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Emotional response to television commercials: Facial EMG vs. self-report
Abstract
As television commercials increasingly contain emotional elements designed both to get the viewer's attention and to communicate the advertising message, copy pretesting is challenged to evaluate the potential effectiveness of these emotionally stimulating commercials and their success at eliciting the intended emotional responses. Standard copy measures, however, do not yield such informative results about emotional responses to commercials. In order to meet this challenge for copy pretesting, we measured the emotional responses to a series of television commercials of both females and males using self-report and facial EMG, a validated emotion measure used in academic research. We hypothesized that facial EMG, as compared to self-report, would be a more sensitive discriminator between commercials, would be more strongly related to recall, and peaks in facial EMG responses elicited during the commercial would be temporally related to specific emotion-congruent events in the commercial. The results strongly supported all of our hypotheses and illustrated the promise of facial EMG measures in advertising research and copy pretesting in particular. Facial EMG measures can reflect a qualitative richness and complexity of the viewer's emotional response that self-report measures cannot and, at the same time, offer precise and continuous quantitative data.
... Among nonverbal channels for emotion expression, the human face is considered to be the richest source of information (Ekman, 2003). One of the first studies to assess the usefulness of a facial expression analysis in market research was performed by Hazlett and Hazlett (1999). They revealed that facial electromyography (fEMG) can serve as a sensitive discriminator between commercials and is strongly related to ad recall. ...
... They also stress the need to focus on the predictive value of such data, rather than merely identifying the neurophysiological correlates of a decision. Research shows that facial electromyography (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999) and skin conductance response (LaBarbera & Tucciarone, 1995) appear to be more sensitive and accurate measures of consumers' emotional response to an ad and predict market performance better than self-reports. Kohan (1968) states that while peaks in skin conductance occur when interest in a commercial builds up, these peaks do not correlate with verbal reports of interest, indicating that the GSR can be a more accurate and less biased measure than verbal reports. ...
... First of all, an EEG frontal asymmetry index was taken into consideration, within alpha, beta and gamma bands, as all of these seem to be informative in predicting choices (Boksem & Smidts, 2015;Ravaja et al., 2013). The facial expression analysis included the activity of the corrugator supercilii and zygomaticus major (as in the case of Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999). Indicators of galvanic skin response included the number of peaks and their average amplitude. ...
The results of the following study show that among various neurophysiological measures, only the frontal asymmetry index measured with electroencephalography was significant in predicting further purchase decisions. The decision to buy was also influenced by the brand type (national brand or private label). Data from 21 participants were recorded during exposure to 20 fast-moving consumer goods. The electroencephalographic signal from the frontal lobe (F3 and F4) served to calculate the frontal asymmetry index for alpha, beta, and gamma bands. Electromyographic electrodes were placed on the zygomaticus major and corrugator supercilii muscles, whereas the galvanic skin responses were gathered from the forefinger and ring finger of the nondominant hand. Eye tracking glasses were used to control for eye movements. After product exposure, participants filled in the Purchase Intentions Scale, which then served to assess the final binary decision. A logistic regression model was applied to determine which neurophysiological factors play a crucial role in predicting a purchase decision and whether the brand type is relevant. The prediction rate of the resulting model was 65.8%. The article describes the possible implications of these results.
... Hence, it is no surprise that psychophysiological researchers measure emotion via changes in electrical output that are generated from the summation of facial motor unit action potentials (Fridlund & Cacioppo, 1986). These small, covert electrical changes occur at different facial muscle regions during media exposure in evaluating the perceived valence of a stimulus (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999). It is argued that facial electromyography (EMG) measurement provides more precision relative to human coding of overt facial expressions (Cacioppo et al., 2000;Potter & Bolls, 2012;Tassinary & Cacioppo, 1992). ...
... Moreover, such measures provide real-time data that post-hoc (or even in situ) self-report responses generally cannot (Potter & Bolls, 2012). Indeed, Hazlett and Hazlett (1999) were the first to publish work using facial EMG measures as a "way to get beyond the limitations and biases that often plague self-report" (pg. 19-20). ...
This chapter provides an overview of perspectives on how the “old brain” affectively and physiologically responds to “new” digital media. A summary of the dominant theories of emotion involved in studying psychophysiological responses to media is presented including the dimensional perspective of emotion followed by the notion of biological motivation as put forth by the evaluative space model. Next, a conceptual and operational review of physiological measures of arousal and emotional valence is provided including a summary of studies examining physiological responses to using digital media technologies, platforms, and affordances. This chapter concludes with a discussion of the advantages and limitations that come with the measurement of emotion via physiological measures as applied to the study of digital media, as well as considerations for future research.
... Visual and auditory stimuli can induce changes in the consumer, either autonomic (i.e., activation of the autonomic nervous system) or expressive (i.e., activation of the somatic nervous system); therefore, they can define a specific emotional pattern through an appraisal process. For instance, studies have shown that watching commercials arouse both autonomic and expressive components of emotion (e.g., Aaker et al., 1986;Hazlett and Hazlett, 1999). ...
... Even though autonomic (e.g., Aaker et al., 1986), expressive (e.g., Hazlett and Hazlett, 1999), and subjective (Aaker et al., 1988) components of aesthetic emotion have been studied in advertising research, it is noteworthy that there is no attempt to investigate the respective contribution of these coexisting components to the formation of subsequent attitudes. Therefore, we proposed an evaluation of the predictive power of those components on attitude toward the ad (Aad). ...
Experimental setups that probe consumers’ underlying feelings, purchase intentions, and choices. The Topic Editors are honoured to present 14 multidisciplinary contributions that focus on successful implementations of physiological and neuroscientific measures in the field of cognitive psychology, marketing, design, and psychiatry.
Keywords: preference formation, neuroscience, physiology, evaluative processing, consumer behavior
... Although they have long been used in marketing, they do not capture the underlying unconscious mechanisms (Derbaix and Poncin, 2005). Customer experience exists at conscious and unconscious levels (Joy and Sherry, 2003;Lemke et al., 2011), and the processing of content is mostly unconscious and implicit (Hazlett and Hazlett, 1999). Such unconscious and uncontrolled processing can only be assessed with objective measures (Derbaix and Poncin, 2005). ...
... Using such a method enables to better understand customer experience in an objective manner (Verhulst et al., 2019;De Keyser et al., 2020) and to capture customers' unconscious responses to personalization. Such spontaneous and objective measures particularly aim to understand responses that are not controlled by the customer's will (Derbaix and Poncin, 2005), which are the majority of responses customers have when processing content (Hazlett and Hazlett, 1999). ...
Retailers develop personalized websites with the aim of improving customer experience. However, we still have limited knowledge about the effect of personalization on customer experience and the underlying processes. With a lab experiment, this research specifically examines the effect of actual personalization and perceived personalization on playful customer experience using both subjective and objective measures, with the support of eye-tracking techniques. We show that personalization, regardless of whether it is perceived or not, enhance the playful customer experience of a retailing website. In addition, we highlight the presence of two concomitant processes. Content needs to be perceived as personalized to influence the subjective playful customer experience, but actual personalization does influence objective playful customer experience. Although customers spend the same time on the website, they focus more of their attention on their favorite products when content is personalized. Such focused attention leads them to select their favorite products for purchase.
... Moreover, Barnett and Cerf [38] used a neuroscientific approach as a means of predicting consumer behaviours and ex-plained the possibilities of applying it to product recalls. Hazlett and Hazlett [39] used the same approach to track emotions based on facial electromyography, which proved to be an effective tool to find how people respond to graphic stimuli. Moreover, this paper goes beyond this method and deals with video stimuli that involves more than the recording of just the emotional responses, but additionally considers the level of brain engagement and cognitive load brains of the participants, when they engage with video CSR communications. ...
... Moreover, this paper goes beyond this method and deals with video stimuli that involves more than the recording of just the emotional responses, but additionally considers the level of brain engagement and cognitive load brains of the participants, when they engage with video CSR communications. Moreover, Hazlett and Hazlett [39] analysed the cooperation between the neuro and self-reporting results of the participants' responses, something that was performed in this paper as well, and proved to be insightful and possibly a result that can be used as a future guideline. ...
The majority of studies evaluating the effectiveness of branded CSR campaigns are concentrated and base their conclusions on data collection through self-reporting questionnaires. Although such studies provide insights for evaluating the effectiveness of CSR communication methods, analysing the message that is communicated, the communication channel used and the explicit brain responses of those for whom the message is intended, they lack the ability to fully encapsulate the problem of communicating environmental messages by not taking into consideration what the recipients’ implicit brain reactions are presenting. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of CSR video communications relating to environmental issues through the lens of the recipients’ implicit self, by employing neuroscience-based assessments. For the examination of implicit brain perception, an electroencephalogram (EEG) was used, and the collected data was analysed through three indicators identified as the most influential indicators on human behaviour. These three indicators are emotional valence, the level of brain engagement and cognitive load. The study is conducted on individuals from the millennial generation in Thessaloniki, Greece, whose implicit brain responses to seven branded commercial videos are recorded. The seven videos were a part of CSR campaigns addressing environmental issues. Simultaneously, the self-reporting results from the participants were gathered for a comparison between the explicit and implicit brain responses. One of the key findings of the study is that the explicit and implicit brain responses differ to the extent that the CSR video communications’ brain friendliness has to be taken into account in the future, to ensure success. The results of the study provide an insight for the future creation process, conceptualisation, design and content of the effective CSR communication, in regard to environmental issues.
... However, the term "price consciousness" has been broadly used to refer to consumer perception about price [17]; we use the term to refer to how much interest consumers have in saving money and, consequently, paying lower prices. Several researchers [22][23][24] presented the price awareness associated to the priority consumers attribute to pay low price, instead of other aspects like quality, design, style, and so on. ...
... In this way, SBs price-image can be associated to costume price practiced by the retailer, according to its pricing strategies and positioning in the market. However, some authors identified many dimensions to the concept-like Zielke (2010) [14] and Lichtensteinetal (1993) [22]-considering that the price occupies a salient place in the consumer buying behavior process, especially for SBs. ...
