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Improving
water management
in Myanmar’s Dry Zone
for food security, livelihoods and health
Improving
water management
in Myanmar’s Dry Zone
for food security, livelihoods and health
is report is based on a rapid assessment conducted in 2013 by the
International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in collaboration with
National Engineering and Planning Services (NEPS), and
Myanmar Marketing Research and Development (MMRD) Research Services.
PHOTO: ISTOCKPHOTO
Contributors
Robyn Johnston, Ameer Rajah and Soumya Balasubramanya (IWMI, Colombo, Sri Lanka); Sonali Senaratna Sellamuttu,
Matthew McCartney, Paul Pavelic, Somphasith Douangsavanh, Guillaume Lacombe, Touleelor Sotoukee and Diana Suhardiman
(IWMI, Vientiane, Lao PDR); Cho, Khin Latt, Aye Myint, Kyaw ein and Aung Kyaw Zan (National Engineering and Planning
Services [NEPS], Yangon, Myanmar); Olivier Jore (Independent consultant); and Ye aung Htut (Myanmar Marketing Research and
Development [MMRD] Research Services, Yangon, Myanmar)
is is a summary report based on the following three publications:
Report 1:
McCartney, M.; Pavelic, P.; Lacombe, G.; Latt, K.; Zan, A.K.; ein, K.; Douangsavanh, S.; Balasubramanya, S.; Rajah, A.; Myint,
A.; Cho, C.; Johnston, R.; Sotoukee, T. 2013. Water resources assessment of the dry zone of Myanmar: nal report for component 1. [Project
report of the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT) Dry Zone Program]. Vientiane, Laos: International Water Management
Institute (IWMI); Yangon, Myanmar: National Engineering and Planning Services (NEPS). 52p. Available at http://publications.iwmi.
org/pdf/H046133.pdf (accessed on June 18, 2015).
Report 2:
Senaratna Sellamuttu, S.; Jore, O.; Suhardiman, D.; Balasubramanya, S.; Pavelic, P.; Htut, U.Y.T.; McCartney, M.; Johnston, R. 2013.
Community survey on water access, availability and management issues in the dry zone of Myanmar: nal report for component 2. [Project report
of the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT) Dry Zone Program]. Vientiane, Laos: International Water Management Institute
(IWMI); Yangon, Myanmar: Myanmar Marketing Research and Development (MMRD). 74p. Available at http://publications.iwmi.
org/pdf/H046134.pdf (accessed on June 18, 2015).
Report 3:
Johnston, R.; Rajah, A.; Balasubramanya, S.; Douangsavanh, S.; Lacombe, G.; McCartney, M.; Pavelic, P.; Senaratna Sellamuttu,
S.; Sotoukee, T.; Suhardiman, D.; Jore, O. 2013. Identifying priority investments in water in Myanmar’s dry zone: nal report for component
3. [Project report of the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT) Dry Zone Program]. Vientiane, Laos: International Water
Management Institute (IWMI). 53p. Available at http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H046135.pdf (accessed on June 18, 2015).
International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 2015. Improving water management in Myanmar’s dry zone for food security, livelihoods
and health. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 52p. doi: 10.5337/2015.213
/ water management / arid zones / food security / living standards / health / agroecosystems / rivers / runo / water resources / water use
/ water conservation / water accounting / reservoir storage / ponds / wells / domestic water / multiple use / groundwater irrigation /
groundwater recharge / rainwater / water harvesting / irrigated land / irrigation schemes / pumping / investment / landscape / land
degradation / rainfed farming / farmers / soil conservation / information management / Myanmar /
ISBN 978-92-9090-820-3
Copyright © 2015, by IWMI. All rights reserved. IWMI encourages the use of its material provided that the organization is acknowledged
and kept informed in all such instances.
Editorial consultant: Carolyn Fry; Copy editor: Mahen Chandrasoma; Designer: Mario Bahar, Gracewinds Advertising; Cartographer:
John Plumer; and Printer: Gunaratne Oset (Private) Ltd.
Cover photo by Matthew McCartney: Collecting water from a shallow dug well in the bed of the Sin Te Wa River in Myanmar's Dry Zone.
Please send enquiries and comments to iwmi@cgiar.org
A free copy of this publication can be downloaded at: http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Other/Reports/PDF/improving-water-
management-in-myanmars-dry-zone-for-food-security-livelihoods-and-health.pdf
ii
iii
Acknowledgements
e study team gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the Myanmar Food Security Working Group (FSWG) in organizing
consultation workshops, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI), Myanmar, for supplying data on
irrigation schemes and river water levels. e International Water Management Institute (IWMI) would also like to thank
the Water Resources Utilization Department (WRUD) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI) for providing
the required permissions to conduct the community-level survey.
Project
is research study was initiated as part of the project: Sustainable management of water to improve food security and
livelihoods in the Dry Zone of Myanmar.
Collaborators
is research study is a collaboration of the following organizations:
International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
National Engineering and Planning Services, Myanmar (NEPS)
Myanmar Marketing Research and Development (MMRD) Research Services
Donors
is research study was funded by the following:
Livelihoods and Food Security Trust
Fund (LIFT)
IWMI and partners would like to thank the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund, who commissioned this
study. LIFT’s donors are Australia, Denmark, the European Union, France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. From the private sector, the Mitsubishi
Corporation is a donor.
e views expressed herein should not be interpreted as the ocial opinion of any LIFT donor.
is work has been undertaken as part of the CGIAR Research Program on
Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE). IWMI is a member of the CGIAR
Consortium and leads this program.
PHOTO: SANJIV DE SILVA/IWMI
PHOTO: SHUTTERSTOCK
Contents
Main messages
Chapter 1: Water for livelihoods in Myanmar’s Dry Zone
About the study
Myanmar’s central Dry Zone
– Agricultural livelihoods dominate
– Water for livelihoods
– Agro-ecosystems of the Dry Zone
Chapter 2: Water resources of the Dry Zone
The influence of climate
Surface water resources
– Rivers and runoff
– Storage in large and small reservoirs
Groundwater resources
Chapter 3: Improving irrigation infrastructure
Types of irrigation
Irrigated areas and water use
Constraints to irrigation
Using irrigation wisely in the future
– Assessing the effectiveness of irrigation
Chapter 4: Investing in groundwater
Groundwater for domestic use and livestock watering
Groundwater for irrigation
– Existing groundwater infrastructure
– Availability and sustainability of groundwater resources
– Constraints to developing groundwater supplies
– Ensuring sustainable use of groundwater
Chapter 5: Rainwater harvesting: Village ponds and farm dams
Planning appropriate ponds
– Potential issues when harvesting rainwater
– Ensuring long-term viability
Chapter 6: Managing water in the landscape
The problem of degraded land
Retaining water in the landscape
Putting soil and water conservation into action
Chapter 7: Information for planning and managing water resources
References
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v
Contributors
Robyn Johnston, Ameer Rajah and Soumya Balasubramanya (IWMI, Colombo, Sri Lanka); Sonali Senaratna Sellamuttu,
Matthew McCartney, Paul Pavelic, Somphasith Douangsavanh, Guillaume Lacombe, Touleelor Sotoukee and Diana Suhardiman
(IWMI, Vientiane, Lao PDR); Cho, Khin Latt, Aye Myint, Kyaw ein and Aung Kyaw Zan (National Engineering and Planning
Services [NEPS], Yangon, Myanmar); Olivier Jore (Independent consultant); and Ye aung Htut (Myanmar Marketing Research and
Development [MMRD] Research Services, Yangon, Myanmar)
is is a summary report based on the following three publications:
Report 1:
McCartney, M.; Pavelic, P.; Lacombe, G.; Latt, K.; Zan, A.K.; ein, K.; Douangsavanh, S.; Balasubramanya, S.; Rajah, A.; Myint,
A.; Cho, C.; Johnston, R.; Sotoukee, T. 2013. Water resources assessment of the dry zone of Myanmar: nal report for component 1. [Project
report of the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT) Dry Zone Program]. Vientiane, Laos: International Water Management
Institute (IWMI); Yangon, Myanmar: National Engineering and Planning Services (NEPS). 52p. Available at http://publications.iwmi.
org/pdf/H046133.pdf (accessed on June 18, 2015).
Report 2:
Senaratna Sellamuttu, S.; Jore, O.; Suhardiman, D.; Balasubramanya, S.; Pavelic, P.; Htut, U.Y.T.; McCartney, M.; Johnston, R. 2013.
Community survey on water access, availability and management issues in the dry zone of Myanmar: nal report for component 2. [Project report
of the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT) Dry Zone Program]. Vientiane, Laos: International Water Management Institute
(IWMI); Yangon, Myanmar: Myanmar Marketing Research and Development (MMRD). 74p. Available at http://publications.iwmi.
org/pdf/H046134.pdf (accessed on June 18, 2015).
Report 3:
Johnston, R.; Rajah, A.; Balasubramanya, S.; Douangsavanh, S.; Lacombe, G.; McCartney, M.; Pavelic, P.; Senaratna Sellamuttu,
S.; Sotoukee, T.; Suhardiman, D.; Jore, O. 2013. Identifying priority investments in water in Myanmar’s dry zone: nal report for component
3. [Project report of the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT) Dry Zone Program]. Vientiane, Laos: International Water
Management Institute (IWMI). 53p. Available at http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H046135.pdf (accessed on June 18, 2015).
International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 2015. Improving water management in Myanmar’s dry zone for food security, livelihoods
and health. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 52p. doi: 10.5337/2015.213
/ water management / arid zones / food security / living standards / health / agroecosystems / rivers / runo / water resources / water use
/ water conservation / water accounting / reservoir storage / ponds / wells / domestic water / multiple use / groundwater irrigation /
groundwater recharge / rainwater / water harvesting / irrigated land / irrigation schemes / pumping / investment / landscape / land
degradation / rainfed farming / farmers / soil conservation / information management / Myanmar /
ISBN 978-92-9090-820-3
Copyright © 2015, by IWMI. All rights reserved. IWMI encourages the use of its material provided that the organization is acknowledged
and kept informed in all such instances.
Editorial consultant: Carolyn Fry; Copy editor: Mahen Chandrasoma; Designer: Mario Bahar, Gracewinds Advertising; Cartographer:
John Plumer; and Printer: Gunaratne Oset (Private) Ltd.
Cover photo by Matthew McCartney: Collecting water from a shallow dug well in the bed of the Sin Te Wa River in Myanmar's Dry Zone.
