would be very risky to extrapolate the normalized function to unmeasured glaciers. Consequently, the method is applicable
only on glaciers where past surface elevation changes are well constrained.
One of the most complete, spectacular and most thoroughly documented sections of Ordovician cool to temperate water limestones, globally. It is significant in understanding the Ordovician world.
The Alps have perhaps the most comprehensive chronology of Holocene glacier variations in the world. Cosmogenic nuclide data have shown that in the first centuries of the Holocene, glacier frontal positions were significantly larger than Late Holocene extents. The continued cold climate from the end of the Younger Dryas on into the Early Holocene promoted periglacial activity. Rock glaciers rapidly moved into the newly ice-free terrain and exhibited sporadic activity throughout the Holocene, with rejuvenation during the neoglacial (the last ~4.2 ka). The lack of preserved moraines between ~10.2 and 5.2 ka provides evidence of a long-lasting glacier retreat period punctuated by a number of minor advances that probably did not exceed mid-20th century ice levels. As large glaciers did not approach nor exceed their Late Holocene frontal extents during the Mid-Holocene, precise insight into the timing of these advances is only possible from the subfossil wood record. Based on the radiocarbon- and tree-ring-dated wood material, several Holocene Thermal Maximum Phases (~10.2–4.2 ka) characterised by glacier minima with smaller-than-present (CE 2000–2020) glacier extent have been recognised. From ~4.2 ka—and especially from 3.6 ka—the frequency and magnitude of glacier advances increased markedly. Notable maxima occurred at 3.5, 2.8–2.6, 2.1, 1.4 and 1.15 ka. The ‘Little Ice Age’ (LIA), 0.74–0.14 ka (CE 1260–1860)—characterised by several maxima with similar extent—is exceptionally well understood in the Alps. Prominent lateral moraines, which are a widespread feature of the high Alpine landscape and are often referred to as ‘LIA moraines’, were actually incrementally built during the neoglacial. Strong paraglacial activity linked with ongoing glacier wastage as a result of climate warming currently endangers the preservation of some of these Late Holocene landforms and the information they contain.
A RECORD OF THE FLUCTUATIONS OF THE "MER DE GLACE" DURING THE HOLOCENE: THE "CÔTE DU PIGET" IN THE CHAMONIX VALLEY
The "Côte du Piget", near the village of Les Bois in the Chamonix valley, is covered by a thick moraine from the right bank of the Mer de Glace. This moraine, essentially comprised of granitic debris, was progressively deposited on a limestone ridge after the Younger Dryas glacial episode about 12,000 years ago. A geoelectrical survey conducted in 2018 and 2019 enabled the detection of the underlying limestone bedrock, the surface of which is characterised by a very low electrical resistivity. It also allowed to identify the base of moraines with a granitic component from the Little Ice Age (LIA) thanks to their very high electrical resistivity.
Most of these moraines were deposited during the paroxysmal phases of the LIA in the xviith and xixth centuries. Tomographic models
giving the variation of intrinsic resistivity up to a depth of about 40 m are built by inverse method using surface measurements of
apparent resistivity. The structural interpretation we propose is compared to the known glacial episodes of the Holocene and leads
us to present a model of moraine filling from the Younger Dryas to the end of the LIA. The location of two settlements destroyed by
the glacial advance in the xviith century is clarified in the light of this structural interpretation.
This chapter looks mainly at massive rock slope failures that generate high-speed, long-runout rock avalanches onto glaciers in high mountains and from sub-polar through tropical latitudes. Drastic modifications to mountain landscapes and destructive impacts occur, and initiate other, longer-term hazards. Worst-case calamities are where mass flows continue into inhabited areas below the glaciers. Travel over glaciers can change landslide dynamics and amplify the speed and length (or spread) of runout. Conversely, landslide material deposited onto ice can modify glacier behaviour, protecting ice from ablation, sometimes causing advances, and hugely increasing glacier sediment delivery. Hitherto, recognition of the risks associated with these processes has been compromised by observational difficulties and theoretical disagreements, lack of evidence in many regions and widespread misclassification of rock avalanche deposits as moraines. The latter has also compromised glacial sequences and risk scenarios. We emphasise the need for improved understanding of processes and diagnostics, as prelude to risk assessments, including the roles of earthquakes and climate change.