Price is considered one of the most important attributes in consumer’s choice. On the other hand, consumer’s knowledge about price tends to be imprecise. This study aims at providing new insights analyzing consumers’ perception of retail store brand (focused on Skin Care Products) comparing with two other skin care products, a premium, and a popular national brand. Second, to analyze the association price versus quality variables in the purchasing decision process. Third, to demonstrate the influence of both, unconscious and cognitive process during the purchase choice intention. Through Neuromarketing tools and protocols (quantitative and qualitative), the study exposes participants to a blind test of the three products and asks participants to talk about their sensory impressions like scent, feelings, and products texture. Using facial electromyography (EMG) and eye-tracker devices we measured consumers’ responses when we introduced price and brand name variables, by this way comparing unconscious and cognitive responses. The findings showed that an unconscious decision could be change when new variables were revealed. The study showed how conscious price variable was the major influence in their purchase intention.
... Visual and auditory stimuli can induce changes in the consumer, either autonomic (i.e., activation of the autonomic nervous system) or expressive (i.e., activation of the somatic nervous system); therefore, they can define a specific emotional pattern through an appraisal process. For instance, studies have shown that watching commercials arouse both autonomic and expressive components of emotion (e.g., Aaker et al., 1986;Hazlett and Hazlett, 1999). ...
... Even though autonomic (e.g., Aaker et al., 1986), expressive (e.g., Hazlett and Hazlett, 1999), and subjective (Aaker et al., 1988) components of aesthetic emotion have been studied in advertising research, it is noteworthy that there is no attempt to investigate the respective contribution of these coexisting components to the formation of subsequent attitudes. Therefore, we proposed an evaluation of the predictive power of those components on attitude toward the ad (Aad). ...
Do usual commercials elicit the full spectrum of emotions? For this perspective paper, we posit that they do not. Concepts and measures related to the adaptive functions and well-being areas of emotion research cannot simply be transferred for use in advertising research. When a commercial elicits emotions, the emotions staged in the commercial must not be directly associated with the emotions felt by consumers when exposed to those commercials. This is why "aesthetic" emotions seem more appropriate than "utilitarian" emotions in advertising research, with the former generally felt more significantly than they are acted upon. Aesthetic emotions elicit limited physiological change, and they rely on the intrinsic pleasantness appraisal of commercials. Accordingly, pleasure and displeasure-as observed through expressive and subjective components of aesthetic emotion-often form the first and only step of commercial appraisal, and they are directed toward attitude formation rather than overt behaviors. Our preliminary psychophysiological study shows this by investigating the contributions of psychophysiological and self-reported measures of aesthetic emotions induced by commercials to explain attitudes toward advertisements. The results show that only two components of aesthetic emotion positively influenced attitudes toward the advertisements: expressive (measured by facial electromyography) and subjective (measured by the self-assessment manikin scale). Also, the subjective component of aesthetic emotion partially mediates the effects of the expressive components on attitudes toward the ads. Our exploratory study illustrates the relevance of focusing on aesthetic emotions in advertising research. It also shed new light on the contributions of the physiological, expressive, and subjective feelings components of aesthetic emotions in advertising effectiveness.
... Calls have been made for more interdisciplinary studies across VR studies on presence (Draper et al., 1998;Lombard & Ditton, 1997) and emotion (Banos et al., 2008;Riva et al., 2007;Riva et al., 2016;Villani et al., 2012) for better understanding of the consequences of presence. The lack of research combining presence and emotion in tourism is especially highlighted when juxtaposed against the growing importance of emotion research in destination marketing (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999;Li et al., 2016). Researchers have highlighted the importance of emotional experiences as influencers and predictors of tourist behavioural intentions in the pre-visit stage (Goossens, 2000;Prayag et al., 2013). ...
... There has been increasing emphasis on the importance of emotional response in evaluating promotional advertisements' effectiveness (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999;Li et al., 2016). More specifically, researchers have highlighted the importance of emotional experiences as influencers and predictors of tourist behavioural intentions in the pre-visit stage (Goossens, 2000;Prayag et al., 2013). ...
In a post-COVID landscape, building interest and evoking positive emotions toward tourism products are vital for destination recovery. As a result, interest and opportunity for the use of immersive technologies such as virtual reality (VR) for tourism marketing has intensified. Despite the ubiquity of presence as a concept in VR research, exploring and adapting presence for tourism marketing remains in infancy. In particular, there is still limited understanding of the importance and interplay of the determinants of presence. Through a critical review of presence research in ICT, education, psychology, psychiatry, marketing, and tourism, this paper establishes a comprehensive conceptual framework (named PEI framework) encompassing the determinants (immersion, engagement, sensory fidelity) and consequences of presence (P) on emotional response (E) and behavioural intention (I). This paper also found that presence research remains a disparate body of work. Frameworks and measures from which to bridge disciplines and contexts remain nascent. The interplay between presence determinants and their effects on emotional response, shown to be context-dependant in this review of presence VR research, has yet to be tested or theorized in tourism research. Suggestions for advancing the framework, both context and method-wise, are made for future VR research.
... Employees' behavior was influential on customers' value perceptions (Michael & Keith, 1996). Positive emotions facilitate approach behavior (Barroso, Cepeda, & Roldan, 2006;Han & Back, 2006) whilst negative emotions are associated with defensive or resisting behavior (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999). The theoretical framework for the relationship between customer positive emotions and post consumption behavior is largely supported in the literature (Lin & Liang, 2011;White, 2010) but not for negative ones in the same intensity. ...
... Research also shows that positive emotions are positively related to the loyalty (Carreira, Patricio, Natal, & Magee, 2014; Lee et al., 2009;Yu & Dean, 2001) because they contribute to a likely repeat of the experience (De Ruyter & Bloemer, 1999) and improve the consume and return intentions (Bui & Kemp, 2013;Han & Back, 2006). Related to the negative emotions, they are usually connected to unfavorable consume behaviors (Carreira et al., 2014;Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999;Palmer & Koenig-Lewis, 2010). Nevertheless, Lee et al. (2009) have not found enough support for confirming that they impact negatively in the loyalty component. ...
The purpose of this study is to examine how emotions mediate the impact of a holistic servicescape -physical and social- on post-consumption outcomes in the performing arts. Partial Least Square (PLS) was conducted to test the mediation hypothesized relationships on a sample of 867 opera goers. The proposed research model was largely supported by the evidence, and the mediating role of emotions was confirmed. Servicescape influences direct and indirectly attendees' post consumption in opera given that emotions play a partial mediating role which is greater in the case of positive emotions. Based on the results, this study offers specific theoretical and managerial implications concerning the importance of creating positive experiences through suitable servicescapes considering emotions.
... In [13] serious and hedonic stimuli were used under the EMG control and shown that the increase of EMG took place in both condi-tions. In the study of the emotional response to television commercials [14], facial EMG also tends to rise. So if it is possible to distinguish the signal component, that tends to increase during eye-opening or cognitive process in the alpha-band, it can be considered muscular (Fig. 3). ...
... EMG'nin, nöropazarlama çalışmaları için sağladığı en büyük avantaj kullanım kolaylığı ve gerektirdiği düşük araştırma bütçesidir (Gill ve Singh, 2020). Sunduğu bu avantajlar sayesinde reklamlara yönelik duygu durumu (Hazlett and Hazlett, 1999), tüketicilerin fiziksel mağazalara yönelik algısı (Ângelo, 2011) ve logolara yönelik değerlendirmeler (Vorster, 2015) (1) Gerçekleştirilen sistematik analiz sürecinde entegre ölçüm yapan çalışmalardan sadece bir tanesinin Türk araştırmacılara ait olması (Taşkın vd., 2017), ulusal bazda nöropazarlama kapsamında önemli bir açığa işaret etmektedir. Bu nedenle ulusal sınırlar içerisinde gerçekleştirilen nöropazarlama ölçümlerinde entegre stratejilerin belirlenmesi literatürde önemli bir eksikliğin kapatılmasına katkı sağlayacaktır. ...
The aim of this study is to investigate neuromarketing research which include the integrated measurement processes between the years of 2015-2020. In this framework, EBSCO, Scopus ve Web of Science databases were scanned and in total 540 academic articles which include 24 empirical study were examined and classified by using content analysis. In the second stage of our research, 24 empirical studies were evaluated within the scope of the integrated measurement processes, years of publication and research topics. According to results, two different integration measurement strategies was determined in neuromarketing studies. It is also found that, eye tracking and EEG measurements were the most preferred methods in research and the papers which have integrated measurement process were mostly published in 2020, and focused on communication marketing.
... Additionally, calls have been made for more interdisciplinary studies across VR studies on presence (Draper et al., 1998;Lombard & Ditton, 1997) and emotion (Banos et al., 2008;Riva et al., 2016;Villani et al., 2012) for better understanding of the consequences of presence. The absence of research combining presence and emotion in tourism is especially highlighted when juxtaposed against the growing importance of emotion research in tourism marketing (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999;Li et al., 2016); where researchers have highlighted the importance of emotional experiences as influencers and predictors of tourist behavioural intentions in the pre-visit stage (Goossens, 2000;Prayag et al., 2013). Interestingly, whilst their study focused on websites, Hyun and O'Keefe (2012) found that presence was not an influencing variable on the virtual affective image; in contrast to the body of knowledge in cyberpsychology associating presence and emotional response (Baños et al., 2012;Gorini et al., 2010;Riva et al., 2016;Siriaraya & Ang, 2014). ...
The concept of presence, ubiquitous in VR research, remains in infancy in tourism literature. Researchers in the field have called for empirical studies into the determinants as well as consequences of presence, particularly in commercial environments. The objective of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of VR as a tourism marketing tool through presence and emotion-an association that has been suggested in cyberpsychology studies. Using a within-subjects experiment method, 72 participants experienced computer-generated, fully synthetic virtual environments of a cruise ship. The experiences were administered via pictures, video, and VR. The findings suggest that VR is significantly more effective than traditional media in evoking positive emotional responses to the stimuli. Theoretical implications include suggestions that fully-interactive synthetic VR may be more effective than 360' VR due to the importance of engagement as a presence determinant. Managerial implications include suggestions to focus on engagement mechanics, rather than chasing photo-realistic VR advancements , for impact on emotional response.
... The studies rising from electromyography (a technique of recording the electrical activity of the muscles and the nerves) from Haley, Staffaroni and Fox (1994), Crimmins (1997), as well as Hazlett and Hazlett (1999), relating to the treatment of advertisements, show that the zygomatics (put in action by negative emotional reactions) highlight a better recall of the televised advertisements by evoking more emotional reactions. ...
