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A rebuttal of NTL Institute's learning pyramid

January 2012

Project: Acquiesced and unrefuted: The growth of scientific myths

Authors:

Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences

This article discusses the learning pyramid propagated by National Training Laboratories Institute. It presents and complements the historical and methodological critique against the learning pyramid, and calls for NTL Institute to retract their model.

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Introduction

Most readers are probably familiar with

some version of the learning pyramid, and

the associated claims that the best way to

learn and remember something is by teach-

ing or doing. The retention of these modes

of learning have been claimed to be as high

as 75, 80 or even 90 percent, whereas

attending lectures, or using other theoret-

ical approaches to learning are in

comparison extremely inefficient, only

resulting in five or 10 percent retention.

Earlier critiques of the learning pyramid

have focused on the dubious origin of the

model (Molenda, 2004; Subramony, 2003),

and have demonstrated inconsistencies

between the pyramid and the research on

retention (Lalley & Miller, 2007).

This article assesses a well-known ver-

sion of the learning pyramid propagated

by NTL Institute. First it will briefly dis-

cuss its origins, and disqualify the claim

that the model is based on research. It will

then raise some essential semantic and

methodological criticisms against this

model. Finally, it will question the idea of

the apparent intuitiveness of the learning

pyramid.

Concluding, it will urge NTL Institute

to retract their model. And, as their learn-

ing pyramid is but one of several versions,

recommend that similar critique ought to

be raised against resembling models.

There is no Learning Pyramid

As point of critique goes, this admit-

tedly seems a conclusive one. However, it

is a matter of semantics, not of ontology.

What normally is referred to as “the learn-

ing pyramid”, are in fact several different

models relating different degrees of reten-

tion from different kinds of learning.

Usually they are quantified by neat per-

centages, like 10, 20, 30, 50 and 90 percent.

In addition, there are several similar

models sometimes named “the cone of

learning”, “the cone of experience”, “the

learning cone”, “the cone of retention”,

“the pyramid of learning”, or “the pyra-

mid of retention”, while others are

unnamed. In order to subsume all these

models under one concept this article sim-

ply refers to them as the “learning

pyramid”, as this seems to be the most

common term.

Thus, it is impossible to criticize the

learning pyramid itself, as there is none,

and an attempt to criticize them all is unre-

alistic. However, NTL Institute’s model is

an obvious candidate for critique. Numer-

A REBUTTAL OF NTL

INSTITUTEʼS LEARNING PYRAMID

KÅRE LETRUD

Lillehammer University College

This article discusses the learning pyramid propagated by

National Training Laboratories Institute. It presents and comple-

ments the historical and methodological critique against the

learning pyramid, and calls for NTL Institute to retract their

model.

Keywords: Learning Pyramid; NTL Institute; National Training

Laboratories Institute.

117

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ous findings refer to NTL Institute as the

source of their model (see for instance:

Borthick & Jones, 2000; Busby & Hub-

bard, 2007; Chun, 2004; Darmer,

Ankersen, Nielsen, Landberger, Lippert &

Egerod, 2004; DeKanter, 2005; Fu, Su

&Yu, 2009; Garden, 2009; Hazlett, 2009;

Hoon, Emerson & White, 2006; Janavaras

& Gomes, 2007; Janavaras, Gomes &

Young, 2008; Katsuragi, 2005; Magennis

& Farrell, 2005; Morgan, 2003; Peteroy-

Kelly, 2007; Peterson, Rowat, Kreiter, &

Mandel, 2004; Qayumi, 2006; Roettger,

Roettger & Walugembe, 2007; Sousa,

2006; Thier, 2005; Thomas & Baker, 2008;

Wagner, Wagner & Jayachandran 2005;

Williams, Hawes & Foley, 2006; Wood,

2004; Zainal, 2011; Zhang & Su, 2007).

NTL Institute’s willingness to be asso-

ciated with the pyramid makes them in no

small part responsible for the spreading of

the model. They confidently and consis-

tently claim to have performed studies

supporting one of the pyramids:

Thanks for your interest in NTL

Institute. We are happy to respond to

your inquiry about The Learning

Pyramid. It was developed and used

by NTL Institute at our Bethel,

Maine campus in the early sixties

when we were still a part of the

National Education Association's

Adult Education Division.

While we believe it to be accurate,

we no longer have- nor can we find-

the original research that supports

the numbers.