Glaciers and Polar regions provide important clues to understanding the past and present status of the Earth system, as well as to predict future forms of our planet. In particular, Antarctica, composed of an ice-covered continent in its center and the surrounding Sothern Ocean, has been gradually investigated during the last half century by all kinds of scientific branches; bioscience, physical sciences, geoscience, oceanography, environmental studies, together with technological components. This book covers topics on the recent development of all kinds of scientific research on glaciers and Antarctica, in the context of currently on-going processes in the extreme environment in polar regions.
https://www.intechopen.com/books/glaciers-and-the-polar-environment
Waves of the flood of the world and Mer de Glace: On a way of depicting mountain landscapeWhen describing the Glacier du Bois seen for the first time, Wiliam Windham 1741 compared it to a lake suddenly bound by ice. In a similar function Horace-Bénédict de Saussure 1786 compared the glacier to a suddenly frozen sea. These descriptions gave rise to the name Mer de Glace, popularised from the early 19th century. In some respects an analogous phenomenon in poetry was the use of a metaphor in which a sudden arrest of an ascending motion of a being flood waters, space rocket constitutes a poetic image Adam Mickiewicz, Julian Korsak, Wincenty Pol, Wisława Szymborska.
Assessing the impact of Quaternary glaciation at the Earth's surface implies an understanding of the long-term evolution of alpine landscapes. In particular, it requires simultaneous quantification of the impact of climate variability on past glacier fluctuations and on bedrock erosion. Here we present a new approach for evaluating post-glacial bedrock surface erosion in mountainous environments by combining terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide 10Be (TCN) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) surface exposure dating. Using a numerical approach, we show how it is possible to simultaneously invert bedrock OSL signals and 10Be concentrations into quantitative estimates of post-glacial exposure duration and bedrock surface erosion. By exploiting the fact that OSL and TCN data are integrated over different timescales, this approach can be used to estimate how bedrock erosion rates vary spatially and temporally since glacier retreat in an alpine environment.
The Little Ice Age (LIA) is known as one of the coldest stages of the Holocene. Most records from the Northern Hemisphere show evidence of significantly colder conditions during the LIA, which in some cases had substantial socio-economic consequences. In this study we investigated the magnitude and timing of climate variability during the LIA in the mountains of the Iberian Peninsula, based on a wide range of natural records (including from glacial, periglacial, and lacustrine/peatland areas; fluvial/alluvial deposits; speleothems; and tree rings), historical documents, and early instrument data. The onset of the LIA commenced in approximately CE 1300, and cold conditions with alternating moisture regimes persisted until approximately CE 1850; the environmental responses ranged from rapid (e.g. tree rings) to delayed (e.g. glaciers). The colder climate of the LIA was accompanied by severe droughts, floods, and cold/heat waves that showed significant spatio-temporal variation across the Iberian mountains. Several phases within the LIA have been detected, including (a) 1300–1480: increasing cooling with moderate climate oscillations; (b) 1480–1570: relatively warmer conditions; (c) 1570–1620: gradual cooling; (d) 1620–1715: coldest climate period of the LIA, particularly during the Maunder Minimum, with temperatures approximately 2 °C below those at present; (e) 1715–1760: warmer temperatures and a low frequency of extreme events; (f) 1760–1800: climate deterioration and more climate extremes (i.e. cold and heat waves, floods and droughts); (g) 1800–1850: highly variable climate conditions alternating with stability (1800–1815), extreme events (1815–1835), and a slight trend of warming associated with intense hydrometeorological events (1835–1850); (h) since 1850: a gradual staggered increase in temperature of approximately 1 °C. Post-LIA warming has led to substantial changes in geo-ecological dynamics, mainly through shrinking of the spatial domain affected by cold climate processes.
Historical moraine complexes and erosional features are interesting elements to discern the historical climate changes and evolution, with a complex chronologies that help us to understand the dynamics and glacier evolution during the Little Ice Age (LIA). The existence of landforms as crevasses-squeeze ridges, hummocky moraines and flutes, related to different glacier advances and retreats, allows understanding in a better way the LIA glacier evolution in the Pyrenees. The aim of this work is to show how many LIA moraine complexes have traces of fast flow ice; when the surge dynamic happened; his extent and the environmental meaning. Based on glacier landsystem analysis we have established a work hypothesis on the fast flow or surge dynamic glaciers during the LIA, with geomorphological features, as flutes and push and hummocky moraines, at least in 17 LIA glacier complexes. The analysis of morphosquences by fieldwork, photo interpretation and historical sources in 8 selected LIA moraine complexes have been compared with previous climatic reconstructions creating a hypothesis about the response of the LIA glaciers to the short time changes in temperature and moisture.
The glacier cirques with fast flow features are found in the highest mountains with summits above 3000 m., mainly northern oriented (88%) and without a significant lithology. The studied complexes (Central Infierno, Eastern Infierno, Oulettes de Gaube, Monte Perdido, Marboré, La Paúl, Literola and Tempestades) show 4 morphological units: a frontal moraine system (U1); a more voluminous moraine (U2); a little push and hummocky moraines complex linking with flutes (U3); and minor arcs up valley (U4). The U3 belongs to a fast flow stage or surging and by morphostratigraphy we can point out that the surge processes were produced between 1820 and 1840, at the end of the LIA. We related it with a possible climatic response to sudden cooling and the increase of winter precipitation with melt-water availability and quick ice melting during the summer, generating hydrodynamic changes in the small glaciers and quick dynamic response.