This chapter aims to study the effects of the colors of e-commerce websites on consumer behavior, in order to better understand website usability. Since color components (Hue, Brightness and Saturation) affect behavioral responses of the consumer (memorization and buying intention), this research reveals the importance of the interaction between hue and brightness, in enhancing the contrast necessary to ensure an easy navigation. By comparing graphic chart effects according to their level of saturation and brightness depending on the hue, it aims at focusing on particularly important consideration of webdesign, linked to choices of color. The obtained results were conveyed through the changes in internal states of the organism, which are emotions and mood. The interaction of hue and brightness, using chromatic colors (as opposed to Black & White) for the dominant (background) and dynamic (foreground) ones, supports memorization and the intent to purchase, reinforcing the importance to attach to usable websites. This is even more evident when contrast rests on a weak situation of brightness. The data collection was carried out during a laboratory experiment so as to ensure the accuracy of measurements regarding the color aspects of e-commerce websites.
... 17, No. 3, 2019 http://ertr.tamu.edu 371 importance of emotion research in destination marketing (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999;Li, Walters, Packer, & Scott, 2016). This study aims to fill that gap by first establishing a framework encompassing Presence (P), Emotion (E), and Intention (I), then investigating the PEI framework through empirical studies using mixed-method experiments in a destination marketing context. ...
VR the World: Investigating the Effectiveness of Virtual Reality for Destination Marketing through Presence, Emotion, and Intention. VR's unprecedented ability to virtually transport the user is purported to be its biggest strength. Yet, despite early postulations about VR's benefits as a destination marketing; substantial, theory-based VR research in tourism remains in infancy. The objective of this study is to empirically investigate the effectiveness of VR as a destination marketing tool, theoretically underpinned by the concept of presence and its influence on emotions and intentions. A within-subjects experiment is utilized to compare the effectiveness of VR, videos and pictures for cruise ship marketing. The results suggest VR could be more effective as a marketing tool and also provide insights into the impact of key presence determinants. Practical implications and avenues for future research are also discussed.
... La respuesta emocional de un consumidor influye en su actitud tanto hacia la publicidad como hacia la marca (Lee, Lee & Harrell, 2002). Las investigaciones evidencian que una apelación emocional en la publicidad llama más la atención; y, aumenta el atractivo del producto, del mensaje y del recuerdo de la marca (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999). Los publicistas utilizan varias apelaciones, positivas o negativas, con el fin de generar una respuesta emocional en el consumidor (O'Guinn, Allen & Semenik, 2012). ...
Con el objetivo de determinar el uso de la imagen femenina en las portadas de revistas de mayor tiraje del Ecuador se realizó un análisis de contenido psicolingüístico desde dos vertientes: indagación de los tipos de información sexual en la publicidad basado en la teoría de Courtney, Whipple y Reichert y la relevancia según el Modelo de Sperber y Wilson sobre el nexo léxico-semántico entre los textos y las imágenes referidas. Se analizaron todas las portadas publicadas en Facebook desde febrero del 2012 a diciembre del 2017 (n=390); con los siguientes resultados: en el 45,7% se utiliza al menos una mujer, en el 18,1% aparece al menos un hombre y en un 36,2% de las portadas no hay presencia de figura humana. De ésto se desprende que en el 23,5% de las portadas hay algún grado de desnudez y también se evidenció un 39,5% de sugestividad del erotismo. En las revistas en las que al menos hubo una modelo mujer se halló que un 82,7% de las portadas contenía sugestividad del erotismo; en Hogar fue del 100%, en Cosas fue del 96,7%, en Vistazo 43,9%, en Ekos 25% y en América Economía 0%. Asimismo, se constató el uso de implicaturas, es decir la interpretación no convencional, a través de estímulos ostensivos hasta de 79,5% en las portadas con presencia de al menos una mujer.
... This finding partially confirms the previous study that reveals weaker or none effects of physiological emotion measures on tourism advertising effectiveness compared to selfreported emotion measures (Li, Walters, Packer, & Scott, 2018). Thus, although in consumer research physiological measures are advocated to be more accurate than self-reported measures (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999;Li, Walters, Packer, & Scott, 2016), selfreported measures might be more effective in predicting attitudes, experiences, or intentions due to the strong inter-correlations (Li et al., 2018). ...
Virtual reality is transforming the travel industry as both enhancement and replacement of experiences. The purpose of this study is to examine how travelers achieve flow states in VR experiences. Based on the flow theory, the study combines physiological measures with self-reported survey measures to understand people’s flow experiences. A laboratory experiment was conducted with 9D virtual reality motion theater simulator and iMEC 12 electrocardiogram monitor equipment. The contradictory results between the two measures indicate that travelers’ physiological reactions may not match their psychological perceptions. Compared to control, arousal has a stronger role in mediating travelers’ flow states.
... It is based on the premise that attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem and self-concepts and various implicit constructs in social psychology are defined as associations between concepts (Greenwald et al., 2002) • Enhances understanding of consumer response • Captures cultural associations or an attitude object's environment rather than just one's evaluation of the object (Karpinski and Hilton, 2001). (Hazlett and Hazlett, 1999) Facial electromyography (fEMG) A psychophysiological technique used to measure facial muscle activity associated with expression of emotion (Read, 2017). It detects electrical activity associated with underlying contraction in specific facial muscle. ...
The much-hyped field in cognitive sciences, neuromarketing, is still in its nascent stage which examines the brain responses to various marketing stimuli in order to comprehend the physiological genesis of consumer’s choice. This study provides an integrative outline of the sophisticated tools and technologies used by neuromarketers for gaining hidden insight into consumer behaviour. Conventional marketing research approaches provided biased, intermediary solutions in revealing the true opinion of consumers. This paper also strives to present a snapshot of merits and demerits of traditional marketing and advance neuromarketing research approaches. However, earlier studies on neuromarketing have explored how different methodologies of neuromarketing are used to reveal the mysteries of consumer decision-making. Attempt has been made to integrate all the methodologies of market research to effectively probe and synthesise customer’s underlying emotions with the help of triune brain model. Thereby, concluding with ethical issues and dilemma faced by the neuromarketing companies in today’s world.
... In everyday life conditions, humans frequently exchange social information since they are a highly social species, and one of the richest and most powerful tools in what is called "social communication" is the face, from which people can quickly and easily get information about identity, gender, sex, age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, physical health, attractiveness, emotional state, personality traits, pain or physical pleasure, deception, and even social status [138]. e analysis of facial expression in market research studies is very useful, and one of them has been conducted by Hazlett and Hazlett [139] who revealed that facial electromyography (fEMG) can return information about the perception of different commercials. Somervuori and Ravaja [140] reported that when people look at a static image, the activity of the zygomaticus major, a muscle responsible for smiling, may serve as a good predictor of purchase decisions. ...
The new technological advances achieved during the last decade allowed the scientific community to investigate and employ neurophysiological measures not only for research purposes but also for the study of human behaviour in real and daily life situations. The aim of this review is to understand how and whether neuroscientific technologies can be effectively employed to better understand the human behaviour in real decision-making contexts. To do so, firstly, we will describe the historical development of neuromarketing and its main applications in assessing the sensory perceptions of some marketing and advertising stimuli. Then, we will describe the main neuroscientific tools available for such kind of investigations (e.g., measuring the cerebral electrical or hemodynamic activity, the eye movements, and the psychometric responses). Also, this review will present different brain measurement techniques, along with their pros and cons, and the main cerebral indexes linked to the specific mental states of interest (used in most of the neuromarketing research). Such indexes have been supported by adequate validations from the scientific community and are largely employed in neuromarketing research. This review will also discuss a series of papers that present different neuromarketing applications, such us in-store choices and retail, services, pricing, brand perception, web usability, neuropolitics, evaluation of the food and wine taste, and aesthetic perception of artworks. Furthermore, this work will face the ethical issues arisen on the use of these tools for the evaluation of the human behaviour during decision-making tasks. In conclusion, the main challenges that neuromarketing is going to face, as well as future directions and possible scenarios that could be derived by the use of neuroscience in the marketing field, will be identified and discussed.
... Several peripheral physiological reactions, those automatic responses of the nervous system that generally occur beyond one's awareness, may now be monitored to investigate emotional 16 massaro arousal and valence. These responses include respiration rates and heart rate variability (HRV; Massaro & Pecchia, 2019), electromyography (EMG) tracing of facial cues (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999), and changes in skin conductance response (Christopoulos, Uy, & Yap, 2019). Organizational researchers can also assess neural changes through functional imaging, which more precisely shows "what," "where," and "when" affective events occur in the brain. ...
In book: Cambridge Handbook of Workplace Affect
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
... Several peripheral physiological reactions, those automatic responses of the nervous system that generally occur beyond one's awareness, may now be monitored to investigate emotional 16 massaro arousal and valence. These responses include respiration rates and heart rate variability (HRV; Massaro & Pecchia, 2019), electromyography (EMG) tracing of facial cues (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999), and changes in skin conductance response (Christopoulos, Uy, & Yap, 2019). Organizational researchers can also assess neural changes through functional imaging, which more precisely shows "what," "where," and "when" affective events occur in the brain. ...
This work contributes to research in workplace affect by presenting an Organizational Neuroscience perspective on emotions. Methodological motivations are explored and a theoretical parallel drawn between Affective Event Theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) and neural circuitries of information processing. Neuroscience research relevant to the organizational affective literature is then explained by covering the broad domains of intra-individual and inter-personal affect. Topics addressed include basic emotions, emotional contagion, and emotional intelligence, among others. Suggestions for future research emerge at the end. Massaro S. (2019). The Organizational Neuroscience of Emotions. In: The Cambridge Handbook of Workplace Affect; Eds.: Yang L., Cropanzano R.S., Daus C., & Tur V.A.M.; Chapter 3, Cambridge University Press
... Difficulties with eliciting measurable emotional facial expressions have been reported before. Hazlett and Hazlett (1999), for example, refer to prior findings in which too few content-related facial expressions in response to TV ads were observed to warrant scoring and other findings in which FACS scores were unrelated to attitudes towards an ad whereas self-reports of emotions showed the expected association. ...