We get many inquiries every month

about this- and many, many people

have searched for the original

research and have come up empty

handed. We know that in 1954 a sim-

ilar pyramid with slightly different

numbers appeared on p. 43 of a book

called Audio-Visual Methods in

Teaching, published by the Edgar

Dale Dryden Press in New York

however the Learning Pyramid

as such seems to have been modi-

fied and remains attributed to NTL

Institute.

To summarize the numbers (which

sometimes get cited differently) learners

retain approximately:

90% of what they learn when they teach

someone else/use immediately.

75% of what they learn when they

practice what they learned.

50% of what they learn when

engaged in a group discussion.

30% of what they learn when they

see a demonstration.

20% of what they learn from audio-

visual.

10% of what they learn when they've

learned from reading.

5% of what they learn when they've

learned from lecture.

118 / Education Vol. 133 No. 1

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(NTL Institute, Personal Communi-

cation, October 14. 2009)

This seems to be a standard formulation

offered to those enquiring about the model,

as others have also reported correspon-

dence with the same wording (See Booth,

2011, p. 41; Lalley & Miller, 2007; Magen-

nis & Farrell, 2005; Polovina, 2011;

Thalheimer, 2006). NTL Institute’s reply,

however, fails to reassure. If the method-

ology and data behind the model are

missing, we have no way of evaluating the

results.

How, for instance, did they ensure that

the different rates of retention were

affected only by the difference in learning

methods? Did they test the retention of

general knowledge, a series of random

names, number, letters or symbols, or did

they test some kind of skill? How long did

they wait between learning and testing?

What were the subjects’ age, sex, and gen-

eral background, and how many were they?

Furthermore, we may concur with Lal-

ley and Miller when they describe what

“daunting task” this kind of study would

be:

There is an implied assumption that

these methods have been compared to one

another in a systematic manner employ-

ing sound research methodologies. At a

minimum, these empirical issues would

include:

* That each of the methods, employed as

an experimental treatment, was of the

same duration (e.g., a student's reading

session would last as long as an indi-

vidual teaching or discussion session).

* That each of the methods would have

be conducted or supervised by the same

teacher or that multiple teachers would

have been matched in terms of educa-

tion, teaching experience and subject

area (e.g., the lecture being given by

the same teacher as the one leading the

discussion). Further, the teacher(s)

should have been well versed in both

content and method.

* That the content to be learned with each

method would be the same, regardless

of the method being employed.

* That the outcome measure(s), or depen-

dent variable(s), was one measuring

retention, the ability to recall or do

something after a time delay (e.g., days,

weeks or months), rather one that is

completed immediately after treatment.

(2007, p. 68,69)

Without this and other necessary infor-

mation on how the claimed study was

supposed to have been performed, we are

unable to judge the generalizability, valid-

ity and reliability of the model’s claims.

NTL Institute’s learning pyramid is

unsupported by empirical research

A scientific theory consists basically of

a model, and a theoretical hypothesis, the

latter being a concomitant claim that this

model resembles, or somehow “fits” the

world (Giere 1997); Scientific theories usu-

ally describe and explain parts or specific

aspects of the world, like the planetary

movements of our solar system, or the

structure of DNA. Such models can include

scale models, analogue models, and in the

case of the learning pyramid; theoretical

NTL Institute’s Learning Pyramid… / 119

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models.

The main criterion for evaluating a the-

oretical hypothesis is whether the model

corresponds to the part of reality it is sup-

posed to represent. This is done by

deducing an empirically testable proposi-

tion, a prediction. A confirmed prediction

normally serves as support for the model.

On the other hand, if there are other mod-

els that could equally well predict the same

data, or if the confirmed predictions oth-

erwise offer no real support to the model,

the data are deemed inconclusive. Further,

a failed prediction may in turn lead to the

model being rejected (Giere 1997).

However, there seems to be no empir-

ical support for the claim that the learning

pyramid presents a fitting description of

learning and retention. In their reply, NTL

Institute state that they are unable to pre-

sent any studies that support their model,

and hence fail to fulfill the burden of evi-

dence that follows their claim of the

model’s empirical status.