Please send enquiries and comments to iwmi@cgiar.org
A free copy of this publication can be downloaded at: http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Other/Reports/PDF/improving-water-
management-in-myanmars-dry-zone-for-food-security-livelihoods-and-health.pdf
Managing water variability is key to improving livelihoods in the Dry Zone
Variability in water resources and insucient capacity to manage that variability lies behind much of the
prevailing poverty and food insecurity in Myanmar’s central Dry Zone. Lack of reliable access to water
constrains livelihoods and the development of a vibrant agriculture sector. e poor and landless
are particularly vulnerable to climate shocks, such as droughts and oods, and other extreme weather
conditions. Experience in other developing agricultural economies indicates that water management is an
important entry point to improving smallholder production. It reduces the risk of crop failure, facilitates
cultivation of a second crop, and enables farmers to invest in improved crop varieties and fertilizers.
For landless people, it improves opportunities for employment.
Reduced rainfall is making rainfed farming more difficult
Rainfall is highly variable at the onset of the wet season. is unpredictability, which is particularly high
in the central part of the Dry Zone, impedes agricultural production by increasing the risk of drought at
the beginning of the rainfed crop cycle. Farmers’ diculties are being compounded by lower than usual
rainfall; historical records indicate that, in recent decades, there has been a signicant reduction in the
amount of rainfall received in northern parts of the Dry Zone in June.
Access to water is more limiting than availability
Surface water from rivers and storage reservoirs is plentiful, but sparse infrastructure and the high costs
of pumping constrain people’s access to it. Estimated volumes of water used in irrigation (~7,540
million cubic meters [Mm]y) are small compared to runo (~39,000 Mmy) and less than 3% of
the total ow of the major river, the Irrawaddy (~360,000 Mmy). is suggests that there is potential
to expand irrigation in the future.
Formal irrigation is underperforming
e Government of Myanmar has made considerable eorts to expand irrigation, using gravity-fed canal
and reservoir schemes, river pumping, and groundwater systems. However, the performance of formal
irrigation schemes has been suboptimal, and the actual area irrigated is much lower than the planned
command area. is is attributed to a mix of issues, including inadequate funding; communities’ limited
technical capacity for operating and maintaining facilities; availability and cost of energy for pumped
systems; and a lack of exibility in water delivery and scheduling. e eciency of existing irrigation
Main messages
PHOTO: SHUTTERSTOCK
1
schemes is very low; less than 5% of water abstracted is transpired by crops. ere is, therefore, signicant
scope for improving irrigation eciency and crop water productivity. Farmers need better agronomic
advice to help them make the best use of irrigation water.
Rainfed agriculture remains the dominant livelihood
At present, 515,000 hectares (ha) (less than 16% of the cultivated land in the Dry Zone) has irrigation
infrastructure in place, and the proportion of farmland actually irrigated is even lower. In 2000,
the government set a national target to make irrigation available across 25% of cultivated land, with
the emphasis on providing irrigation for summer paddy cultivation. Even if this target is achieved,
rainfed agriculture will remain the primary livelihood for a large proportion of the rural population,
including many of the country’s poorest people. Increasing the productivity of rainfed agricultural systems
will be key to achieving food security and increasing household wealth.
Groundwater is a critical but limited resource
Although information on groundwater is sparse, current data suggest that the Dry Zone has moderate
levels of the resource, with annual local recharge estimated at 4,777 Mmy. is is equivalent to about
half of the current surface water storage and less than 2% of total surface water resources. We estimate
that this is sucient to irrigate a further 110,000 to 330,000 ha. While groundwater is extremely
important for the Dry Zone, its utilization must be planned and developed carefully to ensure it is
used sustainably over the long term. e level of investment needed to establish groundwater irrigation
schemes is highly dependent on the local conditions. erefore, hydrogeological investigations are crucial
to ensure eective planning and nancing.
Farmers are using pumps to take water management into their own hands
Some farmers in the Dry Zone are adopting small-scale individual pumping of surface water and
groundwater to overcome the vagaries of rainfall and shortfalls in existing formal irrigation schemes.
ey typically use small, motorized pumps to access water from shallow wells or streams. e best
returns come from cultivating high-value crops. is can be an important means for farmers to improve
their livelihoods, particularly during the dry season when alternative livelihood options are
limited. Careful management and regulation of individual pumping is needed to prevent over-extraction
of water resources.
Small-scale water management technologies can bring many benefits
Supporting small-scale agriculture is essential. Farmer-
managed technologies, such as rainwater harvesting
ponds and small-scale pumping, have signicant
advantages in terms of their exibility, reliability, ease
of use and simple maintenance. All villagers benet
from having assured access to water for domestic uses
and livestock watering, while those without land gain
opportunities to work within irrigated farming systems.
Across Asia, small-scale agricultural water management
technologies have been demonstrated to improve
yields, reduce risks associated with climate variability
and increase incomes. In many countries, water
management by smallholders is overtaking the public
irrigation sector, in terms of the number of farmers
involved, the area covered and the value of production.
2
PHOTO: SANJIV DE SILVA/IWMI
3
“All farmer types, including the landless,
considered rehabilitating or constructing
rainwater harvesting ponds to be a high priority”
PHOTO: SHUTTERSTOCK
It is important to consider multiple uses of water when planning
A community-level qualitative survey, conducted in 24 villages, identied the water management
approaches preferred by communities. All farmer types, including the landless, considered rehabilitating
or constructing rainwater harvesting ponds to be a high priority, since these ponds provide access to
water for drinking, other domestic uses and livestock watering. Landed and marginal farmers favored
rehabilitating or extending existing irrigation infrastructure, but further investigations are needed to nd
ways of making these options more cost-eective. Groundwater wells were also popular options for many
people. It is important that water interventions are embedded into broader village livelihood strategies and
that they provide for multiple uses, rather than simply focusing on supplying water for irrigation. Priority
should be given to interventions that will improve the livelihoods and well-being of the poorest people and
those without land.
Simple solutions, but no single solution
e Dry Zone’s diversity of physical environments, farming systems, water access and irrigation
infrastructure creates signicantly dierent development opportunities and priorities between villages,
even over quite small distances. A strategic water resources plan could avoid the largely piecemeal,
non-sustainable development of water resources that has occurred in the past. Such a plan must
recognize that there are no blanket solutions; rather, water-related interventions must be tailored
to individual settlements. Local communities and agencies have a good understanding of the issues
aecting particular villages and the potential solutions that could help to resolve those problems.
e need is not so much for new technologies but for approaches that can rene, target and more
eectively implement known technologies.
Priority investments
Studies conducted by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) identied the following key
methods to target investments in agricultural water management in the Dry Zone.
• Review the water and energy
productivity of existing irrigation
schemes before undertaking major
rehabilitation programs or
constructing new schemes.
• Support sustainable development of
groundwater using tube wells to
secure village supplies and provide
for small-scale supplementary
irrigation.
• Invest in improved design and
maintenance of small reservoirs for
rainwater harvesting and storage.
• Promote soil and water conservation
approaches to repair and revitalize
degraded land; protect infrastructure
from sediment damage; and manage
water at eld and watershed scales.
• Strengthen water resources planning
and generate information that can
guide future development.
PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI
4
CHAPTER 1:
Water for livelihoods in
Myanmar’s Dry Zone
About the study
In 2012-2013, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), in collaboration with National
Engineering and Planning Services (NEPS) and Myanmar Marketing Research and Development
(MMRD) Research Services, undertook a rapid assessment on behalf of the Livelihoods and Food Security
Trust (LIFT) to: (i) assess the water resources of Myanmar’s Dry Zone; (ii) evaluate key issues associated
with water availability, access and management; and (iii) identify priority areas for investment in water
management that would improve livelihoods and food security of the local communities. e study
comprised three main components:
• An assessment of surface water and groundwater resources, considering availability, current uses,
patterns, trends and variability at dierent spatial and temporal scales (Box 1).
• A community-level qualitative survey to evaluate issues of water availability, access and
management for people with dierent livelihoods in 24 villages (Box 2).
• Analysis of existing irrigation programs, investment patterns and outcomes, including
recommendations on where to prioritize future investments.
e study encompassed: (i) a review of existing information and published literature on water resources in
the Dry Zone of Myanmar; (ii) meetings and interviews held with government agencies and development
partners, including nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), with water-related programs in villages in
the Dry Zone; and (iii) a village-based survey. Particular attention was given to evolving patterns of
groundwater use for irrigation, in light of its increasing importance and concerns about sustainable use
of the resource.
Myanmar’s central Dry Zone
e Dry Zone lies within Myanmar’s central plains, which are bounded by mountains to the east and west.
Encompassing parts of Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing, it covers more than 75,000 km and represents
13% of the country’s land area. e population of the Dry Zone is estimated to be around 10 million
people, out of a total national population of 51.4 million (LIFT 2015; Department of Population 2014).
Managing water variability is key to improving livelihoods in the Dry Zone
Variability in water resources and insucient capacity to manage that variability lies behind much of the
prevailing poverty and food insecurity in Myanmar’s central Dry Zone. Lack of reliable access to water
constrains livelihoods and the development of a vibrant agriculture sector. e poor and landless
are particularly vulnerable to climate shocks, such as droughts and oods, and other extreme weather
conditions. Experience in other developing agricultural economies indicates that water management is an
important entry point to improving smallholder production. It reduces the risk of crop failure, facilitates
cultivation of a second crop, and enables farmers to invest in improved crop varieties and fertilizers.
For landless people, it improves opportunities for employment.
Reduced rainfall is making rainfed farming more difficult
Rainfall is highly variable at the onset of the wet season. is unpredictability, which is particularly high
in the central part of the Dry Zone, impedes agricultural production by increasing the risk of drought at
the beginning of the rainfed crop cycle. Farmers’ diculties are being compounded by lower than usual
rainfall; historical records indicate that, in recent decades, there has been a signicant reduction in the
amount of rainfall received in northern parts of the Dry Zone in June.
Access to water is more limiting than availability
Surface water from rivers and storage reservoirs is plentiful, but sparse infrastructure and the high costs
of pumping constrain people’s access to it. Estimated volumes of water used in irrigation (~7,540
million cubic meters [Mm]y) are small compared to runo (~39,000 Mmy) and less than 3% of
the total ow of the major river, the Irrawaddy (~360,000 Mmy). is suggests that there is potential
to expand irrigation in the future.
