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Effects of Different Types of Goals on Processes That Support Performance
Abstract
Empirical studies attesting to the effectiveness of goal setting in sport have been plagued by equivocation. Inconsistencies may relate to task/goal complexity and the types of goals that participants are asked to use (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). This study addresses the second of these issues by examining the relative efficacy of two types of goal-setting training program that differ according to their primary focus. Thirty-seven club golfers completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 on three occasions at important competitions and the Sport Psychology Skills Questionnaire prior to, and following, the intervention. Two-factor (Group × Test) ANOVAs revealed a significant interaction (p < .05) for ability, indicating significant improvements from Test 1 to Test 2 for the process-oriented group, and between Test 1 and Test 3. The significant interactions (p < .05) for self-efficacy, cognitive anxiety control, and concentration provide further evidence for the positive impact of process goals in competitive situations.
... Researchers have assessed the effects of goal setting on performance across individual and team sports (e.g. Kolovelonis et al., 2012;Lane & Streeter, 2003), as well as in both lab-based (Kolovelonis et al., 2010) and field-based settings (Kingston & Hardy, 1997). Researchers have recruited participants that vary in expertise, including experienced and novice athletes (Dutra et al., 2017;Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1997), and implemented goal setting interventions over different timeframes, ranging from acute, single sessions (Dewar et al., 2013) to multiple sessions over an extended period (Palao et al., 2016). ...
... Dewar et al., 2013), confidence (e.g. Kingston & Hardy, 1997), self-efficacy (e.g. Kolovelonis et al., 2011), and perceived exertion (Neumann & Honke, 2018). ...
... Burton (1989) found that compared to no goal setting, performance goal training over time (> 5 months) in experienced swimmers resulted in large, significant reductions in cognitive anxiety in males (d = 1.35) and females (d = 0.85). Similarly, significant reductions in cognitive anxiety were found throughout a 54-week intervention in experienced golfers through performance goal training (d = 1.02), and process goal training (d = 0.88) compared to no goal setting (Kingston & Hardy, 1997). Nonetheless, process goals significantly increased golfers' ability to control anxiety (d = 0.68), though performance goals did not (d = 0.14). ...
Goal setting is widely applied in sport. Whereas existing reviews have addressed the performance effects of goal setting, less is known about the concurrent psychological and psychophysiological effects. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis that synthesised the effects of goal setting on task performance and various psychological and psychophysiological outcomes in sport. Searches returned 17,841 articles, with 27 meeting eligibility criteria. A meta-analysis of the performance effects and a narrative synthesis of the psychological and psychophysiological effects were undertaken. Process goals had the largest effect on performance (d = 1.36) compared to performance goals (d = 0.44) and outcome goals (d = 0.09). No significant difference in performance was found between specific (d = 0.37) and non-specific goals (d = 0.72). Process goals also had large effects on self-efficacy (d = 1.11), whereas studies guided by self-regulation theory (k = 5) produced the greatest performance enhancements (d = 1.53). It was rarely possible to draw conclusions regarding the effects of goal setting on psychological/psychophysiological outcomes due to a lack of cross study evidence. Nevertheless, these findings provide important insights to guide research and practice on the use of goal setting to enhance performance and psychological/psychophysiological outcomes in sport.
... To determine the viability of their suggestions, future research should experimentally test holistic process goals in ecologically valid professional sports. This is because training toward process goals may help performers overcome high-anxiety circumstances and focus on the most crucial aspects of their performances (Kingston & Hardy, 1997). Furthermore, inner and outer distractions and emotional loading such as anger and anxiety, might increase the likelihood of ironic effects (Wegner, 1994). ...
Wegner's theory of ironic processes of mental control emphasizes how the implementation of cognitive load-induced avoidant instructions can cause inefficient motor cognition in sports, thereby inducing so-called ironic effects where an individual—ironically—does precisely what s(he) intended not to do. This systematic review synthesizes relevant existing research and evaluates the effectiveness of experimental manipulations and cognitive load measurements for investigating ironic effects on motor task performance under pressure conditions. This review identified twenty-four empirical studies published before January 2022, including studies with experimental (21%) and quasi-experimental (79%) within- and between-subject designs. The most common reported pressure (i.e., cognitive load) manipulations fell into two categories: anxiety (77%) and dual-task (33%) techniques. The review also identified positive action-oriented instructional interventions to reduce ironic errors. Although most reported findings supported Wegner's assumptions about ironic performance effects, the review also identified inconclusive evidence (8%), which indicates a need for more research with a greater focus on: robust experimental design; the inclusion of competitive stressors; expert athletes; elite athletes; and intervention-based studies. These additions will clarify the mechanisms of ironic effects and assist in the development of interventional programs to diminish the likelihood of ironic effects in sports performance.