Contrary to NTL Institute’s history of

the model, it has been demonstrated that

the learning pyramids have been produced

through a synthesis of two separate and

untenable ideas (Lalley & Miller, 2007;

Molenda, 2004; Subramony, 2003):

The first is a misconstruing of Edgar

Dale’s “cone of experience”, presenting it

as a model of learning efficiency. Dale

originally presented the model as a visual

aid for classifying learning methods

according to their level of abstractness and

concreteness, and explicitly stated that it

was not intended as “a hierarchy or rank

order of learning processes”. (Dale, 1946,

47). His cone was not describing retention

at all, and neither the 1946, the 1954 nor

the 1969 version of the cone contained any

numbers.

The second idea stems from an old

retention chart. This chart is a set of rates

of retention associated with reading, see-

ing, hearing, saying and doing. These

percentages have been traced back to the

early 1940s (Molenda, 2004), but we have

lately found that they were published sev-

eral times between 1906 and 1940 (Letrud

2012).

Even though our knowledge of the ori-

gin of the percentages of the learning

pyramids is incomplete, the NTL Insti-

tute’s belief in having performed any

original research seems somewhat opti-

mistic. Indeed, the retention chart precedes

the founding of this institution in 1946 by

at least 40 years.

Making predictions from the model

Rejecting a model due to lacking empir-

ical support may be hasty if such evidence

in turn may be produced. But in order to

test the learning pyramid and to measure

the relative efficiency of the learning

modes, the model’s rudimentary categories

need to be thoroughly modified for them

to be operationalized. An empirical inter-

pretation of the model in its present state

could only be highly arbitrary, and subse-

quently the learning pyramid of NTL

Institute is hardly testable.

Some categories are ambiguous. Con-

sider the sentence “learners retain

approximately: 90% of what they learn

when they teach someone else/use imme-

diately.” The syntax allows for two

interpretations that are equally plausible,

but only partially consistent with each

other: is it adequate to “teach someone

120 / Education Vol. 133 No. 1

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else” or must we “teach someone else

immediately” in order to retain 90 percent?

The content of the term “learn” shifts

depending on the category. When related

to reading, lectures, audiovisual aids, and

demonstrations, “being presented with, or

acquiring information” seems a plausible

interpretation. While in the context of prac-

ticing, using and teaching, “learn”

apparently takes on a new and different

meaning, indicating something along the

lines of “processing and understanding

information”. In the category “discussion

in groups”, “learn” is equally open to both

interpretations, since we both are present-

ed with information, as well as contributing

our own conceptions and ideas into the dis-

cussion.

The difference between “practice” and

“use” in the categories “practice what they

learned” and “use immediately” is not

clear, because these terms are sometimes

synonymous. Furthermore, while

“practice” can signify repetitions in order

to improve one’s performance, or

retention of a subject matter, it may also

signify the translation of theoretical knowl-

edge into actions or judgments, as in

“practicing medicine”.

And finally, what kind of retention does

the pyramid describe – long-term, or short-

term memory? The category “immediate

use” suggests that the aim is to transfer the

information from short-term to long-term

memory by repetition. The other categories

are unclear in this respect.

Even if the model were changed accord-

ing to these objections, thereby making the

model more suitable for testing, it would

only produce valid answers to a limited

extent:

The categories are, as suggested earli-

er, not discrete. These ought to be

adequately separated and defined, so that

they can be examined and evaluated on

their own. The claimed 90 percent reten-

tion gained by teaching others is in this

context paradoxical – because the reason

that teachers know the material they teach

in the first place, is because they them-

selves have prior knowledge (Lalley &

Miller, 2007) from years of attending lec-

tures, reading, discussions, and

demonstrations. They have also been prac-

ticing – in both meanings of the word.

Hence, their competence is a result of all

these low- or semi efficient modes of learn-

ing. Even though it is an important

motivator, it is far from evident that teach-

ing is a form of learning.

The same critical point can be made of

the audio-visual presentations. These often

include text, lectures and demonstrations,

thereby making it hard to evaluate the

impact of audio-visual technology.

These problems might be solved, if the

model’s percentages are intended to be

additive, and not discrete. However, this

interpretation will present major difficul-

ties in separating the effect of the learning

methods from the well-known and well-

supported effect of repetition.

The intuitiveness of the learning pyramid

But, some might argue, considering the

length of time the model has been with us

and to the extent it has spread, surely this

must indicate that it conveys some essen-

tial truths on learning. One cannot help

thinking that a major reason why it has

spread so efficiently is that it corresponds

to all these authors’ scientific knowledge

NTL Institute’s Learning Pyramid… / 121

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of education as well as their professional

experience.