Formal irrigation is underperforming
e Government of Myanmar has made considerable eorts to expand irrigation, using gravity-fed canal
and reservoir schemes, river pumping, and groundwater systems. However, the performance of formal
irrigation schemes has been suboptimal, and the actual area irrigated is much lower than the planned
command area. is is attributed to a mix of issues, including inadequate funding; communities’ limited
technical capacity for operating and maintaining facilities; availability and cost of energy for pumped
systems; and a lack of exibility in water delivery and scheduling. e eciency of existing irrigation
PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI
5
Teams from IWMI and NEPS evaluated existing water resources, describing sources and availability of
water, and the context in which decisions about water management are made. The research team obtained
information, including hydrometeorological records, and data on groundwater availability, quality and use,
from the Irrigation Department (ID), Water Resources Utilization Department (WRUD) of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI), and the Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (within the Ministry of
Transport). Other data were sourced from publicly available regional and global datasets. Data are not
consolidated centrally in Myanmar, and the way data are reported varies between agencies and regions.
IWMI scientists analyzed the following:
• Spatial and temporal variability in rainfall patterns based on historical records and global
synthetic datasets.
• River flows from (limited) records available at three gauging stations.
• Available water storage (based on government records of large and small reservoirs) compared
to potential runoff (based on standardized rainfall-runoff relationships derived by MOAI).
• Irrigable areas based on estimates from MOAI and previous studies.
• Actual irrigated area in the dry season of 2012, based on high-resolution satellite imagery.
• Water volumes consumed in irrigation, using estimates of evapotranspiration (ET) derived from
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite data.
• Groundwater availability and quality, and current rates of extraction based on government estimates
and compilation of existing studies.
• Potential for groundwater development, based on comparison of estimated levels of extraction
relative to recharge.
For more information, see McCartney et al. 2013.
Box 1: Assessing water resources of Myanmar’s Dry Zone
IWMI and its national partners carried out a community-level qualitative survey in 24 villages across the
three divisions of Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing. The research team undertook three mixed-gender
focus group discussions in each village (a total of 72), at which three types of farmers were interviewed:
(i) landed - those who owned between 5 and 15 acres
1
(2.0 and 6.1 ha) of farming land; (ii) marginal - those
who owned less than 5 acres (2.0 ha) and were not food-secure throughout the year; and (iii) landless - those
who neither owned nor rented land for farming and were not food-secure throughout the year. The aim of the
focus group discussions was to gain a better understanding of the relationships between water-related
issues and local livelihood strategies, especially for the marginal and landless farmers.
Villagers were asked about (i) the sources of water available to them; (ii) how they used that water
(e.g., irrigation, livestock and domestic purposes); (iii) key constraints to availability and access, and how
this affected their livelihood strategies and food security; (iv) coping strategies adopted by households
and communities in the event of weather-related shocks, such as droughts; (v) perceived solutions
and opportunities; (vi) interventions that had worked; (vii) lessons learned; and (viii) perspectives on
priority measures and investments for the future. Institutional arrangements were examined at village or
community level to identify how they related to farming strategies, water management practices and
domestic water use. The focus group discussions highlighted a wide disparity between villages in terms of:
(i) sources of water; (ii) availability of water spatially and through time; and (iii) how they were able to access
water for different purposes.
For more information, see Senaratna Sellamuttu et al. 2013.
Box 2: IWMI’s community-level survey
1 1 acre = 0.404686 hectares; 1 hectare = 2.47105 acres
6
7
e Dry Zone is mostly at, with the Irrawaddy River (joined by the Chindwin River) owing through it
from north to south (Figure 1). e Bago Hills range runs parallel to the Irrawaddy River in the southern
part of the Dry Zone, gaining altitude towards the north and ending in southeast Mandalay. Fertile
alluvial soil is found along the banks of the major rivers, but the Bago Hills are sandstone and have less
fertile sandy soil. As its name suggests, the Dry Zone is the driest region of the country, with annual rainfall
between 500 and 1,000 mm.
Agricultural livelihoods dominate
Agriculture, primarily rainfed, provides livelihoods for a large proportion of the rural population,
including many of the country’s poorest people. According to JICA (2010), 58% of those living in the
region are farmers and 25% are farm laborers. Similarly, other studies (World Bank 2012) also indicate
that farming and casual labor in the agriculture sector are the two key livelihood activities in the Dry Zone.
is evidence matches the ndings of IWMI’s community-level survey.
e distribution of cultivable land is highly skewed. Although estimates of landlessness dier widely,
most available evidence suggests that approximately half of all rural households have no rights to use
any cultivable land (Haggblade et al. 2013). ey rely on casual labor to earn an income, primarily
from agriculture or other activities, such as raising livestock. Pronounced seasonality of agricultural
employment, a paucity of alternative jobs and low wages constrain annual earnings. Faced with lower
incomes and higher poverty rates than land-owning families, landless households are more likely to go
hungry and borrow money to purchase food. However, because land serves as collateral in informal
lending, landless households typically have less access to credit than those that own land.
Food insecurity and malnutrition are very common in the Dry Zone. A survey conducted by LIFT (2013)
found that 18% of households had inadequate food for consumption, and more than a quarter of children
under the age of ve were underweight. Households with poor access to land and markets, and those
relying on casual labor, are the most likely to have insucient food. Farming households are more likely
to be food-secure, but food security is precarious even for these families. In 2010, the food security of
41% of farming households was adversely aected by dry spells (WFP 2011).
e experiences of other developing agricultural economies indicate that improving water management
is an important rst step to increasing smallholder production. Better water management reduces the risk
of crop failure, allows for cultivation of a second crop, and enables farmers to invest in improved crop
varieties and fertilizers. With less than 16% of the cultivated land presently irrigated, increasing the
productivity of rainfed agricultural systems will be key to achieving food security, raising incomes and
improving livelihoods.
Water for livelihoods
e Dry Zone is the most water-stressed region of the country. Around 70% of households have access to
safe water for domestic use, which is close to the national average, but seasonal water scarcity is very
common (MNPED and MOH 2011). A quarter of all households reported having insucient water
during the dry summer season (WFP 2011). About a third of people draw their drinking water from
protected wells, and another third from tube wells. More than one-third of the population does not have
access to sanitation facilities.
Access to water varies greatly between communities. Villagers derive water for farming and domestic use
from a combination of sources, including rivers and streams, large and small reservoirs, village ponds and
groundwater. Even within a single village, access to agricultural and domestic water can vary very widely.
Figure 1: The demographics of Myanmar's Dry Zone, showing the population density of
townships and distribution of landless households. (Source: Boundary/townships as defined by the
Myanmar Information Management Unit [MIMU] [Map Id.: MIMU983V01], March 2013 [www.themimu.info/];
Statistics on population density, poverty and landless households from JICA 2010).
8
IWMI’s community-level survey found that, of the water collected for use in villages (excluding irrigation),
about 15-20% was allocated for drinking purposes, about 50% for other domestic uses and 30-40% for
livestock watering. e relative proportions allocated between dierent uses did not appear to change
signicantly between seasons, during droughts or for the dierent types of farm households identied.
Agro-ecosystems of the Dry Zone
e Dry Zone’s agricultural systems are
complex; farmers cultivate paddy and
non-rice crops (pulses, oilseeds, cotton,
tobacco, vegetables and others), as well as
raising large and small livestock (Figure 2).
Traditionally, land in Myanmar is described
in terms of its suitability for dierent types
of cultivation, with the main distinction
between le (paddy) and ya (dryland) lands
(Box 3). e Dry Zone is vital to Myanmar’s
agriculture sector, producing most of the
country’s sesame, groundnuts and pulses
(a major export earner), and 22% of its
rice. Almost half of all the cattle, and more
than two-thirds of all the sheep and goats in
Myanmar are raised in the Dry Zone.
Box 3: Traditional land types in Myanmar’s Dry Zone
Le (paddy land): Flat land suitable for paddy cultivation, often with
impermeable heavy soils. Level terraces on hill slopes for paddy are also
classified as le lands. Paddy is cultivated in the wet season, with a
second crop of rice or other crops (oilseeds, pulses) also grown,
depending on the availability of water.
Ya (dryland): Cropland not suitable
for paddy cultivation. In the rainy
season, farmers grow groundnut,
sesame, sunflower and pulses.
Kaing-kyung (alluvial land/island):
Land near rivers, flooded during the
rainy season, including areas within
riverbeds. Soils are generally fine,
sandy loams or loamy sands,
and very fertile. Oilseeds, pulses,
vegetables and tobacco are grown in the dry season.
Taung-ya (shifting cultivation): Shifting cultivation takes place on
land in hilly areas. Crops are grown only in the rainy season. Upland
rice is a major crop, but maize, sesame, soybean and vegetables
are also grown.
Source: JICA 2010.
PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI
9
Figure 2: Map of the agro-ecosystems of Myanmar's Dry Zone, showing locations and water
sources of the villages included in IWMI's community-level survey.
10
PHOTO: ISTOCKPHOTO
“Irrigation is used to secure the monsoon
crop, protecting the plants from dry spells
and low rainfall”
For the majority of farmers growing rainfed crops, decision making around planting is exible, and the
cropping calendar varies from year to year. On le and ya lands, farmers prepare the land between February
and May. ey then plant their monsoon crop between mid-May and mid-June, when soil moisture is
considered to be sucient. Pulses, such as green gram or chickpea, and oilseeds, such as sunower, are
cultivated until August or September. A second crop, such as groundnuts, chickpea or cotton, may follow,
using residual soil moisture (Figure 3).
Irrigated areas with year-round access to water lie mainly within formal irrigation schemes. ese
include major schemes, such as those in Minbu, Kyaukse and Ye-U, and smaller schemes – pumped
irrigation systems, in particular – along the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers. Irrigation is usually developed
on le lands that have higher agricultural potential, although some schemes report problems with
sandy soils. Small-scale groundwater irrigation is found in some areas, generally supporting small-scale
horticulture, which provides a high nancial return and is usually implemented by wealthier households.
e farming calendar on irrigated landholdings includes a summer crop of paddy, which is fully irrigated
from mid-February to May. Some farmers also plant a fast-growing crop, such as green gram or green pea,
in early March or April for harvesting in May or June. is is followed by a primarily rainfed monsoon
crop, such as paddy, which reaches maturity in October or November. Irrigation is used to secure the
monsoon crop, protecting the plants from dry spells and low rainfall.
Figure 3. Sample cropping patterns in the Dry Zone (Source: LIFT 2012; Note: G.nut = Groundnut).
