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Timing accuracy and decision time in high-speed ball games
... It does not need to be very precise, because even a prediction that is not very precise is better than none at all. However, considering the incredible temporal precision with which people can perform interceptive actions (a standard deviation of~7 ms: Brenner and Smeets 2015a;McLeod and Jenkins 1991), the prediction cannot be very imprecise. ...
... If it is evident that a ball is going to bounce, as is the case in sports such as cricket, table tennis, and racquetball, people make saccades to the bouncing point (Land and Furneaux 1997;Land and Mcleod 2000;Mann et al. 2013) or to a position that the ball will pass sometime after the bounce (Diaz et al. 2013) before the bounce takes place. This probably helps judge the ball's direction of motion after the bounce and improves pursuit after the bounce, which might be particularly important if the ball changes direction when it bounces (due to the surface being uneven or due to spin; McLeod and Jenkins 1991). There are also reports of saccades to the interception point (Mann et al. 2013), possibly to receive better feedback about the way the ball was hit. ...
... In the present review we have concentrated on laboratory studies that were performed under controlled conditions, but many of the findings are consistent with the sports literature, where the performance of experts who have made their living from optimizing interception in various sports has been examined (Bootsma and van Wieringen 1990;Mann et al. 2013;McLeod and Jenkins 1991;Regan 1992). Aspects that we have ignored altogether are strategic choices such as whether to intercept a target with a forehand or backhand drive in table tennis (Sørensen et al. 2001), how to deal with mechanical perturbations of a moving hand (Button et al. 2000), or how to deal with intentional attempts to deceive a batsman or goalkeeper (Dessing and Craig 2010) by spinning the ball, or expert batsmen's ability to detect this before the ball is even released . ...
This paper reviews our understanding of the interception of moving objects. Interception is a demanding task that requires both spatial and temporal precision. The required precision must be achieved on the basis of imprecise and sometimes biased sensory information. We argue that people make precise interceptive movements by continuously adjusting their movements. Initial estimates of how the movement should progress can be quite inaccurate. As the movement evolves, the estimate of how the rest of the movement should progress gradually becomes more reliable as prediction is replaced by sensory information about the progress of the movement. The improvement is particularly important when things do not progress as anticipated. Constantly adjusting one's estimate of how the movement should progress combines the opportunity to move in a way that one anticipates will best meet the task demands with correcting for any errors in such anticipation. The fact that the on-going movement might have to be adjusted can be considered when determining how to move, and any systematic anticipation errors can be corrected on the basis of the outcome of earlier actions.
... In simple synchronous tapping tasks, the variability in the relative timing of when the two fingers hit the surface is about 14 ms (data for equal amplitude movements in Fig. 6 of Doumas et al., 2008), which corresponds with a precision in making each tapping movement of about 10 ms (assuming that the two fingers have independent and equal variability, we divide the value by ffiffiffi 2 p to get a value for each finger). There is reason to doubt that the precision of 10 ms can be generalised to other movements than tapping with the fingers, because a considerably higher precision has been reported for performance in sports in which timing is critical (McLeod & Jenkins, 1991;Regan, 1992). Anecdotal reports about exceptional performance, such as the estimated 2-3 ms resolution of interception by top cricketers (Regan, 1997), may be misleading because they only tell you how well the best players did on the occasions at which they did exceptionally well. ...
... McLeod, McLaughlin, and Nimmo-Smith (1985) asked normal subjects to hit a falling ball with a bat. Their subjects hit about 66% of the balls within a 10 ms time window and about 88% of the balls within a 20 ms time window, which corresponds to a standard deviation in timing of about 6 ms (for the values reported in McLeod & Jenkins, 1991, the standard deviation would be about 7 ms). This standard deviation combines uncertainty about when the target should be hit with variability in getting there at that time. ...
... However it seems quite unlikely that visual judgments are much more precise than 6 ms. In fact, it is already hard to believe that visual judgments can be so precise Brenner & Smeets, 2011a;McLeod & Jenkins, 1991). On the other hand, we see no reason other than one based on speed to suspect that finger movements would be less precise than swinging a bat. ...