First of all, even if some experiences

of learning come easier to mind than oth-

ers, the ease of recollection and the

vividness of memories of situations where

learning took place may not be represen-

tative of how we actually learn. For

instance, the laborious and tedious process

of reading, writing and repeating in order

to retain and understand is anything but

memorable.

Secondly, it is no wonder that we expe-

rience that the model’s most efficient forms

of learning, discussions, practice, imme-

diate use or teaching others, have made

several major contributions to our grasp of

different subject matters. They are them-

selves parts of learning processes that

involves attending lectures, reading and

writing, and their discrete contribution to

these processes cannot easily be distin-

guished. They can, however, easily be

overemphasized.

Thirdly, I have doubts that the authors

who reproduce the model adhere to more

than one, or maybe two of the categories.

There are probably few who have strong

feelings concerning the percentages asso-

ciated with, say demonstrations. Most tend

to stress the lower and upper categories,

because they find the learning pyramid

confirms their general preference for active

learning strategies over passive ones, hence

resonating with several pedagogical

theories that are currently in vogue. And

lastly, the burden of evidence is not ful-

filled by claiming that the model seems

reasonable

Conclusion

NTL Institute’s learning pyramid lacks

empirical evidence, and any attempt to per-

form empirical tests of the model will

encounter major methodical problems.

Despite its inability to stand up to close

examination, the model is still corrobo-

rated by NTL Institute. The continued

distribution of this model cannot be justi-

fied, and in order to reduce further

dissemination, NTL Institute ought to

retract it.

Presentations of other versions of the

learning pyramid also need to be con-

fronted with correspondingly critical

questions in order to clarify the scientific

statuses of these models. If these cannot be

adequately satisfied, one should abstain

from using them all together.

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Victoria Nikulina

Professional training of specialists in the field of musical art is an urgent task, as it contributes to the development of a performing and pedagogical culture, which is reflected in the understanding of a musical composition. High-quality music education ensures continuous professional and creative development. The purpose of the study is to determine the basic principles of combining empirical and theoretical knowledge in the educational process for training future musicians and pianists. The main methodological base of the study consists of: methods of theoretical (monographic, abstraction, and concretisation) and empirical (analysis, content analysis, generalisation of pedagogical experience, experiment) search. The study considers the main principles and trends in the development of modern piano pedagogy in Ukraine. The essence of the concepts of empirical and theoretical cognition in the context of the educational process is analysed and the features of their possible application in piano pedagogy are identified. An educational process model for training future pianists is proposed, which would allow providing favourable conditions for the development of a creative personality, better performing skills, and an independent professional performer. It is established that the specific features of piano pedagogy condition the need to adapt modern educational methods to the conditions of the educational process in the context of obtaining music education. As a result, during the application of the model for organising the teaching of piano art, which provides for the unity of theoretical and empirical cognition, the principles on which such a model should be based were identified. The practical value of the study lies in the fact that the development of a model for combining methods of theoretical and empirical cognition in the educational process of piano art students is proposed

Bridging Out of an Impoverished Paradigm: A Qualitative Study to Help Us ‘Rethink Poverty’ Today

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

This study explores two poverty training curricula, namely Bridges Out of Poverty (‘Bridges’) and a community-developed curriculum dubbed Rethink Poverty, intended to educate people about the causes, impacts and outcomes of poverty. The research questions posed in the study explore: (a) how are the poverty curricula assessed by participants; and (b) what can we learn about the ways in which poverty training materials are designed and/or delivered that might enhance their relevance and efficacy for community audiences? Employing a thematic analysis of qualitative interviews with participants, several themes emerged, including the importance of workshop facilitation that excludes the ideas surrounding Bridges (a theme dubbed ‘More of the same?); targeting poverty training to populations outside typical health and social service audiences (a theme entitled ‘Going beyond preaching to the choir’); themes related to ‘Observations on the evidence of poverty curricula’ and ‘Perceptions of poverty and debunking myths’; addressing the current ‘(Limited) motivation for action’ on poverty; and how to engage people to increase poverty awareness and advocacy (‘What’s missing’ in poverty training curricula). The discussion outlines key points, based on adult learning theory, for community providers to consider when offering poverty training for community audiences.