Lowland irrigated
Summer paddy Monsoon paddy
Monsoon paddy
Monsoon paddy
Oilseeds or pulses
Oilseeds or pulsesOilseeds or pulses
Oilseeds or pulses
Oilseeds or pulses
Oilseeds or pulsesOilseeds or pulses
Riverbed and island
Rainfed system
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Horticulture/vegetables
G.nut/chickpea/cotton/maize
Sesame
Pigeon pea Pigeon pea – Sesame/cotton intercropping
12
CHAPTER 2:
Water resources
of the Dry Zone
The influence of climate
Mean annual rainfall in the Dry Zone ranges from 500 to 1,000 mm. is is low compared to the
2,000-5,000 mm range received by the rest of the country (Figure 4). Temperatures commonly reach
40 °C in the dry season. e Dry Zone is the only truly semi-arid area of Southeast Asia; annually, rates
of evaporation are more than double those of rainfall. e wet season, coinciding with the southwest
monsoon, lasts from May to October. e dry season is divided into winter (between November and
February) and summer (from March to April).
Figure 4: Mean monthly rainfall and potential evapotranspiration (PET) at Pakokku, close
to the center of Myanmar’s Dry Zone (Source: FAO LocClim: Local Climate Estimator
[http://www.fao.org/nr/climpag/pub/en0201_en.asp]).
Mean monthly rainfall (mm) Mean monthly potential evapotranspiration (PET)
Jan
mm
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
0
40
80
120
160
200 Mean annual rainfall: 632 mm
Mean annual PET: 1,399 mm
2 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) defines ‘semi-arid areas’ as having rainfall/potential evapotranspiration (PET) < 0.5.
PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI
13
e Dry Zone is characterized by erratic rainfall. Rainfall patterns dier widely between neighboring
districts and from year to year. ere is a widespread perception that, over the last 20 years, the
duration of the monsoon has reduced while rainfall events have become shorter but more intense.
IWMI conducted a rigorous statistical analysis of past rainfall trends, using a 56-year record (1951-2007)
from the APHRODITE dataset (Yatagai et al. 2012) (see McCartney et al. 2013 for a detailed description
of the methods used).
IWMI’s analyses (as outlined in Chapter 1, Box 1) conrmed the high spatial and temporal variability of
rainfall in the Dry Zone. e central area receives, on average, less than 500 mm of rainfall during the wet
season and less than 600 mm per year, while the periphery receives up to 1,000 mm annually. Despite this,
the dry season is relatively wetter in the center of the Dry Zone. is paradox arises because the wet season
is shorter here, and more light rainfall events occur during the onset and retreat of the monsoon. It is too
risky for farmers to try and use this rainfall to cultivate crops, as it comprises many light rainfall events
interspersed with long dry periods.
e date on which the wet season begins each year is much more variable than the date on which it starts
to retreat. is presents a major challenge for those farmers who rely exclusively on rainfall for water. Dry
spells within the wet season are particularly long in the center of the Dry Zone. e longest dry periods,
of up to 14 days, generally occur in late July or early August.
In recent decades, in northern parts of the Dry Zone, there has been a statistically signicant decline in
rainfall during June. It diminished by 50 mm (around half of the mean rainfall during June) over the
period 1966-2002 (Figure 5). Combined with the very high variability in the onset date of the wet season,
and its relatively short duration, this change has increased the risk of early drought at the beginning of the
rainfed crop cycle. e central part of the Dry Zone is particularly vulnerable. Observations of weather
patterns made by farmers largely tally with the scientic evidence (Box 4).
No statistically signicant trends were found in the
rainfall during the dry season, the start and end of
the wet season, or the length of the longest dry spell
during the wet season. However, the results conrm
that relatively low and variable rainfall are key
constraints to rainfed agriculture, particularly in the
center of the Dry Zone.
Historical data on Myanmar’s climate over the past
60 years indicate that temperatures have risen, on
average, by 0.8 °C per decade. According to regional
climate modelling, Myanmar is likely to experience
a warmer climate in the future, with a longer
summertime, heavier rainfall during the rainy season
in some areas and higher annual precipitation
overall. Additional climate change scenarios are
needed to address the uncertainty of these long-term
climate predictions (Han Swe 2014).
3 Asian Precipitation—Highly Resolved Observational Data Integration Towards Evaluation of Water Resources
4 Statistical significance > 90%.
PHOTO: ISTOCKPHOTO
14
Figure 5: Mean monthly rainfall patterns at four locations, with the associated trend slope
(grey bars) and statistical significance (dashes) computed for the period 1966-2002.
15
16
As part of IWMI’s community-level survey, farmers were asked to recall extreme climatic events (such as
droughts, floods and shifts in the timing of the monsoon) and to explain any impacts such events had
had on their livelihoods. Their experiences are presented here.
Dry spells
The most frequent weather phenomenon reported by farmers was the ‘dry spell’ (defined as a short period
without rainfall), which usually occurs around July during the early part of the monsoon. Of the 24 villages
in the sample, 20 reported dry spells. Dry spells are normal during the monsoon. However, if they last for
prolonged periods (i.e., more than 2 to 3 weeks), this can cause problems for farmers. During such times,
in situations where community water sources are limited to rainwater collection or shallow wells, even
access to water for domestic use can be affected. This was the case for Kha Ku Yan village in July 2012.
Water for domestic use and livestock became severely limited; villagers reported that many animals died.
In Kan Du Ma village, the weather turned dry after the first two rains of the year. Some farmers had to delay
cultivating their crops; others suffered losses due to the lack of water after sowing.
Droughts
Droughts (defined as low rainfall for the entire season) were less frequent, with only three villages affected
during the last decade. In 2004, a drought hit Ta Ein Tel village when the monsoon was late and rainfall
lasted for only 2 months. Farmers could not cultivate rice paddy, wheat produced a low yield, and
chickpeas could not be harvested. All types of farmers were affected, and households were compelled
to obtain loans to invest in a post-monsoon winter crop or to purchase seeds with credit. In some
cases, farmers sold their land and, where there was a lack of forage, also their cattle. Landless people
suffered from a lack of access to forage areas for their livestock, and could not find employment
opportunities in the village. Accessing drinking water was difficult; supplies had to be brought in by cart
from outside the village.
Early retreat of the monsoon
Although the end of the monsoon is generally more predictable than the onset, it sometimes ends earlier
than expected, leaving crops without water before they are ready for harvesting. In Taung Yinn village,
respondents described an occasion when the monsoon ended at least 4 weeks earlier than usual.
This affected the post-monsoon winter crop because there was less water available in the soil and the
temperature was higher. Lower production led farmers to sell livestock or land to repay loans they had
obtained to grow the crop. Unusually extensive infestation by pests increased farming costs. Meanwhile,
casual labor opportunities were hard to find, compelling landless farmers to obtain loans or migrate
seasonally to find employment.
Flooding
Floods often affect farmers’ monsoon crops. Both paddy and dryland crops can be damaged, if flooding is
sufficiently severe. This results in food insecurity and financial problems for households. In Taung Yinn
village, some land was submerged for up to 7 weeks during one monsoon season and farmers could not
cultivate their fields at this time. It particularly affected marginal farmers with limited access to other land.
Landless farmers had to seek casual labor outside of the village.
Cyclone Giri
This powerful tropical cyclone struck Myanmar in October 2010. In Kan Ma village, it seriously
damaged the main rainfed crop. Farmers sold their assets or obtained loans to support their
households. Casual workers could not find any work locally and had to migrate. Livestock were affected,
especially goats. In Thae Pyin Taw village, the storm severely damaged the second monsoon crop
and affected the supply of forage for livestock. Household members migrated to the cities of Mandalay
and Yangon to find work.
Box 4: Impacts of climatic events on villagers
Surface water resources
Rivers and runoff
e Irrawaddy River and its tributaries dominate surface water resources in the Dry Zone. e Chindwin
River is the major tributary of the Irrawaddy River; other signicant tributaries are the Mu, Shweli
and Myitnge. ese rivers provide water for irrigation and, in some places, recession agriculture, where
farmers capitalize on natural ows and sediments to irrigate and fertilize crops on oodplains. However,
some of the river courses are deeply incised into the landscape, so water for irrigation can only be
obtained by pumping.
River ows are highly seasonal. e larger rivers ow all year-round, but many of the smaller streams are
ephemeral. In some cases, when water levels fall below the level of the riverbed, ows continue in the sandy
aquifers of the river channel, and can be accessed through shallow wells and sand dams. Cultivation in dry
streambeds during the dry season is common, but carries a high risk of losing crops to early oods.
Water levels are measured at key locations in the Dry Zone during the wet season to provide ood-warning
alerts, but few measurements are made during the dry season. Seasonal variation in water ow is very high:
on average, around 85% of the ow in both the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers occurs during the wet
season between May and October. e ow of the Irrawaddy River in February, the month with the lowest
ow, is less than 2% of the total annual ow (Figure 6).
Storage in large and small reservoirs
Given the seasonal nature of rainfall, communities need to retain and store rainwater and runo received
during the wet season for use in the dry season. In the Dry Zone, existing facilities for this range from large
reservoirs, for irrigation schemes, to small village ponds. e Government of Myanmar has constructed
more than 60 large reservoirs (> 1 Mm), mainly within irrigation schemes (Figure 7). e total storage
capacity of these large reservoirs is estimated to be 7,760 Mm.
17
0
10,000
Jan Feb
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Mean annual flow
Chindwin at Monywa: 153,768 Mm³
Irrawaddy at Sagaing: 257,298 Mm³
Irrawaddy at Magway: 365,200 Mm³
Flow (Mm³)
Chindwin at Monywa Irrawaddy at Sagaing Irrawaddy at Magway
Figure 6: Mean monthly flow of the Chindwin River at Monywa, and the Irrawaddy River at
Sagaing and Magway (Source: derived from data provided by ID, Myanmar).
Figure 7: The locations of large reservoirs (> 1 Mm³), total volume of water held in small
reservoirs for each Dry Zone district, and the annual rate of groundwater recharge for each
district (Source: Groundwater recharge figures from MOAI 2003).
18
Runo captured in small storage facilities (< 1 Mm) provides a valuable water source for villagers. At
present, the total water storage capacity in approximately 2,000 small reservoirs is estimated to be 1,020
Mm. In the past 20 years, many small reservoirs, ponds and tanks have been constructed by MOAI
to provide water for domestic use, smallscale irrigation and livestock. NGOs, including ActionAid,
Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) and Proximity, have also worked to construct and
rehabilitate many such structures. Rehabilitation is required, as small reservoirs in the Dry Zone are often
prone to siltation and embankment failure.
