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Effects of Different Types of Goals on Processes That Support Performance
Abstract
Empirical studies attesting to the effectiveness of goal setting in sport have been plagued by equivocation. Inconsistencies may relate to task/goal complexity and the types of goals that participants are asked to use (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). This study addresses the second of these issues by examining the relative efficacy of two types of goal-setting training program that differ according to their primary focus. Thirty-seven club golfers completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 on three occasions at important competitions and the Sport Psychology Skills Questionnaire prior to, and following, the intervention. Two-factor (Group × Test) ANOVAs revealed a significant interaction (p < .05) for ability, indicating significant improvements from Test 1 to Test 2 for the process-oriented group, and between Test 1 and Test 3. The significant interactions (p < .05) for self-efficacy, cognitive anxiety control, and concentration provide further evidence for the positive impact of process goals in competitive situations.
... Logically, immediate attention is regularly focused on the influence of goal setting on performance in goal conditions and no-goal conditions; however, researchers have recently recognised the benefits of goal focus (i.e., outcome, performance, and process goals) on performance under different conditions (Burton et al., 2001;Kingston & Hardy, 1997;Filby et al., 1999). There is a significant volume of literature on the effect of goals on performance, and the benefits of basic psychological needs satisfaction on well-being, intrinsic motivation and outcome. ...
... Within sport and exercise psychology literature, three different types of goals have been identified; outcome, performance, and process goals (Hardy et al., 1996;Kingston & Hardy, 1997;Burton et al., 2001). ...
... For example, technique, movement form, and thought process to regulate behaviours that are essential for completing a task effectively (Kingston & Wilson, 2009). One example of a process goal is ensuring appropriate alignment prior to shot execution in golf (Kingston & Hardy, 1997). ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of goals on performance via the satisfaction of basic needs; in other words, to investigate if basic psychological needs mediate the relationship between types of goals and their influence on performance. In order to measure this influence, athletes (N=373), both male (n=225) and female (n=148), were asked to participate in the study and complete both the Basic Needs Satisfaction in Sport Scale (BNSSS) and Goal Focus Inventory (GFSI) questionnaires. Simple linear regression was conducted to examine the direct effect of goals on performance. In addition, multiple linear regression was performed to measure the influence of goals on basic needs and the influence of basic needs on performance. Finally, the bootstrapping method was performed to examine the indirect effect of goals on performance through basic psychological needs.
Results from simple linear regression indicated that types of goals (outcome, performance, and process goals) directly influence performance (p<.001). In addition, multiple linear regression and bootstrapping methods were investigated and it was found that basic needs have a mediating effect in the relationship between performance, process goal use and their influence on performance. In contrast, results in the present study showed that basic needs have no mediating effect in the relationship between outcome goals use and performance. Furthermore, mediation analyses using the bootstrapping method suggested partial mediation between the use of performance, process goals and their influence on performance. These findings suggest that the use of performance and process goals might be more associated with basic needs than the use of outcome goals. Further research of a qualitative nature could help to explain these differences in terms of mediation model.
... This study underlined the role of goal specificity and challenge in optimizing serving performance. In Kingston and Hardy (1997), some conclusions regarding the relationships between goal setting and anxiety levels were made by volleyball players. The study indicated that goal setting can reduce competitive anxiety, which enabled the players to give serves more effectively under pressure. ...
... By giving clear, achievable goals, goal setting enables an athlete to focus effort on the tasks ahead of him, avoiding uncertainty and stress. Kingston and Hardy (1997) considered the goal-setting strategy in relation to anxiety in athletes. Their findings showed that competitive anxiety was minimized when athletes set specific and challenging goals; hence, there was improved performance. ...
This study investigated the influence of The aim of this research was to examine goal setting in volleyball serving performance, state anxiety, and self-efficacy among female athletes. Thirty female volleyball players from Lahore College for Women University and Lahore University of Management Sciences, aged 19 to 25, participated. They were divided into an experimental group, which received goal-setting instruction through seminars and lectures, and a control group, which received coaching on serving tactics and skills. Standardized questionnaires, including the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2), Self-Efficacy Questionnaire, Serving Effort/Performance Questionnaire, and Goal Setting Questionnaire, were used for data collection. The findings revealed a significant increase in serving performance in the experimental group compared to the control group, indicating that the goal- setting intervention positively affected serving skills.
... Kingston & Wilson (2009) revealed that sport clubs share the aspect of having such objectives for their season -and their sub-blocks such as games or deliverables. Whether it is collecting wins, delivering a championship, or completing a project and delivering a service, defining specific goals and breaking them down motivate the individuals involved (Kingston & Hardy, 1997). As Durdubas, Martin & Koruc (2019) noted, these targets can range from winning a certain number of games to significant strategic milestones such as reaching the playoffs or championship games to personal development or injury rehabilitation of player (Croft, Paulson, Stokowski, Berri & Mondello, 2023;Knapik et al., 1991). ...