Glacier length is an important measure of glacier geometry but global glacier inventories are mostly lacking length data. Only recently semi-automated approaches to measure glacier length have been developed and applied regionally. Here we present a first global assessment of glacier length using a fully automated method based on glacier surface slope, distance to the glacier margins and a set of trade-off functions. The method is developed for East Greenland, evaluated for the same area as well as for Alaska, and eventually applied to all ∼200 000 glaciers around the globe. The evaluation highlights accurately calculated glacier length where DEM quality is good (East Greenland) and limited precision on low quality DEMs (parts of Alaska). Measured length of very small glaciers is subject to a certain level of ambiguity. The global calculation shows that only about 1.5% of all glaciers are longer than 10 km with Bering Glacier (Alaska/Canada) being the longest glacier in the world at a length of 196 km. Based on model output we derive global and regional area-length scaling laws. Differences among regional scaling parameters appear to be related to characteristics of topography and glacier mass balance. The present study adds glacier length as a central parameter to global glacier inventories. Global and regional scaling laws might proof beneficial in conceptual glacier models.
The chapter looks mainly at massive rock slope failures that generate high-speed, long-runout rock avalanches onto glaciers in high mountains, from subpolar through tropical latitudes. Drastic modifications of mountain landscapes and destructive impacts occur, and initiate other, longer-term hazards. Worst-case calamities are where mass flows continue into inhabited areas below the glaciers. Travel over glaciers can change landslide dynamics and amplify the speed and length of runout. Conversely, landslide material deposited onto ice modifies glacier behavior, protecting ice from ablation, usually causing advances and hugely increasing glacier sediment delivery. Hitherto, recognition of the risks associated with these processes has been compromised by observational difficulties and theoretical disagreements, lack of evidence in many re-gions and widespread misclassification of rock avalanche deposits as moraines. The latter has also compromised glacial sequences and risk scenarios. We emphasize the need for improved understanding of processes and diagnostics, as prelude to risk assessments, including the roles of earthquakes and climate change. 9.1 INTRODUCTION Landslide processes that affect glaciers range from small rockfalls and snow avalanches to massive rock slope failures and deep-seated gravitational creep 1 . The more frequent, smaller events may have a significant role as they affect virtually all mountain glaciers seasonally every year. This is reflected in the debris-covered ablation zones common in high mountain glaciers, and substantial delivery of coarse, angular debris to glacier margins. However, though infrequent, large volume and long-runout events can have powerful influences on glacier 1 Photos by authors unless otherwise stated
The supposed ramifications of the Little Ice Age, a period of cooling temperatures straddling several centuries in northwestern Europe, reach far beyond meteorology into economic, political, and cultural history. The available annual temperature series from the late Middle Ages to the end of the nineteenth century, however, contain no major breaks, cycles, or trends that could be associated with the existence of a Little Ice Age. Furthermore, the series of resonant images, ranging from frost fairs to contracting glaciers and from dwindling vine-yards to disappearing Viking colonies, often adduced as effects of a Little Ice Age, can also be explained without resort to climate change.
Since 1740 until now, the Book of Vine Branches encompasses beautiful pictorial
representations of shoots and sprouts, collected every year on April 24th in the vineyards of the
Hungarian town of K ő szeg. A long time series (1740 – 2009) of sprouts phenological devel-
opment coded with the BBCH scale is obtained through paintings visual inspection.
Consequently, a model relating sprouts development with thermal resources accumulation
is developed on the base of Wien daily air temperature series for the 1857 – 2009 period.
Thermal resources is obtained with the Normal Heat Hours approach, a response curve method
that takes into account the nonlinear response of phenological development to temperature.
The model, calibrated and validated on the 1930 – 2009 period, shows an overestimation of
thermal resources when applied to the 1857 – 1929, due to the more advanced phenology of that
phase. Since this advance can be ascribed to genetics and management instead of more
favorable thermal conditions, model outputs previous to 1930 are decreased by a constant
factor. Finally, the 1740 – 2009 time series of grapevine spring thermal resources is obtained
applying the model to the complete phenological time series. The analysis of the series
highlights a first phase (1740 – 1780) characterized by high and stable availability of
thermal resources during the 1740 – 1780, a second phase (1781 – 1820) with the lowest
level of resources, a phase of intermediate availability (1821 – 1929) and a final present phase (1930 – 2009) with renewed high availability. The adopted method overcomes the
lack of correlation for the post 1960 period shown by previous works.
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