Groundwater resources
e four major aquifer groups across the Dry Zone vary considerably in the quantity and quality of
groundwater they yield (Figure 8). e Irrawaddy and Alluvial groups constitute the most important
aquifers, supplying groundwater that is of sucient quality for both domestic and irrigation use. Suitable
resources are less common in areas underlain by Pegu and Eocene aquifers (Drury 1986).
ere is a widespread view that the groundwater reserves of the Dry Zone are vast and largely unexploited
(e.g., ESCAP 1995). e Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimated a
groundwater potential of 150 km for the Upper Irrawaddy and Chindwin river basins (Le Huu Ti and
Facon 2004). However, the hydrogeology of the area is complex, and little is known about the recharge and
transmission dynamics of the groundwater systems.
IWMI collated and analyzed data from MOAI on district-level estimates of rainfall-derived groundwater
recharge. is data indicated annual recharge rates to be around 30 mm to 90 mm, giving a total annual
recharge volume of 4,777 Mm for the Dry Zone. us, the annual replenishable volume that can be safely
used without diminishing the resource is around 2% of the total surface water resources and about 50%
of the total surface water storage. is does not indicate great abundance; rather, it points to a moderate
resource that must be planned and developed carefully to facilitate long-term use. Shallow alluvial
aquifers situated adjacent to the rivers may be supplemented by recharge from seasonal high ows, but the
magnitude and extent of this component of recharge must be evaluated.
Groundwater quality would appear to be t for general
purposes over large parts of the Dry Zone. It is generally of
low to moderate salinity (typically 1,000 to 2,000 µScm),
although brackish to saline groundwater is found, in particular,
in the Pegu aquifer in the western and central areas. High levels
of iron and manganese in the water are commonly reported,
but this does not usually constrain use. e extent of arsenic
contamination in the Dry Zone is not well established. Data
from WRUD, based on studies carried out between 1952 and
2013, indicate that around 80% of 30,000 samples from
Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing have arsenic concentrations
lower than the World Health Organization (WHO) drinking
water guideline value of 10 µgl. However, more than 100,000
people in the region could potentially be exposed to arsenic
concentrations that exceed the level of 10 µgl. Future projects
to exploit groundwater must ensure that arsenic levels are
acceptably low (Mr. Kyi Htut Win, WRUD, pers. comm.).
PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI
19
20
Figure 8: Geology of the Dry Zone. Hydrogeological cross-section illustrates the sequence
of strata in the Monywa to Chaung-U area
(Source: Main map adapted from FAO 2008; cross-section
modified from GDC 1984. Note: 1 foot = 0.3048000 meters; 1 mile = 1.60934 kilometers).
CHAPTER 3:
Improving irrigation
infrastructure
Irrigation began in the Dry Zone in the eleventh century under the reign of Anawrahta Minsaw, the
rst king of all of Myanmar. He constructed a series of weirs and tanks to provide water for paddy rice
cultivation. Under the British, who ruled between 1824 and 1948, some of the ancient weirs were replaced
with permanent brick and concrete diversions. However, these only functioned when the feeder streams
were in full ow, thus limiting irrigation to one crop a year. During the period from independence until
1962, irrigation weirs and tanks were built.
Since 1988, the Government of Myanmar has made considerable eorts to expand irrigation, with much
of this investment being made in the Dry Zone. According to MOAI, the area covered by irrigation
infrastructure in the region is now around 515,000 ha (combined estimates from ID and WRUD). is
is equivalent to around 5% of the total area and 12% of cultivated land (JICA 2010). In 2000, the
government set a national target to make irrigation available for 25% of agricultural land, with the
emphasis on providing water for cultivating summer paddy.
Types of irrigation
e majority of irrigation schemes in the Dry Zone are gravity-fed canal systems that draw water
from storage dams or weirs and are managed by ID (Figure 9). ese canal irrigation schemes were
designed mainly for irrigating paddy elds. ID reports 89 schemes in Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing,
with a total command area of around 344,000 ha. ese include major schemes (> 10,000 ha) at Kinde
and Sinthe (Mandalay); Natmauk, Kyiohn-kyiwa, Mann Caung and Salin (Magway); and Ye-U,
downstream of the aphanseik Dam (Sagaing).
Since 2000, there has been a focus on developing large pump irrigation projects that draw water
from rivers using high-discharge pumps. WRUD has implemented 18 schemes covering more than 71,000
ha in Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing; another seven projects with a total command area of almost
50,000 ha are either planned or under construction. WRUD also lists 165 completed smaller schemes,
5 Figures are for the Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing regions; the Dry Zone lies within these regions, but covers a smaller area.
PHOTO: MATTHEW McCARTNEY/IWMI
21
22
with an irrigable area of 67,000 ha, along with nine additional projects covering 5,800 ha, which are
planned or under construction (WRUD 2013). Pump irrigation projects usually provide water for both
rice and non-rice crops. Spate irrigation, which makes use of seasonal oods, has also been trialed, for
example, at Shwe Hlan Bo in Mandalay Division, as well as in small village schemes (Spate Irrigation
Network 2013).
ese gures do not include informal, small-scale pumping from private tube wells, which is
becoming increasingly widespread, particularly for growing horticultural crops (see Chapter 4). Although
groundwater currently represents only around 5% of formal irrigation, its use is increasing more
rapidly than that of other water sources, in part, due to informal use.
\
Irrigated areas and water use
e extent of irrigation within the Dry Zone is not well established. e MOAI estimate of 515,000 ha
for the total command area excludes farmer-managed irrigation outside of formal schemes. Estimates from
other sources range from 386,110 ha (JICA 2010) to 685,246 ha (FAO 2008). Current irrigation is
primarily used to extend the wet season growing period or to safeguard wet-season crops, rather than
for full irrigation of dry-season crops. Previous government programs mandated production of rice on
le (paddy) lands, and promoted production of summer paddy in irrigation systems. Most formal irrigation
systems have areas designated for paddy and other crops, although control over the types of crops
cultivated has now been relaxed.
e actual area irrigated is likely to be much lower than the estimates of the total command area.
For example, WRUD reported that, in 2012-2013, only 26% of the nominal area of the Nyaung-U
Pumped Irrigation Project was actually irrigated in the wet season and 15% in the dry season. A
government report released by the Auditor General’s Oce in 2012 found that, nationally, “Sixty-seven
river water pumping stations have achieved 16.3% of their target, providing water to 48,833 acres out of
the 299,895 acres originally planned.” ey concluded that some reservoirs and diversion dams could
not supply water at all.
IWMI scientists mapped the actual irrigated area of the Dry Zone during the dry season from
November 2011 to April 2012 using Google Earth images. Areas actually irrigated were generally
distinguishable from non-irrigated dry elds by their green color (Figure 10). Riverbank recession
Figure 9: Areal extent of different irrigation types across Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing.
(Source: WRUD 2013)
344,000 ha
71,000 ha
67,000 ha
33,000 ha
Canal command systems
Large river pumping systems
Small pumping systems
Groundwater systems
agriculture and any areas of cropland growing on residual moisture were indistinguishable from irrigated
crops, and were hence included in the analysis. IWMI calculated the total delineated area to be 260,000
ha, including both formal and informal irrigation. is work conrmed that the actual area irrigated in the
dry season is considerably less than the ocial command area of formal irrigation schemes.
is situation does not, on the whole, reect a physical shortage of water. ID estimates withdrawals
for the 344,000-ha canal command area in the Dry Zone to be 7,536 Mmy. is is a very small amount
compared to river ow, representing less than 3% of the total ow of the Irrawaddy River.
Currently, the availability of surface water from rivers and storage is less limiting than access; infrastructure
is scarce in remote areas located away from the major rivers, and the costs of pumping are often prohibitive.
Figure 10: Satellite image captured during 2015 around Kyauktan in the Dry Zone,
showing the clear greening effect of irrigation (Source: Google Earth, image © 2015 CNES/Astrium).
23
24
Figure 11: Average monthly actual evapotranspiration (ET) rates (mmd⁻¹) during 2012 for
rainfed and irrigated locations in the Dry Zone (around the confluence of the Chindwin and
Irrawaddy rivers), showing enhanced ET from irrigation during July to December.
Note: Error bars correspond to standard deviation between the five points used to compute ET.
To estimate irrigation water requirements across the Dry Zone, IWMI scientists compared
evapotranspiration (ET) from irrigated fields and nearby rainfed crops identified from Google Earth images.
Monthly ET during the period 2011-2012 was estimated using MODIS 16 global ET data. For fully
irrigated fields, actual ET should be close to potential evapotranspiration (PET). During the height of
the wet season, between June and August, irrigated and rainfed areas around the edges of the Dry
Zone exhibited actual ET rates close to PET. This indicates that irrigation was not significantly beneficial
to wet-season crops in these areas in 2011 and 2012, presumably because rainfall was sufficient to
enable crop growth. In contrast, in the center of the Dry Zone, rates of actual ET from irrigated areas
remained above those from rainfed areas throughout July to September, highlighting the important role
of irrigation in supporting wet-season crop growth in this region (Figure 11). The incremental ET due to
irrigation was apparent during September to November, but actual ET of both rainfed and irrigated areas
during December to April was significantly below PET, indicating that there was negligible irrigation
during these months.
Over the years 2011 and 2012, irrigation enabled between 22 mm and 106 mm of additional ET depending
on the location. This equates to a maximum estimate of 386 Mm³ of irrigation water over the 340,000 ha of
irrigated canal command areas managed by ID. Compared to its estimate of 7,536 Mm³ for irrigation
withdrawals, this indicates that, at best, only about 5% of the water diverted for irrigation is effective in
contributing to crop transpiration.
Box 5: How much water do farmers in the Dry Zone need?
0
1.0
Jan Feb
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
ET in mm
ET rainfed ET irrigated Potential ET
In addition, current irrigation eciency is very low (Box 5). IWMI’s calculation that, at best, only about
5% of the water diverted for irrigation is eective in contributing to crop transpiration suggests that there
is scope for improving the eciency of irrigation schemes within the Dry Zone.
6 MMK 1 = USD 0.00089 (exchange rate as at June 2015).
Constraints to irrigation
So, why are the actual irrigated areas and overall eciency of irrigation so low? A major issue for pumped
irrigation projects is the availability and cost of energy for pumping, although many other factors
also aect the performance of formal irrigation schemes. ese include: (i) problems with the design,
operation and maintenance; (ii) inappropriate siting of infrastructure and soil characteristics; and (iii) lack
of agronomic advice to help farmers make the best use of irrigation. ese issues are compounded by
inadequate funding, and by communities having insucient technical capacity to operate and maintain
facilities in the long term.