... Outcome-oriented goals can, under certain circumstances (e.g., if they only refer to the place/rank), lead to increased anxiety levels and even to withdrawal from the competition. Kingston and Hardy's (1997) study, for example, showed that golfers who formulated process goals (e.g., focus on an even swing) were better able to concentrate and control negative thoughts than golfers who had result-oriented goals (e.g., fewer strokes than my competitor). Furthermore, process goals, as opposed to outcome and performance goals, are a strong positive predictor of a psychological flow state (Kingston & Goldea, 2007), which has several benefits in terms of sport performance and well-being. ...
If you enter the terms “motivation” and “sport” into an online search engine, you will be overwhelmed by the sheer number of entries. The popularity of the concept of motivation and the breadth of its use reflect its importance for issues relating to health, athletic performance, and general life contexts on an individual and a societal level. Light needs to be shed on the question “What motivates people to engage in sport?” and the question needs to be considered from many different perspectives. In lay language, many different synonyms are used for motivation like incentive, initiative, interest, passion, ambition, and driving force. How much of this layman’s understanding is reflected in the scientific operationalizations of “motivation?” The synonyms presented above share one important aspect in common with the scientific concept of motivation: the activating or energizing component. Motivation is the driving force behind an action.
... Tous les participants ont mentionné qu'ils fixent des objectifs. Il s'agit d'objectifs de performance, de maîtrise des habiletés et de résultat, qui sont répertoriés comme étant les objectifs les plus communs (Kingston & Hardy, 1997). ...
... According to Burton (1989a) goal setting enhance performance in low-complexity tasks as compared to high-complexity tasks. Other research has shown positive effects of goal setting on sport performance such as in basketball (Swain & Jones, 1995), ice hockey (Anderson, Crowell, Doman, & Howard, 1988) lacrosse (Weinberg, Stitcher, Richardson, & Jackson, 1994), golf (Kingston & Hardy, 1997), soccer (Brobst & Ward, 2002), and swimming (Burton, 1989b). Collegiate, Olympic, and youth athletes have reported their preference on goal settings; the top three preferences for goal difficulty were moderately difficult, difficult, and very difficult goals (Weinberg, Burke, & Jackson, 1997;Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 2000). ...
This study examined the perception of Malaysian sport coaches on the sport coaching standards (SCS). A total of 384 coaches (age = 28.84+4.02 years; male = 67.7%, female = 32.3%) responded to the survey via an online google document. Almost 59% of the respondents were club level coaches with 42% having 1-3 years coaching experience. Majority (56.2%) of the coaches was involved in soccer, frisbee, dodgeball, and futsal. The adopted research instrument consisted of 40 coaching standards and were categorized into eight domains. The items were measured through an 11-point (0-10) Likert scale. The results suggested that Malaysian coaches perceived the 40 standards (minimum = 6.94 and maximum = 9.00) as knowledge and abilities that effective coaches must possess. As for the domains, Malaysian coaches ranked the top three domains to be ‘Growth and Development’, ‘Teaching and Communication’, and ‘Skills and Tactics’ respectively. Similar ranking of the domain was also reported according to gender. Even though coaching education in terms of sport specific and sport science programs is in place in Malaysia, it is imperative for Malaysian Sport Coaching Academy and National Sport Associations to incorporate some coaching standards in their relevant coaching education curriculum.
... An established model for developing actionable learning goals is the SMART framework. As noted earlier (p: 19), these goals should consist of practical action steps, and should be articulated in such a way that fosters clear and mutual understanding of what constitutes expected and successful development [39,40]. The examples below demonstrate how this framework can be used to support the development of new knowledge by focusing on self-identified areas of improvement and combining self-reflection with a detailed plan for success. ...
The AIS Mentoring Guide has been prepared to assist the cultivation of highly effective and mutually beneficial mentorships in which individuals work together to support the personal growth and professional development of relational partners. It covers a range of topics and focuses on the behaviours that can increase the effectiveness of mentorships regardless of whether they are created formally or informally. The information, however, is not prescriptive and can be tailored to meet the needs of each relationship.
This book was the first handbook where the world's foremost 'experts on expertise' reviewed our scientific knowledge on expertise and expert performance and how experts may differ from non-experts in terms of their development, training, reasoning, knowledge, social support, and innate talent. Methods are described for the study of experts' knowledge and their performance of representative tasks from their domain of expertise. The development of expertise is also studied by retrospective interviews and the daily lives of experts are studied with diaries. In 15 major domains of expertise, the leading researchers summarize our knowledge on the structure and acquisition of expert skill and knowledge and discuss future prospects. General issues that cut across most domains are reviewed in chapters on various aspects of expertise such as general and practical intelligence, differences in brain activity, self-regulated learning, deliberate practice, aging, knowledge management, and creativity.