Listening to, reading, or watching a story is often a highly emotional experience. The current experiment was designed to gain insight into the role of emotions as part of the persuasive influence of stories. Our focus was on emotions that correspond to a storyline (event-congruent emotions). A short movie was presented that depicts the struggles of a limbless man who ultimately performs a successful circus act. Recipients’ mindsets regarding human potential to improve (growth mindset and fixed mindset) served as the dependent variables. Six emotional scenes over the course of the movie were pre-selected to examine the occurrence and effect of event-congruent emotions. Transportation into the story-world was manipulated via reviews of the movie. Participants’ emotional experience was assessed with a software that measures and classifies emotional facial expressions in the moment they occur. After reading a positive review, participants reported to be more transported into the short film. This was related to more intense event-congruent emotions during the key-scene of the film, which, in turn, was positively related to recipients’ growth mindset. Implications regarding the importance of event-congruent-emotions for narrative persuasion are discussed.
... Facial EMG studies have found that activity of the corrugator muscle, which lowers the eyebrow and is involved in producing frowns, varies inversely with the emotional valence of the presented stimuli and reports of mood state; and activity of the zygomatic muscle, which controls smiling, is positively associated with positive emotional stimuli and positive mood state [Cacioppo et al. 1992;Dimberg 1990]. These effects have been found in passive viewing situations with various protocols and media, such as photos, videos, words, sounds, and imagery [Hazlett & Hazlett 1999;Larsen et al. 2003]. Increases in zygomatic EMG and decreases in corrugator EMG tend to indicate a positive emotional response. ...
Aesthetic considerations are as important as usability for human-computer interactions, but techniques for measuring aesthetics have been elusive. In this paper, we use the domain of reading to develop new measures of aesthetics. These measures could be applied to any domain. Reading is arguably the most ubiquitous task that people perform on computers. To date, reading research has focused on reader performance, which is typically measured by reading speed and comprehension. But many typographic improvements that make a more beautiful document show little to no measurable difference on traditional performance tasks. We conducted six studies that found two measures that successfully detect aesthetic differences: improved performance on creative cognitive tasks after text is optimized, and reduced activation in the corrugator muscle that is associated with frowning.
... OO is located on the lower eyelid just below the pupil and has been described as bringing a sparkle to the eye during positive experience. Hazlett and Hazlett (1999) were the first to publish work using EMG as a "way to get beyond the limitations and biases that often plague self-report" (pg. 19-20). ...
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) measures provide valuable data that can help scientists gain unique insight into processes that underlie individuals’ experiences with communication episodes. Basic knowledge of PNS measures helps scientists not only begin to consider using these measures but also critically evaluate relevant research. This chapter is designed to provide that level of knowledge. A brief overview of the peripheral nervous system is provided along with a general description of common measures and review of recent studies using the measures. The chapter concludes with a discussion of our perspective on the future of PNS measures in communication science.
... More recent advances in facial expression research have involved computer animation and gaming (e.g. Albrecht et al., 2002;King et al., 2003;Hazlett, 2006), advertising (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999;Ohme et al., 2009) and camera technology (De Marsico et al., 2012). In contrast to the vast amount of work focusing on facial expression, research involving the linguistic aspect of facial expressions or paralinguistics, is "unfortunately, a neglected step-child at most" (Rauch, 1999in Schuller & Batliner, 2013. ...
There has been much research into the cultural component of facial expressions.
However, despite these findings, second language acquisition (SLA) research is yet to
explore facial expressions as a paralinguistic element. The existence of a critical
period for achieving a native-like level is still ongoing and heavily debated,
nonetheless, facial expression is yet to be seen as an element of a target language,
and thus, have not been included in the debate regarding the critical period.
Knowledge about the connection between language background and the use of facial
expressions may add to the debate and help us gain insights into the cognitive
processes of an L2 learner.
This thesis, compares the facial expressions of Dutch near-native, advanced and
intermediate L2 English learners with the facial expressions of British English native
speakers. Dutch and British participants are asked to watch a short clip and give a
narrative description of the story. The narrative description is recorded and analysed
for variety in expression. These recordings are shown to English native and Dutch
speakers who judge the language culture of the speaker, in an attempt to see if facial
expression contributes to the notion of appearing native-like.
Although differences were found in the facial expressions of participants recorded,
the results showed no correlation between the accuracy of Dutch and British judges’
judgements of nativeness and the English language levels of participants in the video
footage.
... The different natures of these components of emotion require suitable measurements and motivate researchers into using non-verbal methods to analyze consumers' reactions (Venkatraman et al., 2014;Telpaz et al., 2015). In particular, electrodermal activity is relevant for measuring the physiological component of emotion (Lajante et al., 2012;Kreibig, 2010); facial electromyography is relevant for measuring the expressive component of emotion (Cacioppo et al., 1986;Hazlett and Hazlett, 1999); declarative methods (iconic and verbal scales) are relevant for measuring the subjective component of emotion (Burke and Edell, 1989). In this research, we combine these methods to measure emotions to check that PTW do not only provoke subjective self-report emotional responses, but also trigger unconscious emotional reactions involving a process of change in different subsystems (physiological and motor reactions). ...
Purpose—This study aims to investigate the role of two structural factors—threat level depicted on fear messages, warning size—as well as two contextual factors—repeated exposure, type of packs—on pictorial and threatening tobacco warnings’ effectiveness.
Design/methodology/approach—A two (warning threat level: moderate vs. high) by two (coverage: 40% vs. 75%) by two (packaging type: plain vs. branded) within-subjects experiment was carried out. Subjects were exposed three times to pictorial and threatening tobacco warnings. Both self-report and psychophysiological measurements of emotion were used.
Findings—Results indicate that threat level is the most effective structural factor to influence smokers’ reactions, while warning size has very low impact. Furthermore, emotional arousal, fear and disgust as well as attitude towards tobacco brand decrease after the second exposure to pictorial and threatening tobacco warnings, but stay stable at the third exposure. However, there is no effect of repetition on the emotional valence component, arousal-subjective component, nor on intention of quitting or of reducing cigarette consumption. Finally, there is a negative effect of plain packs on attitude towards tobacco brand over repeated exposures, but there is no effect of the type of packs on smokers’ emotions and intentions.
Practical implications—Useful marketing social guidance, that might help government decision-makers increase the effectiveness of smoking reduction measures, is offered.
Originality/value—For the first time in this context, psychophysiological and self-report methods were combined to measure smokers’ reactions towards pictorial and threatening tobacco warnings in a repeated exposure study.
... Academic literature collects several investigations confirming that positive emotions stimulate consume and approach behaviors (Cacioppo et al. 1993;Lin and Liang 2011;White 2010), while negative emotions are associated with avoidance behaviors (Donovan and Rossiter 1982;Hazlett and Hazlett 1999). The displayed consumers' emotions during the service encounter are positively associated with better service assessments (Mattila and Enz 2002). ...
A distinct new development presented by this paper is the analysis of attendees’ heterogeneity considering gender and its influence on consumer post-use behavior. The study analyses whether gender moderates the relationship between emotions and post-use behavior in terms of satisfaction and loyalty in public services. A quantitative study was conducted to gather data from 867 Spanish opera-goers of a public opera house through e-mail with a link to a questionnaire. Hypotheses were tested using a multigroup analysis by parametric approach in a structural equation modelling. Gender was found to moderate the relationships presented in the model. Empirical results show that gender provides differences in the effect of emotions in the post-use behavior. Particularly, the effect of the negative emotions in loyalty only exists for female attendees. Moreover, it can be concluded that the positive impact of satisfaction on loyalty is stronger for men than women. Results reveal the importance of managing emotions as well as considering gender differences as segmentation variables. Examining the phenomenon of emotions in context of performing arts, while considering gender as moderator, highlights the originality and contribution of the present study to the public hedonic services.
... Respectively, unpleasant emotional affect induces more activity of the corrugator supecilii than neutral stimuli [9,12,13]. The ability to record muscle activation patterns and to derive important information about the subject's valence and affective state has attracted attention in psychological and neurological evaluation and marketing [14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21]. We build on these investigations to design wearable dry electrodes to record emotional affect. ...
Electromyography of the zygomaticus major and the corrugator supercilii muscles is a well-established technique to capture positive and negative emotional affect. Despite the great potential, its wide adoption has been so far limited owing to several lingering technical limitations in contemporary electromyography electrodes. In this paper, we report on new printed electrode arrays, specifically designed to capture emotional affect, focusing on their unique and advantageous properties compared with conventional gelled electrodes. Inkjet- or screen-printing, combined with film cutting and lamination techniques, were used to produce customized electrode arrays. Conformity with the skin was guaranteed by printing on very thin and soft films. Unlike conventional gelled-surface electromyography electrodes, the printed electrode arrays are dry, allowing long-term and stable recording. Moreover, the large electrode arrays can be rapidly and conveniently placed on the subject's face, maintaining excellent electrode–skin compliance. Muscle localization was achieved despite inter-subject variability in facial features and electrode array position, as a result of high spatial resolution and source separation methodology. The presented electrode arrays open new opportunities in brain–machine interfacing, well-being investigations and mood monitoring.
... Facial EMG has similarly been used to assess valence of affect toward products and advertisements (Hazlett and Hazlett, 1999;Poels and Dewitte, 2006). For example, radio adverts with a positive tone evoked more zygomatic ('smiling' muscle) activity and those with a negative tone more corrugator ('frowning' muscle) activity (Bolls et al., 2001). ...
The current paper investigates the value and application of a range of physiological and neuroscientific techniques in applied marketing research and consumer science, highlighting new insights from research in social psychology and neuroscience. We review measures of sweat secretion, heart rate, facial muscle activity, eye movements, and electrical brain activity, using techniques including skin conductance, pupillometry, eyetracking, and magnetic brain imaging. For each measure, after a brief explanation of the underlying technique, we illustrate concepts and mechanisms that the measure allows researchers in marketing and consumer science to investigate, with a focus on consumer attitudes and behavior. By providing reviews on recent research that applied these methods in consumer science and relevant related fields, we also highlight methodological and theoretical strengths and limitations, with an emphasis on ecological validity. We argue that the inclusion of physiological and neuroscientific techniques can advance consumer research by providing insights into the often unconscious mechanisms underlying consumer behavior. Therefore, such technologies can help researchers and marketing practitioners understand the mechanisms of consumer behavior and improve predictions of consumer behavior.