Irrigation is highly subsidized; although there are charges for water, these are not sucient to
cover operational costs. Farmers pay a standard MMK 9,000 per acre per season for full irrigation
of paddy in the dry season; MMK 6,000 per acre per season for irrigation of non-paddy crops in the
dry season; and MMK 3,000 per acre per season for irrigation during the wet season, regardless of the
type of crop. WRUD sta in Nyaung-U estimated the actual operational cost for pumped irrigation
projects (including pumping and maintenance, but excluding capital costs) to be around MMK
40,000-45,000 per acre.
How water is managed and distributed within irrigation schemes is critical. IWMI’s community-level
survey indicated that unequal distribution of water, which causes crop failure, and leads to conicts
between head- and tail-end farmers, often resulted from a lack of clear and transparent institutional
arrangements. Without a coherent structure in place, water management committees and WRUD are not
able to regulate and coordinate water distribution adequately.
Using irrigation wisely in the future
Where farmers have access to formal irrigation infrastructure, repairing and improving the systems
is a high priority. IWMI’s community-level survey showed that, for villages practicing year-round
irrigation, rehabilitating or extending existing irrigation infrastructure was the most preferred
water management option for landed farmers, and the second-most popular option for marginal
and landless farmers. is reects the fact that agriculture represents 33% of the income portfolio of
marginal farmers in irrigated areas, and between 38% and 58% of the income of landless villagers
through casual labor.
e government and development partners have explored options for rehabilitating formal irrigation
infrastructure. For example, Anderson Irrigation and Engineering Services Ltd. (2012), on behalf of
the United States Oce for Project Services (UNOPS), looked at increasing the eciency and
eectiveness of pumped irrigation schemes. While they seem like obvious targets for investment,
rehabilitating and expanding formal irrigation schemes should be approached with caution. e costs
are high and, until the factors constraining the performance of current irrigation schemes are better
understood and managed, the risks are also high.
For example, unless the energy required for pumping can be guaranteed, investments in rehabilitating
or constructing pumped irrigation projects may be lost. e report by the Auditor General’s Oce quoted
previously recommended that inecient irrigation schemes should be abandoned, not rehabilitated.
25
26
Assessing the effectiveness of irrigation
Before investments are made, interested parties should assess the relative eectiveness of the dierent
modes of irrigation (gravity schemes, pumped irrigation projects, groundwater, and small-scale,
farmer-managed pumping from surface water and groundwater) in terms of the impacts on water and
energy productivity, as well as yields, farm incomes and livelihoods. It is important that irrigation
is analyzed for its role in increasing living standards and reducing poverty, as well as determining
whether it is economically and technically viable.
Formal irrigation schemes are not necessarily an ecient way of addressing rural poverty, since benets
tend to accrue most to larger, semi-commercial farms. In livelihood terms, formal irrigation schemes serve
only a small proportion of households (since they cover, at most, 16% of cultivated land). However, as
IWMI’s community-level survey preferences indicated, the landless also benet through employment.
Experience from other countries suggests that irrigation alone is unlikely to make a big dierence to the
incomes and livelihoods of farmers. Investments are needed to structure input and output market chains,
so that farmers have access to high-quality seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, and are able to procure a fair
price for their crops. Also, if farmers are to make the best use of irrigation through good crop choices,
and employing suitable in-eld soil and water management techniques, they require extension services
providing sound agronomic advice. Commodity exchange centers, wholesale warehouses and storage
facilities are also important.
e government’s agricultural policies related to summer paddy production and crop diversication have
been important drivers of irrigation development and management. As Myanmar moves from centralized
to decentralized policies, reforming and revitalizing formal irrigation systems will require redening the
roles, responsibilities, tasks and expectations of the government and communities around operating and
maintaining these systems. Past irrigation developments have not necessarily reected farmers’ needs and
priorities. Future approaches must allow local communities to represent their aspirations for irrigation
development, and to inuence the type of schemes implemented and how they are managed. is will
likely require some capacity building within communities.
PHOTO: ROBYN JOHNSTON/IWMI
CHAPTER 4:
Investing in
groundwater
Groundwater for domestic use and livestock watering
Groundwater is a critical resource for domestic and village use in Myanmar. Nationally, about 45%
of people draw their drinking water from protected or unprotected dug wells, and another third from
tube wells. WRUD estimate that, in Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing, 6.65 million people have access
to domestic water supplies from more than 13,700 wells, two-thirds of which are deep (WRUD 2013).
In many villages, multiple sources are used to access domestic water supplies seasonally. Drinking water
is primarily accessed from wells, but water for livestock and washing is drawn from open ponds in the
wet season or shallow wells in the dry season.
Village ponds often dry out early in the dry season and villagers will then revert to more reliable subsurface
supplies. Substantial gains have been made in developing safe water supplies since the mid1980s, when
only one-fth of village domestic supplies were derived from tube wells, but unprotected shallow dug
wells are still a relatively important source of water within villages in the Dry Zone. e high mortality rate
of children under 5 years old (38 per 1,000 live births [JICA 2010]) is partly attributed to waterborne
diseases from unprotected sources.
IWMI’s community-level survey conrmed the success and importance of deep tube wells for village water
supplies. Such wells, with motorized pumps providing a ow at 6.8 m/h, can supply domestic water for
an average village with 800-1,000 inhabitants (JICA 2007). e wells provide reliable, high-quality water
during all the seasons, beneting the entire community. After installing deep tube wells in villages, JICA
(2007) reported a reduced time for fetching water, fewer cases of diarrhea, dysentery and skin diseases, and
increased water consumption in poor households. In most cases, deep wells are used exclusively for
domestic and livestock purposes (and often primarily for drinking water) due to the cost of pumping.
e cost of installing a well and electric pump for a village system can be as high as USD 40,000 (JICA
2010). However, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) reported a high success rate in
drilling, with all 49 wells in their study capable of delivering the required volume of water. Maintenance
of pumps is an ongoing concern, requiring support. JICA addressed this by training engineers, and
establishing village water committees to manage the water supply and maintain pumps (JICA 2007).
IWMI’s study only identied one community where drilling for water had been unsuccessful.
PHOTO: MATTHEW McCARTNEY/IWMI
27
28
e high cost of wells can drive communities to seek alternative lower-cost water supplies, such as
shallow wells or rainwater collection from rooftops. Shallow tube wells using manual or motorized
lifting equipment are important for village supplies, but the quality and quantity of water from shallow
aquifers are less reliable. For shallow wells, the NGO Proximity has developed cheap, plastic (so-called
‘baby elephant’) foot pumps that, at USD 13, are a fraction of the price of conventional treadle pumps.
ese are limited to water tables within 8 m of the surface, although pressure pump models are available
that can lift water from greater depths. Solidarités International has had success with implementing
village-level solar pumps for domestic water supplies under a payback scheme. e United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and ADRA have also undertaken trials of using solar pumps for supplying
water for domestic purposes.
Groundwater for irrigation
Large- and medium-scale groundwater irrigation projects have been developed at multiple locations in the
Dry Zone, based on both pumped and artesian systems. Around 33,000 ha are already irrigated under
groundwater schemes, with plans to expand this to almost 100,000 ha (Johnston et al. 2013). However,
this is only part of the story. As in other parts of Asia (Mukherji et al. 2009), the advent of aordable small,
motorized pumps is resulting in the rapid expansion of small-scale, individually managed pumping in
Myanmar. Pumping groundwater for irrigation is emerging not only in rainfed areas, where expected, but
also within irrigation command areas where there are shortfalls in supply.
Small-scale, farmer-managed pumping has signicant advantages over formal irrigation in terms of its
exibility, reliability, ease of use and simple maintenance. Where groundwater supplies are available and
sustainable, it has proved to be an aordable and eective way of increasing production. As an added
benet, the water is also commonly used for domestic and livestock purposes. In IWMI’s community-level
survey, all types of farmers (landed, marginal and landless) expressed a strong preference for shallow
wells with diesel pumps over communal deep wells with electric pumps to access water for irrigation,
presumably on the grounds of cost, exibility and autonomy.
Existing groundwater infrastructure
A study tour to the Dry Zone in February 2013 identied four main types of groundwater use for
agriculture:
• Deep tube wells
Typically drilled to more than 30 m in depth, deep tube wells are used in formal irrigation schemes
implemented by WRUD, usually with funding or support from international donors. Examples are the
Monywa Groundwater Irrigation Project and the 99-pond Yinmarbin Artesian Zone Project, both in
Sagaing Division. ese systems typically draw water from deep tube wells and rely on dedicated
multi-phase power supplies for large electric pumps. In some cases, such as at Yinmarbin, naturally
‘free-owing’ artesian groundwater occurs. ey support command areas fed by a distribution network
of lined and un-lined canals.
• Shallow tube wells and permanent dug wells
Typically less than 30 m deep, these wells require much lower upfront and ongoing capital
investments, and are mostly nanced and managed by farmers, either individually or in small groups.
Small motorized pumps are used to lift the water. Usually, these wells irrigate small areas of high-value
crops, such as vegetables, which are grown to supply local or regional markets. In some cases, a mixture
of surface water and shallow groundwater sources is used, dictated by seasonal availability.
29
• Shallow dug wells
ese wells are constructed annually in alluvial riverbeds (kaing-kyung lands) when water levels recede
during the pre-monsoon season. Villagers construct rudimentary wells or pits and then extract water
using ropes and buckets, human or animal-operated mechanical pumps or, occasionally, treadle or
motorized pumps.
• Indirect pumping
is is opportunistic dry-season irrigation, where farmers draw water from the open pools present in
irrigation canals using small, motorized pumps. ese pools reect the local groundwater table, and are
sourced mainly from inltrated canal water and subsurface return ows from nearby elds. In the wet
season, the same infrastructure is used to draw surface water from the canals.
Availability and sustainability of groundwater resources
Although existing estimates of groundwater resources in the Irrawaddy and Chindwin river basins are high
(Le Huu Ti and Facon 2004), district-level estimates of groundwater recharge rates suggest that the Dry
Zone only has around 4,777 Mmy of replenishable resources. As previously mentioned, to facilitate
long-term use, this moderate resource must be planned and developed carefully.
PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI
30
At district level, current withdrawals relative to annual replenishment levels vary from 5% in Monywa to
55% in Sagaing, with a district average of 23%. is highlights the potential to extend the area being
irrigated by exploiting groundwater. Assuming that around 50% of the annual recharge should be retained
to underpin ecosystems and environmental services (Pavelic et al. 2012), IWMI estimates that a further
110,000 to 330,000 ha of land could be irrigated, depending on the water demand associated with the
crops selected and local climatic conditions (Table 1).
Almost two-thirds of that potential lies in the districts of Monywa, Shwebo and Pakokku, where the most
prospective Alluvial and Irrawaddy group aquifers predominate. Monywa and Pakokku, in particular, have
limited surface water irrigation, and a high proportion of rainfed lands. e viability of groundwater
irrigation from relatively shallow aquifers (8-20 m) has already been amply demonstrated in Monywa.
ese districts are thus a logical starting point for further investments in groundwater irrigation.
Constraints to developing groundwater supplies
ere are areas where it will not be appropriate to develop groundwater resources, because of poor water
quality or excessive depths to access the water. Groundwater quality is suitable for general purposes over
large parts of the Dry Zone, but salinity and arsenic contamination have caused problems in some areas.
For example, in the Monywa irrigation scheme, high salinity precluded the use of some wells and WRUD
has documented high arsenic levels in some drinking water wells in the Dry Zone (WRUD 2013). ese
examples emphasize the need to assess water quantity and quality before implementing major groundwater
development projects.
Table 1: Groundwater use as a percentage of annual recharge (2000/2001) and the potential
for expanding irrigation.
Division District
Potential new groundwater irrigation area (ha)²
500 mmy־¹ 1,000 mmy־¹ 1,500 mmy־¹
Groundwater
utilization (%)¹
Monywa
Shwebo
Sagaing
Magway
Thayet
Minbu
Pakokku
Kyaukse
Meiktila
Yamethin
Myingyan
Nyaung-U
District total
Sagaing
Magway
Mandalay
4.8
8.7
54.9
17.5
13.8
19.2
9.8
36.8
30.7
23.4
28.4
26.9
52,752
90,146
0
38,600
24,702
16,376
61,951
3,395
7,245
20,607
10,608
2,414
328,796
26,376
45,073
0
19,300
12,351
8,188
30,975
1,698
3,623
10,304
5,304
1,207
164,399
17,584
30,049
0
12,867
8,234
5,459
20,650
1,132
2,415
6,869
3,536
805
109,600
¹ Adapted from MOAI 2003
² Using figures in previous column supplemented by recharge values (as in Figure 7) and assuming
annual irrigation water demands of 500, 1,000 and 1,500 mmy־¹
PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI
“Developing surface water and groundwater
conjunctively is important to ensure the
resources are used sustainably”
32
Ensuring sustainable use of groundwater
Developing surface water and groundwater conjunctively is important to ensure the resources are
used sustainably. Surface water infrastructure, if developed strategically, can enhance recharge to
shallow aquifers during the wet season. For example, villagers in Ta Ein Tel, in Sagaing, reported that
supplementary pumping to their village pond had improved both the quantity and quality of water in
the nearby local well. us, if the dynamics of recharge are well understood, shallow groundwater can be
used as de facto ‘natural storage’, with the additional benet of minimal losses to evaporation.
Before major investments are made, it is essential to gain a better understanding of the sustainability
of withdrawals in dierent systems, recharge dynamics, and impacts of pumping on groundwater
inputs to wetlands and baseow in streams. Community monitoring of wells (Box 6), as part of their
routine operation, would provide valuable information in this regard. Assessment of groundwater
potential must take into account the possibility of increasing urban and industrial uses. e heavy reliance
on groundwater for drinking water means that its depletion could have severe consequences for
communities.
If future irrigation strategies rely more on groundwater, new regulatory and institutional mechanisms will
be needed. e challenge is to develop locally adapted forms of groundwater governance that include both
the government and communities in managing the resource.
U Shwe Myaing of Tanpinkan village in Taungtha township constructed a new well 4 months before IWMI’s
community survey. After years of rainfed farming, he had received a family inheritance, which he invested
in improving the water management of his farm. Its upland location called for a deep well. So, he installed
a large diameter well from the surface to 6 m, and a tube well from 6 m to 55 m. The total cost was around
MMK 1 million. U Shwe Myaing paid MMK 300,000 for drilling, MMK 350,000 for the down-hole pump and
MMK 350,000 for a large second-hand diesel engine.
The well irrigates a field of 0.5 ha. For his first irrigated crop, U Shwe Myaing planted onions. Preparing the
land took 1 month and cost MMK 100,000. He also incurred diesel costs, which other surveys indicate
were likely to be around MMK 30,000 for the season. The soils on his land are calcareous sands with low
fertility. So, they required an application of cow dung and urea. The crop was 1 month old when surveyed.
U Shwe Myaing anticipated obtaining a yield of 3,000 viss (4,890 kg) from this harvest. The selling price at
the time was MMK 300-400 per viss. He previously produced sesame and mung beans under rainfed
conditions. When there was sufficient rainfall, he was able to harvest 10 baskets (about 370 kg) at most,
but the crop often failed.
Having access to irrigation means that U Shwe Myaing could now grow watermelons for export to China,
with much higher potential returns. However, he chose to initially plant onions, like many other farmers in
the area, due to his lack of experience and the relatively lower risk of onion cultivation. He had previously
pumped water from open pools to supplement rainfall, but chose to invest in groundwater pumping so that
he could irrigate his crops in the dry season and be more assured of a successful harvest.
Box 6: Livelihood benefits of tapping into groundwater
Ponds and small dams for rainwater harvesting emerge as the preferred option for improving water
supplies for villages in many contexts in the Dry Zone. ey represent a simple, proven technology that is
already common throughout the Dry Zone. In many cases, they only provide a seasonal resource for 7-8
months a year and dry up during the dry season, but they are a critical component of water security.
Of the 24 villages included in IWMI’s community-level survey, 17 used ponds as a seasonal resource that
provided water between 2 and 12 months a year. Most villages had more than one pond, which they used
for domestic and livestock supplies. Some had multiple ponds (more than 30 in one village); these were
used for various purposes, including irrigation.
Planning appropriate ponds
Village ponds are usually formed by earthen, stone or cement dams. ey can vary greatly in size and
type, and provide for multiple uses including domestic, livestock, small-scale irrigation, and small
businesses such as brick-making and handicrafts. e type, design and siting of such ponds are
very specic to each location and to their potential uses. Dug earth dams are very common, but do
not suit all contexts. Other options include subsurface and sand dams (formed by embankments in
streambeds), and ring/turkey nest dams (built above the ground and lled by pumping water from
rivers). Ponds may be coupled with systems to improve access, such as pipes, pumps or access points,
and livestock watering troughs.
Village ponds can be used for supplementary irrigation, particularly in the wet season when they
are regularly replenished. In the dry season, the imperative to conserve water for domestic uses and
livestock
watering often overrides agricultural uses, unless the pond is large. Negotiation as to what
constitutes appropriate
use of water from village ponds requires collaboration between multiple users
and social groups.
If using pond water for irrigation is planned, dedicated ponds for this purpose may be preferable to using
multiple-use facilities, in order to reduce water-use conicts and because of the relatively larger volumes of
water required. ese dedicated ponds can be situated in the elds, close to the point of use. Individually
CHAPTER 5:
Rainwater harvesting:
Village ponds and farm dams
PHOTO: MATTHEW McCARTNEY/IWMI
33
34
owned, small farm reservoirs have proven to be an eective way of providing supplementary irrigation in
rainfed areas of ailand and India with similar agro-ecosystems to Myanmar’s Dry Zone. Such systems
make it more viable for farmers to plant two crops in a season, rather than one.
In areas with landholdings larger than 2 ha, a commonly used model in ailand and India is for
farmers to sacrice around 10% of their land to construct a small irrigation water storage facility. Where
farm sizes are smaller, communal facilities constructed and managed by a group of farmers may be more
appropriate. ese are analogous to village ponds, but have a smaller group of users. e size (and number
of farmers involved) can vary, but a typical pond serves around 10 ha.
e cost of building a pond varies considerably depending on its size and type. e cost for a small
irrigation dam serving 10 ha in the Dry Zone is estimated to be around USD 6,000. In Dewas District
of Madhya Pradesh, India, a very successful program of small dam irrigation has been carried out;
over 5,000 dams were constructed, with signicant gains in farm incomes. e average cost of these ponds
was USD 2,600, the payback period was 3 years and the cost-benet ratio was 1.5-1.9. e local
administration oered a subsidy of USD 900-1,400 to encourage uptake (Malik et al. 2012).
In most cases, communities already have the skills to construct and maintain water storage structures,
but they may need technical advice, community payments for labor or access to machinery. In Myanmar,
ID provides technical assistance for constructing ponds, and has a eet of equipment and sta that
PHOTO: PAUL PAVELIC/IWMI
PHOTO: SHUTTERSTOCK
“Constructing, managing and maintaining village
ponds and their catchments may provide income
opportunities for poor and landless people”
36
can carry out the work. In 2012, ID helped to renovate or construct 200 ponds in the Mandalay Division.
NGOs such as ActionAid, ADRA, Solidarités International, and Proximity also have considerable
experience of constructing and rehabilitating village ponds. For example, Proximity renovated 260 ponds
during 2012.
Potential issues when harvesting rainwater
Evaporation is a major problem when harvesting rainwater, with losses between 50% and 100%
commonly experienced. ese losses can be reduced by constructing deeper ponds. Seepage losses can be
reduced by siting dams on areas of clay soils, compacting the base during construction or lining the
pond with clay. Because seepage recharges shallow groundwater, it is also possible to capitalize on these
losses by constructing wells nearby.
Spillways, which carry away excessive water, must be well designed and maintained. Many small dams fail
because they are overtopped in a ood, often because the spillway is inappropriately designed or because it
has been neglected or become overgrown with vegetation. In 2010, Cyclone Giri destroyed a large number
of rainwater harvesting structures in both the Mandalay and Magway divisions, as they were not built to
withstand such heavy rainfall.
Maintenance, including the removal of silt and repairing walls, is required at least every 2 or 3 years
and, in many cases, annually. Village ponds are usually managed by the community, but may be
managed by ID or collaboratively between ID and the community. Unless the community commits to
maintaining the structures, investments will be lost. Some organizations, such as Solidarités International
and iDE, have set up water management groups within villages to maintain rainwater harvesting
storage infrastructure.
e viability of ponds and small dams often declines due to siltation or because embankments collapse
during oods. Many soil and water conservation techniques have been developed to reduce runo and
erosion, including hillside terraces, stone or vegetation bunds, gully plugs, and earthen or stone banks.