There is a large amount of research on both successful project management and the management of professional sports organisations, but the relationship between these two phenomena remains to be analysed. Therefore, the aim of this article is to identify the similarities between sports seasons and projects by examining the characteristics of these two domains, as well as to lay the foundations for defining the potential management practices that can improve the efficiency of seasons using tools and techniques derived from project management. The results will be obtained through a narrative literature review of relevant books and articles on projects and sports seasons. The outcome of this research will contribute to a better understanding of how sport organisations can streamline their operations, optimise performance and ensure successful sport seasons by potentially implementing a project management approach.
... FIT (Functional Imagery Training) is the combination of motivational interviewing (Miller & Rollnick, 2012) with goal-based imagery (e.g, Paivio, 1985) used at strategic times to amplify motivation. Imagery deployment is dependent on how the practitioner and athlete discuss goals (e.g., personal long-term goals and process goals, Kingston & Hardy, 1997) and purpose (how the goal benefits others), and how they move through the processes of motivational interviewing. The specifics of how FIT is administered follows the Applied Imagery for the Motivation model (AIM; Rhodes & May, 2022), which starts with a one-hour motivational interview where the athlete discusses their personal values, beliefs and wider purpose. ...
Imagery training, specifically visual and kinesthetic imagery training, is a well-established method of increasing performance in sport. However, some athletes may have impoverished imagery abilities (e.g., aphantasia; low visual imagery) which may hinder performance increments that benefit others. We administered the Plymouth Sensory Imagery Questionnaire (Psi-Q) which tests multisensory imagery, to 329 participants from nine different sports across two levels: semiprofessional and professional. This formed the baseline test, finding no significant differences between sport or level for imagery ability. The Psi-Q located 27 low imagers (mean total scores <4.2/10), including seven non-visual imagers, three non-auditory, seven non-olfactory, and five non-gustatory imagers, and one across all senses. We split the sample randomly into two groups and immediately delivered the imagery intervention, Functional Imagery Training (FIT) to the first group (over two weeks), followed by delivering the same intervention to the wait group. A wait period was due to the lengthy delivery time of the personalized intervention. Both groups received the intervention for the same duration ending in a Psi-Q retest after the intervention. In both groups, FIT increased overall imagery scores which was maintained six months after intervention completion. This indicates that imagery can be trained and maintained in those with a low ability. Follow up interviews (n=22) explored how imagery was being used beyond the intervention, revealing that the majority now use imagery to plan and manage thinking. Recommendations are given for ways to train imagery in an applied sport setting and future research in broader areas is detailed.
... To determine the viability of their suggestions, future research should experimentally test holistic process goals in ecologically valid professional sports. This is because training toward process goals may help performers overcome high-anxiety circumstances and focus on the most crucial aspects of their performances (Kingston & Hardy, 1997). Furthermore, inner and outer distractions and emotional loading such as anger and anxiety, might increase the likelihood of ironic effects (Wegner, 1994). ...
Wegner's theory of ironic processes of mental control emphasizes how the implementation of cognitive load-induced avoidant instructions can cause inefficient motor cognition in sports, thereby inducing so-called ironic effects where an individual—ironically—does precisely what s(he) intended not to do. This systematic review synthesizes relevant existing research and evaluates the effectiveness of experimental manipulations and cognitive load measurements for investigating ironic effects on motor task performance under pressure conditions. This review identified twenty-four empirical studies published before January 2022, including studies with experimental (21%) and quasi-experimental (79%) within- and between-subject designs. The most common reported pressure (i.e., cognitive load) manipulations fell into two categories: anxiety (77%) and dual-task (33%) techniques. The review also identified positive action-oriented instructional interventions to reduce ironic errors. Although most reported findings supported Wegner's assumptions about ironic performance effects, the review also identified inconclusive evidence (8%), which indicates a need for more research with a greater focus on: robust experimental design; the inclusion of competitive stressors; expert athletes; elite athletes; and intervention-based studies. These additions will clarify the mechanisms of ironic effects and assist in the development of interventional programs to diminish the likelihood of ironic effects in sports performance.
... Outcome-oriented goals can, under certain circumstances (e.g., if they only refer to the place/rank), lead to increased anxiety levels and even to withdrawal from the competition. Kingston and Hardy's (1997) study, for example, showed that golfers who formulated process goals (e.g., focus on an even swing) were better able to concentrate and control negative thoughts than golfers who had result-oriented goals (e.g., fewer strokes than my competitor). Furthermore, process goals, as opposed to outcome and performance goals, are a strong positive predictor of a psychological flow state (Kingston & Goldea, 2007), which has several benefits in terms of sport performance and well-being. ...