... Facial electromyography (EMG) is a measure of affective valence (e.g., pleasure/displeasure). Face muscles have proven to be most consistently activated according to the valence of affective stimuli, and the zygomaticus major muscle is associated strongly with the pleasant dimension of affective valence (Bolls, Lang, & Potter, 2001;Cacioppo & Gardner, 1999;Cacioppo, Petty, Losch, & Kim, 1986;Hazlett, R. & Hazlett, S., 1999;Lang, Greenwald, Bradley, & Hamm, 1993;Neumann, Hess, Schulz, & Alpers, 2005). Thus, high EMG activity of the zygomatic muscle is the result of a positive emotion: high pleasure. ...
As in-store experience becomes increasingly important, retailers strive to create unique and memorable environments. A trend toward the goal is to emphasize decorative elements increasing store complexity, however, how such elevated store complexity would contribute to consumer response is yet to be explored. This study investigates the effect of visual complexity in a fashion store on affective/behavioral responses using self-report and psychophysiological measures. The moderating role of fashion involvement is taken into consideration. Two types of virtual stores were designed with different levels of visual complexity and manipulated by the presence of decorative patterns and type of layout (grid vs. free-form). Two experiments were conducted to test the proposed effects of visual complexity. The results showed that high-visual complexity in a fashion store has a negative effect on pleasure when consumers’ fashion involvement level is low, but such negative effect of visual complexity diminished in consumers with high fashion involvement. Higher visual complexity was significantly related to higher arousal, regardless of consumers’ fashion involvement level. The results also demonstrated the mediating role of emotions between the visual complexity of store design and consumers’ approach intentions. The findings provide novel understanding of the effects of store’s visual complexity to consumers.
... Les mesures électromyographiques (EMG) reflètent la richesse et la complexité de l"émotion et permettent d"enregistrer en temps réel les réactions émotionnelles (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999 (2008) ont rapporté que l"activité du zygomatique est significativement plus élevée lorsque les participants écoutaient de la musique gaie que lorsqu"ils écoutaient de la musique triste. Similairement, il semble que l"activité du corrugateur serait plus élevée pour des musiques à valence négative (Dellacherie, et coll., 2010;Witvliet & Vrana, 2007). ...
... It identifies and measure the intensity of expressions based upon classifiers used to recognize smiles, eyebrow rises, and expressions of anger, disgust, positive and negative valence. Such facial expressions are highly relevant to understand viewer's response and are validated by research community (Hazlett & Hazlett, 1999). Classifiers generate continuous moment-by-moment emotive outputs based upon probability as shown in Fig. 6. ...
Business houses and marketers have been relying on social media to affect consumer opinions and purchasing behavior. In this paper a framework has been proposed to identify and quantify the emotive value of any movie trailer. The proposed framework made use of Dlib-ml (a machine learning toolkit) and a Genetic Algorithm inspired Support Vector Machine algorithm (GAiSVM) for parameter tuning and classification and emotive analysis of movie trailers. A case study comprising of 141 movies trailers released from Jan 1, 2017 till April 31, 2018 was done to investigate the relationship between emotive score of a movie trailer and financial returns associated with it. Results revealed a direct correlation between emotive score of a movie trailer and financial returns. Further, it was concluded that an emotionally intense movie trailer could result high financial returns in comparison to non-much emotionally intense trailers.
... It identifies and measure the intensity of expressions based upon classifiers used to recognize smiles, eyebrow rises, and expressions of anger, disgust, positive and negative valence. Such facial expressions are highly relevant to understand viewer's response and are validated by research community [25]. Classifiers generate continuous moment-by-moment emotive outputs based upon probability as shown in Fig. 2. ...
Release of a theatrical movie trailer is a major marketing practice and a considerable cost is associated with it. Evaluating the effectiveness of a theatrical movie trailer before its release could substantially contribute towards enriching its contents and economic value. The relationship between the emotional responses generated in response to a movie trailer cannot be effectively measured using traditional methods such as surveys and interviews. This paper proposes a framework to measure the effectiveness of movie trailers by measuring emotive response of viewers. A case study was conducted to study the impact of a movie trailer release on stock value of movie using virtual stock markets. Further, the case study investigated the impact of emotionally intense movie trailer over its stock price. Based on emotive content of trailers, few of the movie stocks experienced a surge of two hundred and 50 % while others experienced a marginal rise of five to 10 % only. The observed results indicated a direct relation between release of movie trailer, its emotive content and abnormal positive returns of a movie stock.
... Surprisingly, and even though it is commonly used in psychophysiology, only few studies have been carried out in marketing to underline how facial EMG can provide valuable information on consumers' emotional experience (Wang and Minor, 2008). Among these studies, facial EMG has been used to examine the valence of emotional responses to commercial ads (e.g., Hazlett and Hazlett, 1999), to non-commercial ads (e.g., Bradley et al., 2007) as well as to radio ads (Bolls et al., 2001), and to investigate the emotional processes underlying purchase behavior (Somervuori and Ravaja, 2013). Globally, results from the identified studies appear consistent with those emerging from psychophysiological ones: exposure to positive stimuli elicits facial EMG responses over the cheek region (zygomaticus major muscles), while exposure to negative stimuli elicits EMG responses over the brow region (corrugator supercilii muscles) (for a review: see Droulers and Lajante, 2015). ...
In this paper, we call for a peripheral psychophysiology approach in order to fully unlock the potential of affective neuroscience in retailing and consumer services. We assume that using peripheral psychophysiological measures of embodied cognition and emotion such as facial EMG and skin conductance responses would greatly contribute to a novel understanding of consumers’ judgements, decision-making, and behaviors. To do so, it is necessary to overcome the difficulties formerly encountered in applying psychophysiological methods in marketing in order to contribute to an emerging stream of applied peripheral psychophysiology research. Accordingly, we answer three fundamental questions (What? How? When?). Afterward, we discuss three critical points (perils) researchers should carefully consider when applying peripheral psychophysiology measures in retailing and consumer services research.
... Making the content attractive and memorable can facilitate virality (Phelps et al. 2004). In traditional advertising, it is commonly believed that emotional content plays an important role in drawing attention and increasing the message attractiveness (Hazlett & Hazlett 1999). Meanwhile, emotion of advertisement can also enhance information processing and increase the memorability of contagious content, thereby increasing the sharing propensity (Phelps et al. 2004). ...
Viral marketing has attracted attention from both academics and practitioners. With the rise of user-generated content (UGC) and broadcasting networks, viral online video advertising campaigns (viral advertising in short) are an emerging trend in viral marketing. Previous literature mainly studied the influence of network structure on viral advertising. Here, we extend such works by decomposing the diffusion network into individual sharing behavior. We based our work on theories of emotion and social networks by proposing a framework that specifies the role of emotion and social feature on individuals’ sharing of online video advertisements in viral marketing campaigns. The framework will be tested using real-world data extracted from online broadcasting networks in the future work.
... We also expected that SIT-consistent preferences for ads featuring the in-group would be reflected in physiological responses that correspond to indicators of advertising effectiveness (e.g., emotion, attention, and arousal). Some studies indicate that physiological responses to ads are better predictors of certain types of consumer response than self-report (e.g., Hazlett and Hazlett 1999;LaBarbera and Tucciarone 1995). Psychophysiological measures can reveal physiological substrates underlying consumer behavior (Berkman and Falk 2013), providing insight into explanatory mechanisms underinvolved in communication (Weber, Mathiak, and Sherry 2008). ...
This research examined how implicit attitudes are associated with cognitive processing and self-reported evaluation of advertisements featuring same-sex couples. Hypotheses were posited using the theoretical framework of social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner 1986) and perspectives on implicit attitudes. In Study 1, participants watched and evaluated 10 television advertisements while physiological measures of cognitive and affective processing were collected. Ads varied such that half used same-sex couples as protagonists while the other half used other-sex couples. Participants demonstrated less positive responses to ads featuring same-sex couples. Physiological and self-reported responses were associated with implicit attitudes toward homosexuality Negative implicit attitudes toward homosexuality were associated with more negative affect, less attention, less positivity, and less liking for ads featuring same-sex couples. Two subsequent studies replicated these findings in nonstudent samples, indicating that participants preferred ads with other-sex couples (Study 2) and that implicit attitudes were associated with this response (Study 3). This research suggests that implicit attitudes affect processing and evaluation of ads featuring same-sex couples in ways unaccounted for by explicitly measured attitudes. Results are discussed in terms of advancing theory, furthering understanding of the dynamic processing of ads featuring in-group and out-group members, and practical implications.
... We also expected that SIT-consistent preferences for ads featuring the in-group would be reflected in physiological responses that correspond to indicators of advertising effectiveness (e.g., emotion, attention, and arousal). Some studies indicate that physiological responses to ads are better predictors of certain types of consumer response than self-report (e.g., Hazlett and Hazlett 1999;LaBarbera and Tucciarone 1995). Psychophysiological measures can reveal physiological substrates underlying consumer behavior (Berkman and Falk 2013), providing insight into explanatory mechanisms underinvolved in communication (Weber, Mathiak, and Sherry 2008). ...