Contribuições da Neurociência para a formação docente em ciências: uma revisão sistemática integrativa de literatura Contributions of Neuroscience to the teaching training in science: a systematic integrative literature review

Article

Nov 2022

Resumo: A inserção de conhecimento neurocientífico na educação pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento de estratégias de ensino que visam melhorias na aprendizagem. O presente estudo realizou um levantamento bibliográfico, por meio do método de revisão sistemática integrativa de literatura, buscando identificar a relação entre neurociência e o ensino de ciências, com foco na formação de professores de ciências. Resultados iniciais em publicações indexadas nas bases de dados da Scielo, Scopus e Google Acadêmico, compreendidas entre 2009 a julho de 2020, surgiram a partir dos termos descritores "neuroscience" e "teaching Science". Trinta publicações foram incluídas e agrupadas em quatro categorias de análise: estratégias de ensino, revisão de literatura, neurociências e formação de professores e contribuições da neurociência na educação. Dos 377.445 resultados encontrados, apenas 0,5% corresponde a publicações brasileiras, o que aponta que os estudos a respeito da neuroeducação no país ainda são incipientes, não obstante a sua relevância para a educação. Abstract: The insertion of neuroscientific education can contribute to the development of teaching strategies aimed at improving learning. The present study was developed to identify a bibliographic survey, through the method of systematic integrative literature review, seeking the relationship between neuroscience and science teaching, focusing on the education of science teachers. Initial results in publications indexed in the Scielo, Scopus and Google Scholar databases, between 2009 and July 2020, emerged from the descriptors "neuroscience" and "teaching Science". Thirty publications were included and grouped into four categories of analysis: teaching strategies, literature review, neuroscience and teacher training, and contributions of neuroscience in education. Of the 377,445 results found, only 0.5% correspond to Brazilian publications, which indicates that studies on neuroeducation in the country are still incipient, despite its relevance to education.

Contribuições da Neurociência para a formação docente em ciências: uma revisão sistemática integrativa de literatura

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022

A inserção de conhecimento neurocientífico na educação pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento de estratégias de ensino que visam melhorias na aprendizagem. O presente estudo realizou um levantamento bibliográfico, por meio do método de revisão sistemática integrativa de literatura, buscando identificar a relação entre neurociência e o ensino de ciências, com foco na formação de professores de ciências. Resultados iniciais em publicações indexadas nas bases de dados da Scielo, Scopus e Google Acadêmico, compreendidas entre 2009 a julho de 2020, surgiram a partir dos termos descritores “neuroscience” e “teaching Science”. Trinta publicações foram incluídas e agrupadas em quatro categorias de análise: estratégias de ensino, revisão de literatura, neurociências e formação de professores e contribuições da neurociência na educação. Dos 377.445 resultados encontrados, apenas 0,5% corresponde a publicações brasileiras, o que aponta que os estudos a respeito da neuroeducação no país ainda são incipientes, não obstante a sua relevância para a educação.

ECLECTICISMO BASADO EN EVIDENCIAS EN LA ENSEÑANZA DE INGLÉS COMO LENGUA EXTRANJERA

Article

Jul 2022

Freddy José Molero Ramírez

El uso del eclecticismo como un método en la enseñanza del idioma inglés (ELT) ha sido promovido aproximadamente desde los finales de la década de los 60. Esto es el resultado de la carencia de un método universal que pueda garantizar la adquisición de competencias lingüísticas y comunicativas en los aprendientes. No obstante, el eclecticismo como un método es una espada de doble filo. El autor arguye que un procedimiento ad hoc hacia la selección de técnicas para la enseñanza de idiomas (por ejemplo, uno basado meramente en si las técnicas suenan divertidas o inclusivas) puede llevar al detrimento del proceso de aprendizaje. Este artículo reconoce que el eclecticismo es la única opción viable para los docentes de idiomas (dado el panorama actual en la investigación dentro de la psicología y la didáctica de idiomas), pero arguye a favor de un proceso de selección de técnicas basado en evidencias. Más aún, este proceso viene con un criterio para la selección de técnicas de enseñanza y modelos instruccionales, cuyo propósito es el de filtrar cualquier técnica, método o teoría que difícilmente provea alguna manera de mejorar el aprendizaje.