The reported resolution of timing the moment of impact in fast human movements differs widely depending on the task. Surprisingly, better timing is reported for the demanding task of batting a ball than for the much simpler task of tapping in synchrony with two hands. We wondered whether this is because a sizeable part of timing variability arises from misjudging the distance in the direction of one's own movement, so that moving faster (as the bat does when moving toward a ball) improves timing. We found that moving faster does indeed improve timing in both the above-mentioned tasks. After removing the proposed contribution of misjudging the distance in the direction of one's own movement, we estimated that the remaining standard deviation in timing is just over 6ms for both tasks.
... Some studies have found significant differences between groups (Kuar et al., 2006; Montes-Mico et al., 2000; Kioumourtzoglou et al., 1998). Other studies have found no significant differences between experts and non-experts in measures of VMRT (Mori et al., 2002; Classe et al., 1997; Mcleod & Jenkins, 1991; Starkes, 1987). One of the difficulties in comparing these studies is that approaches to the measurement of VMRT have differed. ...
... VMRT: Starkes (1987) documented that international level field hockey players had only average simple VMRT as measured by a laboratory task where subjects lifted their index finger in response to a light presented on a screen. The results showed that intermediate level players and non-level players had similar simple VMRT to the top level players. Mcleod and Jenkins (1991) completed a study in which expert cricket batsmen and non-cricketers were compared on a cricket-specific simple reaction task. Subjects were expected to react to a ball bowled to them onto an uneven surface. Results of the study showed that even the expert cricket batsmen " s simple reaction times were no faster than that of normal subj ...
... Therefore, it may not be the speed of reaction time of hockey players, but their ability to use early visual information which gives these players the advantage over lesser skilled, lesser experienced players. These conclusions are compatible with the findings of Whiting (1991) and those of Mcleod and Jenkins (1991) discussed in the previous section. ...
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a difference in mean VMRT between top-level men and women participating in selected ball sports compared to either a normative sample or to a non-athlete sample. VMRT was measured using a new 40-light protocol on the Sport Vision Trainer (SVT). The SVT is a board consisting 80 circular lights controlled by a computer program. The SVT is designed to test visual-motor response time in participants. Data from top-level ball sport players were collected for both men (rugby and cricket) and women (netball and hockey). No significant differences in VMRT were found between the rugby players (n=24) and either the normal sample (n=81) or the non-athlete men (n=24). No significant difference in VMRT were found between the cricket players (n=10) and the non-athlete men. However, the cricket players were found to have significantly slower VMRT than the normal sample of men (n=81). No significant differences in VMRT were found between the netball players (n=19), the hockey players (n=14) and either the normal sample of women (n=84) or the non-athlete women (n=26). The conclusions drawn from this study support the position that VMRT may not be a key performance indicator in top-level ball sport performance and that the expert advantage may be located in other variables, such as anticipation and visual search. AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van die studie was om the ondesoek of daar verkille was in die gemiddelde visuele-motoriese reaksie tyd (VMRT) tussen top-vlak bal sport atlete en òf „n normale steekproef òf „n steekproef van nie-atlete. VMRT was gemeet met „ nuwe 40-lig protokol op die Sport Vision Trainer. Inligting van die top-vlak bal sport atlete was ingesamel vir beide mans (rugby en krieket) en dames (netabl en hokkkie) Geen statisties beduidende verskille was gevind vir VMRT tussen die rugby spelers (n=24) en beide van die normale (n=81) of nie-atleet mans steekproef (n=24). Geen statisties beduidende verskille was gevind tussen die krieket spelers (n=10) en die nie-atleet mans nie. Alhoewel die krieket spelers het „n statistie beduidende stadiger VMRT as die normale steekproef mans gehad (n=81). Geen beduidende verskille in VMRT was gevind tussen die netbal spelers (n=19), die hokkie spelers (n=14) en beide van die normale steekproef dames (n=84) of die nie-atletiese dames nie (n=26). Die gevolgtrekking wat gemaak kan word uit die studie ondersteun die standpunt dat VMRT nie „n sleutel prestasie voorspeller in top-vlak bal sportsport prestasie is nie en dat die topvlak speler voordeel deur ander visuele veranderlikes soos antispiasie en “visual search” ondersoek kan word. Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010
... The best players in cricket (McLeod & Jenkins, 1991;Regan, 1992) and table tennis (Bootsma & van Wieringen, 1990) are reputed to reliably hit balls when the time window within which they must do so is 4 ms or less. McLeod, McLaughlin, and Nimmo-Smith (1985) asked people with no specific training to hit falling balls with a bat and combined the ball's size and speed with the width of the bat to determine the time window for hitting the ball (see also Brouwer, Smeets, & Brenner, 2005;Tresilian & Lonergan, 2002;Tresilian & Plooy, 2006;Tresilian, Plooy, & Carroll, 2004). ...