If you enter the terms “motivation” and “sport” into an online search engine, you will be overwhelmed by the sheer number of entries. The popularity of the concept of motivation and the breadth of its use reflect its importance for issues relating to health, athletic performance, and general life contexts on an individual and a societal level. Light needs to be shed on the question “What motivates people to engage in sport?” and the question needs to be considered from many different perspectives. In lay language, many different synonyms are used for motivation like incentive, initiative, interest, passion, ambition, and driving force. How much of this layman’s understanding is reflected in the scientific operationalizations of “motivation?” The synonyms presented above share one important aspect in common with the scientific concept of motivation: the activating or energizing component. Motivation is the driving force behind an action.
Spor Bilimleri Üzerine Araştırmalar isimli bu kitap multidisipliner bir yaklaşımla spor bilimleri alanında yapılan akademik çalışmalar bir araya getirilerek hazırlanmıştır. Kitapta alanında güncel gelişmelere yer verilerek hazırlanmış on bölüm yer almaktadır. Spor bilimleri alanında yapılmış olan bu akademik çalışmaların literatüre katkı sağlaması amaçlanmaktadır.
Spor Bilimleri Üzerine Araştırmalar isimli bu kitap multidisipliner bir yaklaşımla spor bilimleri alanında yapılan akademik çalışmalar bir araya getirilerek hazırlanmıştır. Kitapta alanında güncel gelişmelere yer verilerek hazırlanmış on bölüm yer almaktadır. Spor bilimleri alanında yapılmış olan bu akademik çalışmaların literatüre katkı sağlaması amaçlanmaktadır.
This book was the first handbook where the world's foremost 'experts on expertise' reviewed our scientific knowledge on expertise and expert performance and how experts may differ from non-experts in terms of their development, training, reasoning, knowledge, social support, and innate talent. Methods are described for the study of experts' knowledge and their performance of representative tasks from their domain of expertise. The development of expertise is also studied by retrospective interviews and the daily lives of experts are studied with diaries. In 15 major domains of expertise, the leading researchers summarize our knowledge on the structure and acquisition of expert skill and knowledge and discuss future prospects. General issues that cut across most domains are reviewed in chapters on various aspects of expertise such as general and practical intelligence, differences in brain activity, self-regulated learning, deliberate practice, aging, knowledge management, and creativity.
Much of the contemporary research and practical literature in sport and psychology that concerns goals focuses on individuals. Several reviewers, however, have called for more investigation into group goal setting. To accomplish this, a basic understanding of the everyday goals of sport teams is necessary. The purpose of this exploratory investigation was to examine the nature of group goals in intact sport teams. Athletes (N=154) from college and community teams (N=13) were asked to list up to five team goals for both practice and competitive situations. Content analyses showed that the overwhelming majority were general (>70%) rather than specific in nature. For practice situations, process goals predominated (89.9%), but for competitions, a balance existed between outcome (53.1%) and process (46.9%) goals. Further analyses of the practice goals showed that 66.1% related to skill/strategy, 29.3% to effort, and 4.6% to fitness. For the competition goals, 43.5% related to skill/strategy, 15.0% to effort, ...
Investigated the effects of a goal-setting training program on basketball free-throw performance, perceptions of success, and self-efficacy. 18 undergraduates were matched by free-throw shooting ability, then randomly assigned to either goal-training (GT) or no-goal-training (NT) groups for a period of 5 wks. Findings show that, although the GT group reported significantly higher perceptions of success and self-efficacy than did the NT group, no significant differences between groups were revealed for free-throw accuracy. Correlational data suggested a stronger relationship between self-efficacy and free-throw performance for the GT group than for the NT group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied whether increased control over powerful extraneous variables influencing motivation would enable goal-setting effects to be observed in sport settings and assessed the utility of either flexible S-set subgoals or rigid experimenter subgoals as adjuncts to long-term goals. 43 male and 11 female college students were assigned by class to 1 of 4 experimental conditions. Following a baseline trial under "do best" instructions, Ss performed 3 trials on an endurance task. Results indicate that groups holding subgoals performed significantly better than those with "do best" instructions, but performance for those with only long-term goals approached significance. Findings demonstrate a need to further understand the process of goal setting if it is to be successfully applied as an intervention technique to enhance motivation and sport performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper describes the current state of the art of self-control or self-regulation training procedures as they are used in sport. At least four important areas of self-control skill and training methods can be identified in the experimental literature as having a beneficial effect upon motor performance. These are goal setting activation control, imagery and attention control. The literature relating to these skills, their pedagogy, and their effects on motor performance is reviewed and conclusions are drawn regarding the implications for sport and work of such skill training In particular, the self-instructional package approach (known as mental training programmes or MTPs) is evaluated as it is the most commonly available form of self-control training.