Learning retention in mathematics over consecutive weeks: Impact of motivated forgetting

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2021

span>Retention is the ability to retain information in the mind, either in short-term or long-term memory. Memory in the long-term is more ideal. Thus, this has become a challenge for educators on how to transfer ideas in short-term memory to long-term memory. To concretize the effect of time on mathematics learning retention, a randomized pre-test post-test x groups design, using matched subjects was used in the study. Seven matched groups of students were identified, and took the pre-test as the basis of the initial amount of learning, after which a group of students was assigned to take the post-test every week for seven weeks. The post-tests results were the basis of the amount of retained learning of the students. The study found out that: i) The amount of retained learning among the students diminished following a negative exponential curve; ii) The amount of retained learning was comparably equal with the initial amount of learning up to the second week; iii) The amount of retained learning became incomparable with the initial amount of learning after the third week; and iv) The concepts in the knowledge level had a great chance to be remembered while the concept with analysis level was prone to motivated forgetting.</span

Web Based Interactive Software In International Business: The Case Of The Global Market Potential System Online (GMPSO)

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2011

This paper seeks to confirm whether students using the Global Market Potential System Online (GMPSO) web based software, (http://globalmarketpotential.com), for their class project enhanced their knowledge and understanding of international business. The challenge most business instructors and practitioners face is to determine how to bring the real world of business into a classroom or training environment. Experts claim that the answer lies in the Project-Based Learning (PBL) method and web based interactive software widely used at universities and businesses around the world. The findings indicate that the GMPSO enhanced the students’ understanding of international business and improved their team working, research and critical thinking skills.

TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES: EXPANDING THE REPERTOIRE TO SUPPORT STUDENT LEARNING

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Full-text available

Cone of Experience

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2003

A Discussion Group Program Enhances the Conceptual Reasoning Skills of Students Enrolled in a Large Lecture-Format Introductory Biology Course

Article

Dec 2009

Marcy A Peteroy-Kelly

It has been well-established that discussion groups enhance student learning in large lecture courses. The goal of this study was to determine the impact of a discussion group program on the development of conceptual reasoning skills of students enrolled in a large lecture-format introductory biology course. In the discussion group, students worked on problems based on topics discussed in lecture. The program was evaluated using three assessment tools. First, student responses to pre- and posttests were analyzed. The test question asked the students to demonstrate the relationships between 10 different but related terms. Use of a concept map to link the terms indicated an advanced level of conceptual reasoning skills. There was a 13.8% increase in the use of concept maps from pre- to posttest. Second, the students took a Likert-type survey to determine the perceived impact of the program on their conceptual reasoning skills. Many of the students felt that the program helped them understand and use the main course concepts to logically solve problems. Finally, average exam grades increased as the semester progressed. The average final grade in the course was 75%. Students enrolled in the course the previous year (where the lecture component of the course did not assess or reflect student learning in the discussion group) had an average final grade of 69%. The results of this study demonstrate that the discussion group program improves the conceptual reasoning skills of students enrolled in a large lecture-format introductory biology course.

How the ELL brain learns

Book

Jan 2011

D.A. Sousa

Award-winning brain research expert David A. Sousa explains current research on how the brain learns language and provides strategies for teaching English language learners.

Audio Visual Methods in Teaching

Article

Feb 1955
Art Educ

Using Local Oral History in the Elementary Classroom

Article

Increased accountability and emphasis on teaching reading and mathematics have left little time for social studies instruction in elementary schools. The results are that students have deficits in social studies content knowledge and pre-service teachers lack exposure to exemplary instructional strategies. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of oral history as a strategy for social studies instruction implemented by a group of preservice teachers. This oral history project was a collaborative effort among 57 university pre-service teachers in Alabama, 40 local elementary school fourth graders and their 3 teachers, and 5 community members serving as interviewees. Findings indicate overall positive attitudes by pre-service teachers' concerning the use of this strategy, a renewed interest in history as a discipline, and acquired social studies teaching efficacy. Elementary students gained content knowledge and interest in learning history.

Reforming computing education with new web technologies

Article

Dec 2007

The recent movement of Web 2.0 and the technologies beneath it provide opportunities to reform our educational environments. This paper discusses how to use these new technologies to develop our next generation educational environments that will foster deep learning. To demonstrate the potential impact of these new technologies on computing education, we introduce the architectural design of BRIDGE, our ongoing development of an integrated, collaborative educational environment that is capable of connecting computing theories and industrial practices. We hope that the concept of our design will inspire new developments of such collaborative educational systems.

Understanding Scientific Reasoning

Book