Planting trees, grasses and shrubs can also help to stabilize soils. Relevant techniques for the Dry Zone are
described in detail in Carucci (2001) (see also Chapter 6).
Ensuring long-term viability
e fact that so many small reservoirs in the Dry Zone require rehabilitation is a testament to the diculty
of ensuring long-term maintenance. Programs to construct and maintain village ponds need to explore
technical and social approaches to ensuring long-term viability.
On the technical side, guidelines can highlight appropriate designs for rainwater harvesting structures
in dierent contexts. Before construction, site analysis is vital to ascertain the capacity, cost, risk of
siltation, potential life span, and interactions between surface water and shallow groundwater, including
the potential to use small reservoirs or sand dams to recharge aquifers.
Roles and responsibilities for managing and maintaining rainwater infrastructure at the village level must
be clearly dened. Currently, community water user groups are the most common model for management,
but other approaches could be explored. Management extends beyond the pond; it should include
watershed management programs in catchment areas of ponds to protect inows and water quality.
Constructing, managing and maintaining village ponds and their catchments may provide income
opportunities for poor and landless people within the community.
37
CHAPTER 6:
Managing water in
the landscape
Soil erosion and land degradation are widespread in the Dry Zone. e main causes are poor farming
practices, overgrazing, deforestation due to agricultural expansion, commercial and illicit logging,
excessive cutting of trees for charcoal and fuelwood, and shifting cultivation. All of these are exacerbated
by population growth. Land degradation results in decreased production (through loss of topsoil and
nutrients), loss of productive land (through gullying and reduced vegetation cover) and impacts on
infrastructure (through silting up of ponds, sedimentation in canals and damage to pumps from high
sediment loads in the water). High sediment loads also pose a major challenge for navigation on rivers,
particularly in the dry season.
Slowing the rate at which water moves through the landscape can help reduce erosion, improve soil water
availability, and increase recharge (the so-called Recharge, Retention and Reuse [3R] approach of van
Steenbergen et al. [2011]). At the core of this approach is the buer function provided by integrated
management and storage of groundwater, soil water and rainwater. It is important because, even if the
Government of Myanmar is able to fulll its target for expanding irrigation to 25% of cultivated land, the
majority of farmers in the Dry Zone will continue to be reliant on rainfall.
The problem of degraded land
Myanmar has one of the highest rates of deforestation in the world (BEWG 2011). Dry forests around
the periphery of the Dry Zone are particularly threatened, by agricultural encroachment and the
intensication of shifting cultivation (Leimgruber et al. 2005). Although shifting cultivation is often
cited as a major cause of deforestation, evidence indicates that it is shortening of the fallow period (usually
due to population pressure) that causes problems, rather than shifting cultivation per se. Traditional
taung-ya methods of shifting cultivation, with suciently long rotations, can help to conserve natural
forest ecosystems and biodiversity much more eectively than plantation monocultures (Khin Htun 2009;
Valentin et al. 2008).
e problem of land degradation in the Dry Zone was identied as early as the 1950s, when a government
project was initiated to plant trees on degraded lands. e United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) and FAO undertook watershed management programs during the 1990s (Cools 1995;
PHOTO: ISTOCKPHOTO
Carucci 2001; Kahan 2001). In 1997, the Dry Zone Greening Department (DZGD) was established to
manage land degradation. Despite these initiatives, and a proposed DZGD-integrated plan for the years
2001-2031 covering forest conservation and land management, it is not clear that these programs have
been eectively implemented or that there has been a signicant change in the rates of land degradation.
Land degradation has reached critical levels in upland areas around Pauk in Magway Division, with
widespread gullying and topsoil depletion (Karin Luke, Welthungerhilfe [WHH], pers. comm.). Changes
in river morphology, caused by large volumes of sand, have clogged irrigation canals, making them
unusable. Community forest conservation and agroforestry projects have had some success, but these were
at a small scale. ere is an urgent need to scale up such successes to a regional level, since degradation has
spiraled beyond the extent at which it can be tackled by small projects.
Retaining water in the landscape
At the eld scale, techniques to reduce erosion enhance inltration and water retention in the soil prole,
and increase the eectiveness of rainfall. Cools (1995) reported the use of a range of traditional Soil and
Water Conservation (SWC) practices in the Dry Zone, including overow bunds, gully plugging with
rocks or crop residues, strip cropping and agroforestry techniques. Other promising approaches include
deep tillage, reduced tillage, zero tillage, mulching, planting basins and growing crops that require little
water. FAO has developed a detailed manual of SWC techniques specically targeted for the Dry Zone
(Kahan 2001). As agronomic practices, they need to be introduced to uninitiated farmers as part of
agricultural extension services.
At landscape scales, similar approaches can be used to prevent erosion, improve water retention and
inltration, and enhance recharge to shallow aquifers. Approaches include check dams, vegetated strips,
inltration basins and ood spreading (see van Steenbergen et al. 2011). Increasing vegetation cover is a
key component of watershed management, which is achieved by conserving existing forest patches,
planting new vegetation, employing agroforestry methods, and building enclosures to reduce grazing
pressure. Free grazing can be a signicant driver of erosion, particularly in the uplands, where sheep and
goats are common.
Conservation zones protect riparian vegetation and reduce riverbank erosion. A 30 m exclusion zone
along streams was previously enforced in the Dry Zone, but has been abandoned in the past 20 years
(Karin Luke, Welthungerhilfe (WHH), pers. comm.). Such catchment-scale approaches are vital to reduce
sedimentation in small reservoirs. When planning SWC projects, it is essential to match interventions and
incentives to local conditions. For example, farmers consulted during IWMI’s community-level survey
recalled that contour banks had been unsuccessful because livestock had destroyed them, while hedgerows
and vetiver grass banks had been much more eective. In their experience, successful programs usually had
a dual focus on retaining water and preventing erosion.
Programs to address sediment issues will not be successful unless they address ongoing land degradation
and deforestation in the mountainous headwaters of the major rivers (including the Irrawaddy), which lie
outside the Dry Zone. e Irrawaddy River has one of the highest sediment loads of all the rivers globally,
but the extent to which current sediment levels are natural (and hence must be managed) or anthropogenic
(and could potentially be mitigated or reduced) is not clear. A basin-scale analysis of sediment sources and
dynamics is needed to support planning, since approaches to managing and mitigating sediment in the
river will vary signicantly depending on its source and distribution.
38
PHOTO: ROBYN JOHNSTON/IWMI
“It is important that the ‘public good’ nature
of soil and water conservation initiatives
is recognized and the costs are shared”
40
Putting soil and water conservation into action
Despite the importance of, and long-term benets brought about by, SWC approaches, they did not
emerge strongly as a priority from IWMI’s community-level survey. Similarly, although Cools (1995)
demonstrated the positive economic returns from SWC measures at farm level in the Dry Zone, he found
that farmers were often failing to implement even traditional approaches. As farm sizes decrease, and
farmers have lower incomes and fewer savings, funds are simply not available for SWC. In many cases, the
benets may not be apparent for several years and they may accrue downstream, outside the areas where
projects are implemented.
It is important that the ‘public good’ nature of SWC initiatives is recognized, and the costs are shared
accordingly. Incentives and external nancial resources may be needed to encourage farmers to implement
SWC projects on any signicant scale. Under the United Nations Human Development Initiative of
the 1990s, fertilizers were provided to participating farmers as incentives for erosion control; this was
generally considered to be a successful incentive. Micro-credit programs have not usually been successful
for watershed management and SWC programs, as the benets are not immediate. Current programs
under the French development NGO GRET, Solidarités International and others emphasize the
importance of nding appropriate incentive structures to interest farmers and communities. Although
communities often express their support initially, it can be dicult to maintain their interest, particularly
for programs such as grazing management. Cools (1995) highlighted that participatory approaches may
not be appropriate for SWC at village to watershed level, since more pressing priorities to address the
symptoms, rather than the cause, may override these concerns.
A review of the outcomes of programs conducted by UNDP, FAO and the Government of Myanmar
under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertication (UNCCD), greening of the Dry Zone
and watershed protection programs would be a good starting point for designing new initiatives.
is could include a targeted sediment-monitoring study to gauge the success of past programs in
controlling erosion.
PHOTO: SONALI SENARATNA SELLAMUTTU/IWMI
41
CHAPTER 7:
Information for planning and
managing water resources
Achieving water security in the Dry Zone requires investment in hydraulic infrastructure and the
institutions needed to manage water eectively. A coordinated development strategy based on reliable
information is needed to guide future investments in water resources management.
Evidence-based decision making is currently hindered by both the lack of water-related data and its
general inaccessibility. Responsibility for water resources is currently spread across at least 15 government
agencies. Water-related data in Myanmar are dispersed across government departments and often held
by provinces, districts or irrigation schemes.
ere is an urgent need to establish an eective water-related data management system, comprising
contemporary monitoring networks underpinned by appropriate data-collection protocols, and modern,
accessible databases and analytical tools. is is of particular importance and urgency for the management
of groundwater resources. Continued groundwater development, without assessing the availability of the
resource, runs the risk of lost investment through over-exploitation and inappropriate siting of wells.
Signicant progress has been made over the last few years. A National Water Resources Committee
(NWRC), formed by a Presidential Decree in July 2013 under the chairmanship of Myanmar’s
Vice President, is taking the lead in coordinating water resources planning and disseminating information
across sectors. In December 2014, the World Bank announced a USD 100 million donation for
the Ayeyarwady [Irrawaddy] Integrated River Basin Management Project (AIRBMP), which aims to
strengthen water resources management and planning, and enable informed decisions about future
investments in developing the river. e project will support the expansion and modernization of
hydrometeorological observation, early warning and information systems, as well as facilitating navigation
to make water transport safer and more economically viable (World Bank 2014). e Myanmar Integrated
Water Resources Management Strategic Study, a collaboration between Myanmar and the Netherlands,
was completed in 2015, and included recommendations for a national master plan on water management
and assistance for improving hydrologic data collection.
If these projects are implemented successfully, Myanmar will be better placed to increase agricultural
production, reduce poverty and improve livelihoods through well-planned and sustainable management of
the valuable water resources of the Dry Zone.
PHOTO: PAUL PAVELIC/IWMI
“A coordinated development strategy based on
reliable information is needed to guide future
investments in water resources management.”
PHOTO: ROBYN JOHNSTON/IWMI
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