This research examined how implicit attitudes are associated with cognitive processing and self- reported evaluation of advertisements featuring same-sex couples. Hypotheses were posited using the theoretical framework of Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner 1986) and perspectives on implicit attitudes. In Study 1 participants watched and evaluated 10 television advertisements while physiological measures of cognitive and affective processing were collected. Ads varied such that half used same-sex couples as protagonists while the other half used other-sex couples. Participants demonstrated less positive responses to ads featuring same- sex couples. Physiological and self-reported responses were associated with implicit attitudes toward homosexuality; negative implicit attitudes were associated with more negative affect, less attention, less positivity, and less liking to ads featuring same-sex couples. Two subsequent studies replicated these findings in non-student samples, indicating that participants preferred ads with other-sex couples (Study 2) and that implicit attitudes were associated with this response (Study 3). This research suggests that implicit attitudes affect processing and evaluation of ads featuring same-sex couples in ways unaccounted for by explicitly-measured attitudes. Results are discussed in terms of advancing theory, furthering understanding of the dynamic processing of ads featuring in-group and out-group members, and practical implications. ***This is a post-peer-review, pre-copyedit version of an article published in Journal of Advertising. The final authenticated version will be available online at: https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2018.1452653
Advertisement is an important tool to introduce brand to people in current market scenario. Emotional advertising is one such option of which can differentiate one brand to the others and will create a bond between the producers and consumers and can easily register the brand in people mind. Emotions can transcend cultural, linguistic, demographic, and social boundaries. Previously, advertisers were only focusing on the utility feature of the product but now the whole scenario has been changed. This study investigates the effect of emotional advertisements on Brand Recognition, Recall and Societal benefits towards Fast moving consumer goods (Food and Beverages, Household Care Products and Personal Care/ Hygiene products). We endeavor to display the predecessors to the emotional reaction variable by building up a lot of speculations foreseeing emotional response and exactly test the theories utilizing information from 115 participants with 69 matrix questionnaires on four dimensions. This study confirms that the emotional appeal creates significant effect on brand registration by the consumers at the point of purchase.
A large number of symbolic and cultural elements have been included by designers in their photographing and creation of images for tourist destinations. However, the personal visual experiences of those with professional knowledge cannot fully recognize or evaluate ordinary tourists’ identification with tourism rituals. Thus, in this article, potential Chinese tourists will be treated as the research subjects and New Zealand tourism photos as the ritual carriers. In this study, we explore the use of images representing tourism rituals recognized by tourists, and we investigate how the cognitive outcome of those rituals affects the tourists’ intention to travel to the destination. By measuring the participants’ visual parameters, the study shows that images can effectively transfer a solidified sense of ritual. Meanwhile, through a comprehensive classification, the study deepens the theory of ritual tourism. Ultimately, this work explores whether tourists’ perception of rituals can effectively stimulate their motivation to travel.
The intention of this manuscript will be to discuss the role of eye-tracking studies in knowledge co-creation for tourism experiences. The designation of touristic information services is dependent on the feedback coming from tourists, and currently, the most objective method for deriving tourist information can be argued as eye-tracking. By comparing past literature with a critical analysis, this chapter will underline the importance of eye-tracking method as an integral part of tourism studies, on the basis of knowledge co-creation out of the experiences of tourists. The main focus of this study will be on how to analyze the phenomenon of knowledge co-creation in tourism in the face of visual stimuli around tourists in touristic destinations. In conclusion, the chapter will contribute to the literature by discussing the role of eye-tracking method in knowledge co-creation of tourists through objectively reflecting their experiences with visual stimuli around them. In doing so, knowledge co-creation studies in tourism can be carried out in a quantitatively measurable manner by adopting eye-tracking method.
The theorization of emotion receives considerable attention in contemporary tourism literature. Remarkably, existing studies largely ignore the operationalization of emotion in tourism research. Drawing on extant knowledge from psychology, marketing, and tourism literatures, this article describes methodological and theoretical concerns and provides guidance for selecting highly useful-for-the-context (HUFTC) emotion measures. To help researchers choose HUFTC measures, this study proposes a new model: Emotionapps. The article here highlights the need for tourism researchers to account for the complexities in measuring emotions and how such measurement impacts theory construction.
The much-hyped field in cognitive sciences, neuromarketing, is still in its nascent stage which examines the brain responses to various marketing stimuli in order to comprehend the physiological genesis of consumer's choice. This study provides an integrative outline of the sophisticated tools and technologies used by neuromarketers for gaining hidden insight into consumer behaviour. Conventional marketing research approaches provided biased, intermediary solutions in revealing the true opinion of consumers. This paper also strives to present a snapshot of merits and demerits of traditional marketing and advance neuromarketing research approaches. However, earlier studies on neuromarketing have explored how different methodologies of neuromarketing are used to reveal the mysteries of consumer decision-making. Attempt has been made to integrate all the methodologies of market research to effectively probe and synthesise customer's underlying emotions with the help of triune brain model. Thereby, concluding with ethical issues and dilemma faced by the neuromarketing companies in today's world.
Understanding a target audience's emotional responses to a video advertisement is crucial to evaluate the advertisement's effectiveness. However, traditional methods for collecting such information are slow, expensive, and coarse grained. We propose AttentiveVideo, a scalable intelligent mobile interface with corresponding inference algorithms to monitor and quantify the effects of mobile video advertising in real time. Without requiring additional sensors, AttentiveVideo employs a combination of implicit photoplethysmography (PPG) sensing and facial expression analysis (FEA) to detect the attention, engagement, and sentiment of viewers as they watch video advertisements on unmodified smartphones. In a 24-participant study, AttentiveVideo achieved good accuracy on a wide range of emotional measures (the best average accuracy = 82.6% across nine measures). While feature fusion alone did not improve prediction accuracy with a single model, it significantly improved the accuracy when working together with model fusion. We also found that the PPG sensing channel and the FEA technique have different strength in data availability, latency detection, accuracy, and usage environment. These findings show the potential for both low-cost collection and deep understanding of emotional responses to mobile video advertisements.
This study adopts psycho-physiological techniques to examine the impacts of different types of emotional appeals (used in tourism TV commercials) on consumers’ emotional and evaluative responses. A total of 101 participants were exposed to 18 existing tourism TVCs while their psycho-physiological and self-report data were collected. Findings suggest that emotional appeals in tourism advertising should not be considered as homogeneous. Specifically, different types of emotional appeals in tourism TVCs can be discriminated based on their ability to evoke emotional responses. More important, the results of this article have advanced the general theories addressing the effects of ad-evoked emotions on advertising effects and concluded that the role ad-evoked emotion plays in generating consumers’ emotional and evaluative responses depended on the type of emotional appeal used. Methodological, theoretical, and practical implications of this study are discussed.
Which emotions are most appealing to donors in nonprofit outreach materials? Previous studies have shown that in print and television materials, images depicting negative emotions lead to increases in donor response. In this study, we examined whether images of negative affect in children in social media appeals lead to increased information sharing compared to positive or neutral images of children. We analyzed Facebook posts from 2016 from 2 large children’s nongovernmental organizations, UNICEF USA and Save the Children US, and examined the relationship between the type of emotion in the image and the number of likes, comments, and shares that the post received. We found differences in the responses according to the organization sending the message and the affect of the children depicted. For Save the Children US, negative images, specifically sad and fearful images, generated significantly more likes, shares, and comments. For UNICEF USA, there was no difference in information sharing for positive, neutral, or negative images. Findings from this study demonstrate that negative emotional imagery of children can affect social media engagement with nongovernmental organizations, but this effect appears to be inconsistent.
The progress in neurotechnologies has enabled a potentially better and cheaper analysis for the neural signals not limited to medical applications but influencing several fields from marketing to economics and law to ethics. Since the main targets have been to understand the brain mechanisms better as well as providing useful applications specifically regarding the sector-specific interest, one related application has been about the assessments of TV ads as a complementary and more objective tool than traditional methods that rely on the verbal self-reports and interviews that could be speculative and misleading depending on the given context. For assessing several TV ads within a shorter duration, the use of neuroscientific methods has attracted much interest. This chapter will focus on the current practices with the given constructs for the TV ad research specifically in relation to the practices such as attention, emotional engagement, individual preference, and market success.
New research techniques, such as from the field of neuroscience, are increasingly being integrated into media and communication research and hold promise to understand emotional processes. This chapter provides a defined overview of affective engagement and how it can help take the customer brand relationship to the next level—even in the tougher times of ad avoidance during media use. The emotional or affective dimension of engagement is often stressed as key success factor to achieve different advertising goals in today's media and marketing environment. The chapter also provides specific explanations on engagement measurement techniques and addresses the role neuroscientific approaches can play in media and communication research. A recently published case of the Huffington Post Germany is used as a case example to illustrate how neuroscience and native advertising (NA) can fit together to achieve higher customer engagement.
The relationship in memory between affect evoked by an ad during exposure and the brand name is discussed and tested. Two studies tested the possible role of advertising in strengthening ties between affect and a brand name in memory by examining accessibility of ad affect and its possible relevance to decision making. The first study assessed whether the brand name could serve as a prime for ad affect and whether such affect is likely to have greater influence in low than high involvement decisions. The second study showed that subjects whose brand preferences were influenced by positive affect during ad exposure were more able to feel positive when the brand name was used as a subsequent retrieval cue than either subjects without positive affect at exposure or subjects for whom a different brand name was used as the subsequent retrieval cue. Implications are drawn from these results for the storage and retrieval of advertising-elicited affect in memory.
Earlier theorists assumed that exposure to physical attractiveness leads to pleasant affect. However this relationship might hold only for judgments of the opposite sex. In this study, subjects exposed to opposite-sex photos showed a pattern consistent with the affect-attraction model: highest mood after attractive faces but lower mood if the series was interrupted by an average face. Those exposed to the same sex, however, showed lowered mood following attractive photos, whether or not an average face interrupted the attractive series. Further judgments of the average target's attractiveness were independent of subjects' affective states but followed a pattern consistent with a contrast model-relatively lowest ratings if the target followed attractive faces, whether or not the photos were of the same or the opposite sex. This suggests that the cognitive appraisal of physical attractiveness in others can operate independently of the affective reaction they evoke.
The effects of communicative intent and stimulus affectivity on facial electromyogrqphic (EMG) activity were investigated. Subjects viewed slides of pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant social or nature scenes under no instruction, inhibit-expression instructions, and amplify-expression instructions. Results revealed that facial EMG activity was highest in the amplify and lowest in the inhibit condition; EMG activity over the corrugator supercilii region varied as a function of the affective valence of the stimuli regardless of instructional condition; and facial EMG activity did not differ when subjects were exposed to slides of nature versus social scenes that were matched for rated pleasantness. These results suggest that facial efference can be altered by both affective and communicative processes even when it is too subtle to produce a socially perceptible facial expression.
