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Scholars Research Library
Annals of Biological Research, 2011, 2 (6):175-178 (http://scholarsresearchlibrary.com/archive.html)
ISSN 0976-1233
CODEN (USA): ABRNBW
175 Scholars Research Library
The Effect of Violent and Non-Violent Computer Games on
Changes in Salivary Cortisol Concentration in Male Adolescents
Fatemeh Hossini
1
, Reza Rezaeeshrazi
1
, Mir Hamid Salehian
2
, Amir Dana
1
1
Department of Physical Education, Aliabad Katoul Branch, Islamic Azad University, Aliabad
Katoul, Iran
2
Department of Physical Education, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
______________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Computer games have turned into a pastime for children and adolescents. The present research
involves a report of the effect of these games on salivary cortisol as a stress hormone in male
adolescents. The subjects included 50 male adolescents with an age range of 17-19 who were
exposed to 30 minutes of either violent or non-violent computer games. Four saliva samples
were taken including: before the game (T1), 15 minutes into the game (T2), immediately after the
game (T3), and 20 minutes after the game (t4). The results of multivariate analysis of variance
revealed that violent video games have led to a significant increase in the level of salivary
cortisol while playing and that this level remained constant after the game, but non-violent video
games did not increase the level of cortisol secretion in subjects ( ).
Keywords: Violent and non-violent computer games, cortisol, adolescents.
______________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Selling video and computer games has remarkably increased during the past few decades and it
appears to be one of the sectors with minimum economic downturn. According to the data from
NPD Group that measures consumer purchasing, selling video game consoles as well as
software, hardware, and gadgets for playing video games has been around 10.3 billion dollars in
the US in 2002 which set a record for two consecutive years. Considering these numbers and
expecting that the sales of video and computer games will grow, it is not surprising that a new
research context has been developed in order to specify the effect of these games on children.
Most of the research studies in this context are related to aggression. Many research studies have
reported that violent video games will increase antisocial behavior such as aggression [2, 7, 11,
16].
Fatemeh Hossini
et al Annals of Biological Research, 2011, 2 (6):175-178 ____________________________________________________________________________
176 Scholars Research Library
Regarding the effect of these games on aggression, many studies have reported physiological
arousal during playing video and computer games. The reported effects include the increase in
cardiovascular reactivity, blood pressure (usually systolic blood pressure), and oxygen
consumption in children and adolescents [19] and to the same extent in adults of all age groups
[21], especially in individuals with a family history of hypertension and those with Type A
personality [12]. The response of the cardiovascular system to video games in young males has
been considered as a reliable predictor of the future occurrence of hypertension [17]. In addition,
discovering dopamine release during playing video games suggests that this neurotransmitter can
play a role in the motivated behavior of humans [15]. Based on these findings, video games are
used in research as a stressor for measuring cardiovascular reactivity [19]. Skosnik et al. (2000)
reported no change in the level of cortisol secretion which is regarded as a stress hormone.
Hubert and Jong-Meyer (1992) and Denot-Ledunois et al. (1998) reported a decrease in the level
of cortisol secretion in children during video games. Comparing the changes in testosterone and
cortisol changes in winners vs. losers of a Ping-Pong video game, Mazur et al. (1997) found that
the level of cortisol decreased insignificantly in both groups.
This evident inconsistency of results may be due to the lack of comparability between different
types of video games. For instance, dissection of the results reported on cortisol reveals that
recent studies have used unexciting and unsophisticated games (including Ping-Pong and
Tetris).Thus, research studies examining cortisol secretion can hardly be compared to the ones
that use other games (such as Ms. Pacman, Atari breakout, or other irrelevant games). The
present research aims to study the effect of violent and non-violent computer games on the level
of salivary cortisol secretion in the adolescent age group.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present research is semi-empirical which was carried out as a field-survey study. The design
of this research includes two experimental groups. The subjects were organized into the
mentioned groups and participated in a design involving measurement before the game, during
the game, immediately after the game, and 20 minutes after the game.
Population
The population of the present research consists of male adolescents at the high-school stage (16-
19 years old) that had come to use the facilities of Cactus Game Net in Gorghan city, Iran.