... Our study indicates that the strategy of picking an interception point, judging when the target will reach that point, and adjusting one's movements to also reach there at that time (Lee, Georgopoulos, Clark, Craig, & Port, 2001) can indeed be used (the conditions in which the interception point is indicated), but that performance is considerably better when one first estimates the time one needs to reach the target's path and then fine-tunes the precise point of interception throughout the movement. We therefore propose that people use the latter strategy to achieve the amazing precision that is reported for several sports situations (Bootsma & van Wieringen, 1990;McLeod & Jenkins, 1991;Regan, 1992). The reason that this strategy leads to better precision is that the delay in using feedback to update the anticipated point of interception is shorter than the delay for updating the time of interception. ...
People can hit rapidly moving balls with amazing precision. To determine how they manage to do so, we explored how various factors that we could manipulate influenced people's precision when intercepting virtual targets. We found that temporal precision was highest for fast targets that subjects were free to intercept wherever they wished. Temporal precision was much poorer when the point of interception was specified in advance. Examining responses to abrupt perturbations of the target's motion revealed that people adjusted where rather than when they would hit the target if given the choice. A model that combines judging how long it will take to reach the target's path with estimating the target's position at that time from its visually perceived position and velocity could account for the observed precision with reasonable values for all the parameters. The model considers all relevant sources of errors, together with the delays with which the various aspects can be adjusted. Our analysis provides a biologically plausible explanation for how light falling on the eye can guide the hand to intercept a moving ball with such high precision.
© 2015 ARVO.
... Moreover, a high precision appears to require continuous updating of sensory information (Bootsma and van Wieringen, 1990;Land and McLeod, 2000;Brenner and Smeets, 2011). McLeod and Jenkins (1991) argued that the temporal precision in batting a (falling) ball is limited by the spatial resolution of the human eye. They did so on the basis of calculations involving the rate of expansion of the ball's retinal image and their estimate of the latencies involved in guiding the hitting movement. ...
... In Experiment 1 we examined the three sources of visual information that we considered to most likely underlie, and therefore limit, temporal precision in hitting a falling ball. We found that temporal precision is not limited by the retinal resolution for judging size (as proposed in McLeod and Jenkins, 1991). If that were the case, using a smaller ball or blurring the image (by making subjects near-sighted) would have resulted in poorer precision. ...
People are extremely good at hitting falling balls with a baseball bat. Despite the ball's constant acceleration, they have been reported to time hits with a standard deviation of only about 7 ms. To examine how people achieve such precision, we compared performance when there were no added restrictions, with performance when looking with one eye, when vision was blurred, and when various parts of the ball's trajectory were hidden from view. We also examined how the size of the ball and varying the height from which it was dropped influenced temporal precision. Temporal precision did not become worse when vision was blurred, when the ball was smaller, or when balls falling from different heights were randomly interleaved. The disadvantage of closing one eye did not exceed expectations from removing one of two independent estimates. Precision was higher for slower balls, but only if the ball being slower meant that one saw it longer before the hit. It was particularly important to see the ball while swinging the bat. Together, these findings suggest that people time their hits so precisely by using the changing elevation throughout the swing to adjust the bat's movement to that of the ball.