Factor-analytic evidence has led most psychologists to describe affect as a set of dimensions, such as displeasure, distress, depression, excitement, and so on, with each dimension varying independently of the others. However, there is other evidence that rather than being independent, these affective dimensions are interrelated in a highly systematic fashion. The evidence suggests that these interrelationships can be represented by a spatial model in which affective concepts fall in a circle in the following order: pleasure (0), excitement (45), arousal (90), distress (135), displeasure (180), depression (225), sleepiness (270), and relaxation (315). This model was offered both as a way psychologists can represent the structure of affective experience, as assessed through self-report, and as a representation of the cognitive structure that laymen utilize in conceptualizing affect. Supportive evidence was obtained by scaling 28 emotion-denoting adjectives in 4 different ways: R. T. Ross's (1938) technique for a circular ordering of variables, a multidimensional scaling procedure based on perceived similarity among the terms, a unidimensional scaling on hypothesized pleasure–displeasure and degree-of-arousal dimensions, and a principal-components analysis of 343 Ss' self-reports of their current affective states. (70 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examines the information encoded by the eyebrow frown and the smile. In a conceptual replication of Smith (1989), subjects imagined themselves in pleasant and unpleasant scenarios while muscle activities in the eyebrow and cheek regions were monitored electromyographically. Brow region activity was related to evaluations of motivational incongruence and perceived goal-obstacles, and, after taking these relationships into account, was uncorrelated with subjective pleasantness. In contrast, cheek activity was associated with subjective pleasantness and, after taking this relationship into account, nothing else. These results contribute to the literature indicating that individual components of facial expressions directly encode information about emotional state and clarify the nature of the information encoded by two of these components.
This study examines individuals' reports about emotive experience vis-a-vis their attitudinal judgments as predictors of subsequent behavior. Hypotheses are developed around the general premise that emotional reports tap information with motivational implications that need not be integrated into attitude judgments and thus should supplement attitude in prediction. The hypotheses are tested with a unique data base that allows categorization of subjects on the basis of diverse levels of prior experience and features naturally occurring behavior over a 12-month period as the criterion variable. The data support the premise that emotional variables can serve as incremental predictors in instances in which situational pressures may inhibit formation of meaningful attitudes. Also, the data suggest that emotional reports may furnish some unique information about what perpetuates a behavior. Implications for further integration of emotional experience into consumer research are discussed. Copyright 1992 by the University of Chicago.
In the latest decades, emotions have become an important research topic in all behavioral sciences, and not the least in advertising. Yet, advertising literature on how to measure emotions is not straightforward. The major aim of this article is to give an update on the different methods used for measuring emotions in advertising and to discuss their validity and applicability. We further draw conclusions on the relation between emotions and traditional measures of advertising effectiveness. We finally formulate recommendations on the use of the different methods and make suggestions for future research.
This article argues that affective responses (ARs) should supplement the cognitive responses more often studied in communication research. ARs are not evaluative responses to an advertisement, but represent the moods and feelings evoked by the ad. The literature on ARs is reviewed, and a typology for such responses is presented. Three ARs are studied empirically; they appear to be antecedents of the attitude towards the ad ( A ad ) and to have a weak but significant impact on brand attitudes.
Previous research has demonstrated that mild negative emotional imagery and unpleasant sensory stimuli lead to greater electromyographic activity over the brow muscle region than mild positive imagery and stimuli, even in the absence of significant changes in visceral and general facial EMG activity. Previous research has not addressed whether electromyographic responses over the brow region are a sensitive and specific index of emotions, however, since a multiplicity of events lead to changes in brow activity. In this research, facial electromyographic and audiovisual recordings were obtained while individuals were interviewed about themselves. Afterwards, individuals were asked to describe what they had been thinking of during specific segments of the interview marked by distinctive electromyographic responses over the brow region in the context of ongoing but stable levels of activity elsewhere in the face. The results are interpreted in terms of a continuous flow hypothesis of affect-laden information processing.
Physiological measures have traditionally been viewed in social psychology as useful only in assessing general arousal and therefore as incapable of distinguishing between positive and negative affective states. This view is challenged in the present report. Sixteen subjects in a pilot study were exposed briefly to slides and tones that were mildly to moderately evocative of positive and negative affect. Facial electromyographic (EMG) activity differentiated both the valence and intensity of the affective reaction. Moreover, independent judges were unable to determine from viewing videotapes of the subjects' facial displays whether a positive or negative stimulus had been presented or whether a mildly or moderately intense stimulus had been presented. In the full experiment, 28 subjects briefly viewed slides of scenes that were mildly to moderately evocative of positive and negative affect. Again, EMG activity over the brow (corrugator supercilia), eye (orbicularis oculi), and cheek (zygomatic major) muscle regions differentiated the pleasantness and intensity of individuals' affective reactions to the visual stimuli even though visual inspection of the videotapes again indicated that expressions of emotion were not apparent. These results suggest that gradients of EMG activity over the muscles of facial expression can provide objective and continuous probes of affective processes that are too subtle or fleeting to evoke expressions observable under normal conditions of social interaction.
One hundred and thirty-nine women viewed television commercials that contained either Appearance-related commercials (demonstrating societally-endorsed images of thinness and attractiveness) or Non-Appearance-related advertisements. Pre-post measures of depression, anger, anxiety, and body dissatisfaction were examined. Participants were blocked by a median split on dispositional levels of body image disturbance and sociocultural attitudes regarding appearance. Individuals high on these measures became significantly more depressed following exposure to the Appearance videotape and significantly less depressed following a viewing of the Non-Appearance advertisements. In addition, individuals high on the level of sociocultural awareness/internalization became more angry and participants high on body image disturbance became more dissatisfied with their appearance following exposure to commercials illustrating thinness/attractiveness. Participants who scored below the median on dispositional levels of disturbance either improved or showed no change on dependent measures in both Appearance and Non-Appearance video conditions. The findings are discussed in light of factors that might moderate media-influenced perturbations in body image.
The author investigates the impact of affective reactions elicited by television advertisements on two variables of major interest in advertising: attitude toward the advertisement (Aad) and postexposure brand attitude (A<sub>bp</sub>). Previous research has suffered from using non-natural settings, verbal measures of affect, and unknown brands. The author's study avoids forced exposure, uses a real program in which real commercials for unknown and known brands were embedded, and interviews subjects after they have viewed all the commercials. Thus, it offers a more natural setting in which to examine whether previously established relations between affective reactions and Aad and attitude toward the brand (A<sub>b</sub>) still hold. The author measures affective reactions through facial expressions, as well as classical verbal measures, and finds that the contribution of affective responses to Aad and A<sub>bp</sub> is evident for verbal, but not facial, measures of affect. The impact of affective responses varies in a theoretically predictable way across familiar and unfamiliar brands, with the latter being more influenced by verbal affective reactions generated by the advertisement. The author presents several explanations for the results and offers issues for further research.
The authors develop several hypotheses regarding the integration of moment-to-moment emotional responses into overall ad judgments, using the psychological literature dealing with people's preferences for sequences of hedonic outcomes, and they conduct three studies to test these predictions. The results of Study 1 indicate that consumers' global assessments of extended affective episodes elicited by advertisements are dominated by the peak emotional experience and the final moment of the series and also are correlated with the pace at which momentary affective reactions improve over time. Ad duration is related only weakly to overall ad judgments, though longer advertisements have an advantage as long as they build toward a peak emotional experience. In Study 2, the authors replicate these findings under more realistic viewing conditions and demonstrate that the results cannot be attributed solely to memory artifacts that are based on recency. Study 3 implicates adaptation as a possible explanation for the preference for delayed peaks and high ends and further explains the weak effects of ad duration by showing experimentally that longer advertisements can both enhance and depress ad judgments depending on how duration affects the peak emotional experience and the final moment.
Despite the burgeoning literature using facial electromyography (EMG) to study cognitive and emotional processes, the psychometric properties of facial EMG measurement have received little attention. Two experiments were conducted to assess the reliability and validity of facial EMG as a measure of specific facial actions. In Experiment 1, two recording sites in the brow region were compared for their ability to differentiate facial actions hypothesized to be due to the activation of the corrugator supercilii from facial actions presumed to be due to the activation of proximate muscles (e.g. depressor supercilii, procerus, frontalis, levator labii superioris alaeque nasi, orbicularis oculi), and four sites in the infraorbital triangle were compared for their ability to differentiate facial actions hypothesized to be due to the activation of the zygomaticus major from facial actions presumed to be due the activation of proximate muscles (e.g. zygomaticus minor, risorius, buccinator, orbicularis oculi, orbicularis oris). Fifteen subjects were instructed to pose a series of facial actions while EMG activity was sampled simultaneously at all sites. In Experiment 2, 5 subjects returned to the laboratory for a more extensive investigation of surface EMG activity over the zygomaticus major muscle region. The results of this experiment confirmed the findings of Experiment 1. Overall, the results demonstrate that certain recording sites located over specific facial muscle regions are more sensitive and valid indices of particular facial actions than other nearby sites.
Several studies confirm the operation of contextual contrast effects on judgments of the physical attractiveness of others. The present experiment was conducted to determine whether contrast effects also occur on self-evaluations of physical attractiveness. Fifty-one female college students rated their own attractiveness and body-parts satisfaction following exposure to same-sexed stimulus persons who either were not physically attractive, were physically attractive, or were designated as attractive professional models. The predicted contrast effect was supported for self-perceived attractiveness but not for body satisfaction. Consistent with social comparison theory, subjects gave lower self-ratings in the attractive versus the not attractive and the professionally attractive stimulus context. Correlational analyses also indicated that self-rated attractiveness was related to several personality variables.
Emotion and cognition are mediated by separate but interacting systems of the brain. The core of the emotional system is a network that evaluates (computes) the biological significance of stimuli, including stimuli from the external or internal environment or from within the brain (thoughts, images, memories). The computation of stimulus significance takes place prior to and independent of conscious awareness, with only the computational products reaching awareness, and only in some instances. The amygdala may be a focal structure in the affective network. By way of neural interactions between the amygdala and brain areas involved in cognition (particularly the neocortex and hippocampus), affect can influence cognition and cognition can influence affect. Emotional experiences, it is proposed, result when stimulus representations, affect representations, and self representations coincide in working memory.
This paper defines hedonic consumption as those facets of consumer behavior that relate to the multisensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of product usage experience. After delineating these concepts, their theoretical antecedents are traced, followed by a discussion of differences between the traditional and hedonic views, methodological implications of the latter approach, and behavioral propositions in four substantive areas relevant to hedonic consumption-mental constructs, product classes, product usage and individual differences. Conclusions concern the usefulness of the hedonic perspective in supplementing and extending marketing research on consumer behavior.