Procedure
A. Saliva sampling method: saliva samples were collected before the game, 15 minutes into the
game, immediately after the game, and 20 minutes after the game. The sampling method was as
follows: subjects washed their mouth to remove oral cavity of previous saliva and other
materials; then, they poured 4 milliliter of their saliva into specific sampling tubes without
stimulation. At each stage, the collected samples were placed in an icebox. It must be noted that
all the samples were frozen at a temperature of -30 centigrade degrees to be tested when
opportune.
B. Hormone Measurement: The salivary cortisol concentration was measured using the
radioimmunoassay (RIA) and by means of France-made Immune Tech Kit with 0.2 ng/ml
accuracy. For the sake of uniformity of the method and hormone measurement stages, all the
samples were taken by one experimenter.
Fatemeh Hossini
et al Annals of Biological Research, 2011, 2 (6):175-178 ____________________________________________________________________________
177 Scholars Research Library
Test Procedures
First the chosen subjects were organized into the groups of interest. Before taking the test, some
information was individually provided for the subjects regarding the test procedures. Subjects
filled out the questionnaires in the same introduction session. Saliva samples were taken from the
subjects (before the game);then the subjects were exposed to 30 minutes of violent and non-
violent games relative to their groups (Counterstrike for the violent game group and FIFA 2007
for the non-violent game group).Saliva samples were collected at 15 minutes into the game
(while playing), immediately after the game, and 20 minutes after the game. Then, the samples
were sent to a laboratory for analysis.
Statistical Analysis Procedures
2 × 4 analysis of variance with repeated measures, Tukey’s post hoc test, and independent t-test
were used in the research for comparing the means of the groups.
RESULTS
The results of analysis of variance revealed that there is a significant difference between the
means of T1, T2, T3, and T4 in the violent game group, while the non-violent game group did
not experience similar results (Figure 1). This result suggests the significant influence of violent
computer games on the level of salivary cortisol.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
11.511
12.516 13.583 13.459
11.515 11.718
11.101 11.41
Figure 1. Mean scores of the level of salivary cortisol of research groups
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The purpose of the present research was to study the effect of violent and non-violent computer
games on salivary cortisol changes in male adolescents. The results revealed that violent
computer games lead to a significant increase in the level of salivary cortisol, while playing non-
violent computer games does not result in such an increase. These findings are consistent with
the results of Gawain et al (1983), Segal et al. (1991), Murphy, Albert and Walker (1992),
Musante et al. (1994), Modesti et al. (1994), Griffiths and Dancaster (1995), Ballard et al.
(1996), Anderson and Buchman (2001), and Anderson (2003) who reported physiological
changes in subjects as a result of playing video and computer games.
Fatemeh Hossini
et al Annals of Biological Research, 2011, 2 (6):175-178 ____________________________________________________________________________
178 Scholars Research Library
Many researchers have measured the effect of video and computer games on arousal, but they
have done these measurements only during the game and not after it. The results of this research
shows that the added arousal during a violent computer game is still at a high level immediately
after the game and 20 minutes after the game and that it is significantly different from its normal
condition. According to the General Aggression Model of Anderson and Bushman (2002), one of
the causes of aggressive behavior in children and adolescents is the increase in their
physiological arousal [12]. Moreover, the results of many research studies suggest physiological
changes as a result of playing a violent video and computer game [21, 3, 4]. Based on the
General Aggression Model, the results of previous research, and the present findings we can
conclude that the display of aggressive behavior in children as a result of playing a violent video
game can be due to an increase in the level of physiological arousal involving an increase in
blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, the level of cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine,
and considering the result of the present research which showed that the increase in the level of
arousal remains in the individual for a relatively long time, we can expect children and
adolescents to display aggressive behavior after playing violent computer games. Finally, as the
result of the present research and other studies have shown, violent computer games have a
significant effect on aggression and arousal and lead to an increase in these two behaviors, but it
has not so far been clarified whether these changes have detrimental effects on children in long-
term, and this is an issue that requires long-term research in this context.
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