The chapter provides an overview of self-regulation in competitive sports. Self-regulation refers to conscious as well as unconscious processes that ensure that goal-oriented activity or performance is maintained even when external or internal obstacles occur and impulses need to be controlled. Different facets of the concept and the basic functions of self-regulation, such as the knowledge and effects of personality differences, are described. The chapter is complemented by an applied perspective. Mental skill techniques that have been derived from the theoretical concepts and research findings on self-regulation are described. Examples for the application of these techniques are given.
This thesis aimed, firstly, to test the psychological effects of two psychological interventions designed to enhance the psychological strength of competitive athletes; and, secondly, to possibly determine which intervention might be considered superior to the other. The third aim of this thesis was to explore the results of the findings in terms of both their shared and differential theories. The two psychological approaches in question were Rational-Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT) – supplemented with adjunctive Mental Skills Training (MST) techniques and the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) approach. To test the psychological strengthening effects of both interventions and to compare the results, a non-equivalent pre-test post-test control group design was followed which utilised a control group along with purposive sampling. Various dependent variables were investigated using seven instruments. Variables tested included: - mental wellbeing, irrational beliefs, mental toughness, achievement motivation and competitive anxiety, as well as anger and frustration levels and subjective performance. The instruments used to capture these variables were: - The Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF); Shortened General Attitudes and Beliefs Scale (SGABS); the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ); the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT); as well as one five-point Likert question written by the researcher and one question from the Psychological Skills Inventory (PSI). Seventy-one male adolescent rugby players, from three different schools were sourced to take part in this study. Thus 32 (Mage = 17.33; SD = 6= .729) participants from one high school completed the seven-session REBT-Based MST intervention. 21 (Mage = 17.23; SD = .669) from another school completed the seven-module MAC intervention and 18 (Mage = 15.52; SD = .326) from an additional school were used as a control group school. All three group participants filled out the instrument questionnaires prior to undergoing the various interventions and just following it. Each intervention’s sessions were about an hour to an hour and fifteen minutes long. The control group just filled out the instrument questionnaires in about the same time frame that the other schools had their pre- and post-intervention assessments. The results demonstrated that generally both interventions improved the psychological strength of their players more so than the control group, however, the REBT intervention decreased irrationality and improved subjective performance measures more significantly when compared to the other treatment group.
Much of the contemporary research and practical literature in sport and psychology that concerns goals focuses on individuals. Several reviewers, however, have called for more investigation into group goal setting. To accomplish this, a basic understanding of the everyday goals of sport teams is necessary. The purpose of this exploratory investigation was to examine the nature of group goals in intact sport teams. Athletes (N=154) from college and community teams (N=13) were asked to list up to five team goals for both practice and competitive situations. Content analyses showed that the overwhelming majority were general (>70%) rather than specific in nature. For practice situations, process goals predominated (89.9%), but for competitions, a balance existed between outcome (53.1%) and process (46.9%) goals. Further analyses of the practice goals showed that 66.1% related to skill/strategy, 29.3% to effort, and 4.6% to fitness. For the competition goals, 43.5% related to skill/strategy, 15.0% to effort, ...
Investigated the effects of a goal-setting training program on basketball free-throw performance, perceptions of success, and self-efficacy. 18 undergraduates were matched by free-throw shooting ability, then randomly assigned to either goal-training (GT) or no-goal-training (NT) groups for a period of 5 wks. Findings show that, although the GT group reported significantly higher perceptions of success and self-efficacy than did the NT group, no significant differences between groups were revealed for free-throw accuracy. Correlational data suggested a stronger relationship between self-efficacy and free-throw performance for the GT group than for the NT group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied whether increased control over powerful extraneous variables influencing motivation would enable goal-setting effects to be observed in sport settings and assessed the utility of either flexible S-set subgoals or rigid experimenter subgoals as adjuncts to long-term goals. 43 male and 11 female college students were assigned by class to 1 of 4 experimental conditions. Following a baseline trial under "do best" instructions, Ss performed 3 trials on an endurance task. Results indicate that groups holding subgoals performed significantly better than those with "do best" instructions, but performance for those with only long-term goals approached significance. Findings demonstrate a need to further understand the process of goal setting if it is to be successfully applied as an intervention technique to enhance motivation and sport performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper describes the current state of the art of self-control or self-regulation training procedures as they are used in sport. At least four important areas of self-control skill and training methods can be identified in the experimental literature as having a beneficial effect upon motor performance. These are goal setting activation control, imagery and attention control. The literature relating to these skills, their pedagogy, and their effects on motor performance is reviewed and conclusions are drawn regarding the implications for sport and work of such skill training In particular, the self-instructional package approach (known as mental training programmes or MTPs) is evaluated as it is the most commonly available form of self-control training.