Evaluated the Rossiter-Percy model (RPM) by J. R. Rossiter and L. Percy (1987). The raw material for this report was the data from the final test of the developed Ayer emotional checklist and from a series of 33 commercials. This research provides a 1st validation of the emotional aspect of the RPM and suggested some directions by which a mediated model might explore this complexity and not include a wider range of emotions. It also suggests further exploration of the meaning of responses to questions about emotional response. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
An apparatus and method are described for measuring the likes and dislikes of subjects for specific parts of a radio program. During the program the subject presses one button if he likes the material being presented at the moment, and another if he dislikes it. His responses are recorded. Following the program, the important parts of it are played back from a recording and the subject is interviewed and asked just what it was that made him like or dislike them. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Facial electromyography (EMG) was recorded from left and right zygomatic and corrugator muscle regions in response to reflective questions and during voluntary facial expressions. Both muscle regions showed consistent responses to five emotions (happiness, excitement, neutral, sadness, and fear) evoked in the involuntary condition (i.e. reflective questions) and four emotional facial expressions (happiness, excitement, sadness, and fear) self-generated in the voluntary condition. Lateralized responses were found for the zygomatic muscle in the involuntary condition: positive emotion questions elicited relatively greater right muscle activity than left muscle activity, while negative emotion questions elicited relatively greater left muscle activity than right muscle activity. Lateralized responses were found for the corrugator muscle in the voluntary condition, but were not significantly related to type of emotional expression. Sex differences indicating greater lateralization for females were found in some of the measures. The results are consistent with the hypothesized specialization of the left and right cerebral hemispheres for the mediation of positive and negative emotions, respectively.
The aim of this paper is to review data from my laboratory, which were collected in an attempt to determine whether the facial EMG response is a general component of the emotional reaction.In a number of studies it was found that facial reactions: first, are spontaneously elicited and differ according to the kind of emotional stimuli to which sunjects are exposed; second, are sensitive to learning; third, are consistent with how the subject perceive the stimuli and their own specific emotions; fourth, are congruent with autonomic responses; fifth, are more pronoanced for females than for males; and finally, differ among subjects with specific fears.These data converge to indicate that facial muscle activity is a general component of the emotional reaction and demonstrate that the facial EMG technique is a sensitve too for measuring emotional ractions.
The title of Darwin's book implies that emotional behaviour is a direct expression of a relatively simple internal state. However data from both animals and humans indicate that neither emotional ‘states’ nor emotional behaviour can be considered independently of the factors that give rise to them, and may involve complex affective-cognitive interactions. Furthermore such ‘expression of emotion’ often involves processes of negotiation between two or more individuals. It is suggested that an attempt to grasp the nettle of the difficulty of defining ‘emotion’ may aid understanding of the processes involved, and facilitate liaison between studies of signal movements in animals and human emotions.
There has been considerable growth in the study of the role played by affect in marketing in the past 15 years. This article assesses the current state of knowledge on affect, as it pertains to marketing functions, activities, and strategy. The goal is to provide a broad assessment of the role played by affect in marketing from academic literature. In addition, measurement issues related with the study of affect in marketing are discussed. The article ends with a critical analysis of state of knowledge, and from this analysis, 15 directions for future research in the recommended areas.
A synthesis of research on consumers' prepurchase behavior suggests that a substantial proportion of purchases does not involve decision making, not even on the first purchase. The heavy emphasis in current research on decision making may discourage investigation of other important kinds of consumer behavior.
Advertising copywriters, in common with other craftspeople, seemingly work without theories, even though their work exhibits insights about consumer motivation and behavior. This research explored the existence of implicit theories of communication among a sample of copywriters. The findings indicated that copywriters do articulate a common set of informal theories that are based on perceptions of the writing of advertising as an internal dialogue. Aspects of these implicit theories differ from many assumptions and findings of current formal theories of advertising. These differences exist in the areas of the nature of affect toward advertising, the nature of the connection between advertising and the brand advertised, and involvement with the advertising message. These implicit theories form the basis for suggesting changes in understanding copywriters' work and for academic and applied research on advertising and marketing. Copyright 1995 by the University of Chicago.
The impact of the feeling of warmth created by a commercial, as measured by the “warmth monitor,” is explored in a series of three studies. The first study examines the relationship between warmth and arousal as measured by skin response. The other studies explore the relationship between warmth and advertising responses such as liking of the ad and purchase likelihood through testing ads with warm and other execution strategies. They also test the effects of sequences of commercials on warmth responses and on the impact of the ad.
Despite the large amount of theory and research on consumer choice, current understanding is still at a less than desirable level—especially in the cases where involvement with or importance of the choice is low and the product is purchased frequently. The present paper provides a view of decision making based on the notion that consumers are not motivated to engage in a great deal of in-store decision making at the time of purchase when the product is purchased repeatedly and is relatively unimportant. As a result, consumers tend to apply very simple choice rules or tactics that provide a satisfactory choice while allowing a quick and effortless decision. An empirical test of this proposition is provided and implications are discussed.
Violation of the validity assumptions of repeated measures analysis of variance continues to be a problem in psychophysiology. Such violation results in positive bias for those tests involving the repeated measures factor(s), Recently it has been shown that the tests of simple interactions and multiple comparisons are even more vulnerable to bias (Boik. 1981; Mitzel & Games, 1981). The present paper offers a discussion of the validity assumptions for both overall and sub-effect tests and describes a multivariate approach which allows exact analysis of such designs. A modification of the univariate approach is also described. Validity concerns for both approaches are much less problematic than those of the traditional approach.
This paper applies a functional-evolutionary perspective to fear in the context of encounters with animals and threatening humans. It is argued that animal fear originates in a predatory defense system whose function is to allow animals to avoid and escape predators. Animal stimuli are postulated to be differentially prepared to become learned elicitors of fear within this system. Social fears are viewed as originating in a dominance/submissiveness system. The function of submissiveness is to avert attacks from dominating conspecifics. Signs of dominance paired with aversive outcomes provide for learning fear to specific individuals. Data which in general are interpreted as supportive of this conceptualization are reviewed. To explain the mechanism behind the causal relationships suggested in the evolutionary analysis, an information-processing model is presented and empirically tested. It is argued that responses to evolutionary fear-relevant stimuli can elicit the physiological concomitants of fear after only a very quick, “unconsciousness,’ or preattentive stimulus analysis. Support for this notion is presented from backward masking studies where it is demonstrated that conditioned autonomic responses to fear-relevant stimuli can be elicited even with masked stimuli.
26 18–30 yr old female Ss read a standard set of self-referent statements and imagined scenes with elated, depressed, and neutral content. The dependent measures were subjective mood ratings (Self-Rating Depression Scale) and left and right zygomatic- and corrugator-muscle activity. The self-statements elicited feelings of elation and depression in approximately 70% of Ss. Among these Ss, elation was accompanied by immediate increases in zygomatic activity, especially on the right side of the face in pure right-handed Ss. Depression was accompanied by bilateral increases in corrugator activity that grew over time. In the remaining 30% of Ss who reported experiencing little or no subjective differences between the elation and depression self-statements, similar though smaller facial patterns of zygomatic and corrugator activity were found that reliably differentiated the affective conditions. Data support the hypothesis that facial EMG patterning is a sensitive psychophysiological indicator of mood. (39 ref)
The purpose of this study was to investigate the amplitude characteristics of frontalis and gastrocnemius electromyographic (EMG) activity in clinically anxious and nonanxious populations. Eighteen women with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and 19 nonanxious women were compared during baseline, laboratory stressor, and recovery conditions. EMG mean levels were greater for the GAD group, but there were no group differences in EMG skewness. During the stressor the GAD group had a significant reduction in frontalis EMG variability. Gastrocnemius muscle activity for both groups during the stressor condition increased in mean levels and variability while decreasing in skewness. These results indicate that clinically anxious individuals have elevated muscular tonus and have reduced variability in frontalis activity during stressful tasks. Also, the gastrocnemius muscle exhibited a stressor reactivity, whereas the frontalis did not. This study presents an approach to EMG analysis that could be useful in distinguishing unique features of anxiety as well as other emotional disorders.
Colored photographic pictures that varied widely across the affective dimensions of valence (pleasant-unpleasant) and arousal (excited-calm) were each viewed for a 6-s period while facial electromyographic (zygomatic and corrugator muscle activity) and visceral (heart rate and skin conductance) reactions were measured. Judgments relating to pleasure, arousal, interest, and emotional state were measured, as was choice viewing time. Significant covariation was obtained between (a) facial expression and affective valence judgments and (b) skin conductance magnitude and arousal ratings. Interest ratings and viewing time were also associated with arousal. Although differences due to the subject's gender and cognitive style were obtained, affective responses were largely independent of the personality factors investigated. Response specificity, particularly facial expressiveness, supported the view that specific affects have unique patterns of reactivity. The consistency of the dimensional relationships between evaluative judgments (i.e., pleasure and arousal) and physiological response, however, emphasizes that emotion is fundamentally organized by these motivational parameters.
To address the need for improved measures of affective response to ads, and for measures of key selling ideas, this study presents a new set of multi-item scales called Ad Promises. These scales result from the methodological proposal made by Lazarus (1991a) to measure affect by asking respondents for their appraisal of affect-related person-environment situations. In an empirical study with a sample size of 430 respondents, high reliability and unidimensionality were found for these Ad Promises. In addition, two covariance structure models gave initial evidence for the convergent, discriminant, and construct validity of the Ad Promises scales. While focusing on recognizing the source of emotion appraisal of person-environment relationships, Ad Promises allow multiple “key ideals” or purchase motivations to be identified. For many television advertisers struggling to fashion a selling message within an attention-riveting presentation, Ad Promises offer increased power to gauge the intended effectivenss of their commericals.
In the latest decades, emotions have become an important research topic in all behavioral sciences, and not the least in advertising. Yet, advertising literature on how to measure emotions is not straightforward. The major aim of this article is to give an update on the different methods used for measuring emotions in advertising and to discuss their validity and applicability. We further draw conclusions on the relation between emotions and traditional measures of advertising effectiveness. We finally formulate recommendations on the use of the different methods and make suggestions for future research.