... Expert-novice differences have been found for visual software skills but not for visual hardware. For example, Mcleod and Jenkins (1991) completed a study in which expert cricket batsmen and non-cricketers were compared on a cricket-specific simple reaction task. Subjects were expected to react to a ball bowled to them onto an uneven surface. ...
... Because vision provides a constant stream of information for initiating, as well as fine-tuning the stroke of the bat in cricket, cricket batting is considered a classic example of a visually-guided action in sport. According to McLeod and Jenkins (1991), batting in cricket is an example of the visual-motor system operating at its limits. ...
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a perceptual-motor training programme on the coincident anticipation timing and batting performance of university club cricket players. The intervention programme focused on developing players‟ visual attention and concentration. Vickers‟ (2007) Three-Step Decision Training Model was used to structure the training sessions. The study followed a repeated measures experimental design with three groups (experimental, placebo, and control) formed by volunteers from a university club cricket team. The independent variable was a four-week training programme. The dependent variables were coincident anticipation timing and performance on a cricket batting test. Subjects were pre- and post-tested with retention tests occurring after a set period of “no training” following the post-tests. Differences between groups were compared using Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA by Ranks Tests. Differences within each group were compared using multiple Mann-Whitney U-Tests. No significant improvements were observed in the experimental group‟s coincident anticipation timing and batting performance. Although neither coincident anticipation timing nor batting performance significantly improved, further research into the use of Vickers‟ (2007) Model to enhance sport performance is recommended. AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om die uitwerking van ʼn perseptueel-motoriese opleidingsprogram op die samevallende vooruittydsberekening (“coincident anticipation timing”) en kolfprestasie van universiteitsklubkrieketspelers te bepaal. Die klem van die intervensieprogram het op die ontwikkeling van spelers se visuele aandag en konsentrasie geval. Die opleidingsessies is volgens Vickers (2007) se drieledige model vir besluitnemingsopleiding saamgestel. Die studie het ʼn eksperimentele ontwerp van herhaalde metings op drie groepe (eksperimenteel, plasebo en kontrole) van ʼn universiteitsklubkrieketspan toegepas. Die onafhanklike veranderlike was ʼn vier weke lange opleidingsprogram. Die afhanklike veranderlikes was samevallende vooruittydsberekening, en prestasie in ʼn krieketkolftoets. Proefpersone het voor en net ná die opleiding toetse ondergaan, sowel as behoudtoetse drie weke ná die na-opleidingstoetse. Verskille tussen groepe is met behulp van rangtoetse uit Kruskal-Wallis se variansie-analisemodel (ANOVA) bepaal, terwyl verskille binne groepe met veelvuldige Mann-Whitney-U-toetse vergelyk is. Geen beduidende verbetering is in die eksperimentele groep se samevallende vooruittydsberekening of kolfprestasie waargeneem nie. Hoewel nóg samevallende vooruittydsberekening nóg kolfprestasie aansienlik verbeter het, word verdere navorsing oor die gebruik van Vickers (2007) se model vir die verbetering van sportprestasie aanbeveel. Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science)-- University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
... Enhanced sensitivity to internal states of the body and external states of the environment allows for selecting the most appropriate action and its execution at shorter latencies and with greater accuracy. For instance, the temporal precision window required for successful hitting in high-speed ball games may be as narrow as ±2 ms; to attain such a high level of precision, expert athletes can adjust their hitting actions as late as 50 ms before making contact with the ball and can do so without missing [68][69][70]. ...
After just months of simulated training, on January 19, 2019, a 23-year-old E-sports pro-gamer, Enzo Bonito, took to the racetrack and beat Lucas di Grassi, a Formula E and ex-Formula 1 driver with decades of real-world racing experience. This event raised the possibility that practicing in virtual reality can be surprisingly effective for acquiring motor expertise in real-world tasks. Here, we evaluate the potential of virtual reality to serve both as a space for training to expert levels in highly complex real-world tasks in compressed time windows at much lower financial cost without the hazards of the real world and as an experimental platform for exploring the science of expertise more generally.
... These characteristics of a spinning ball can deceive the discriminative perception of batsmen so that they make inappropriate shot selections that can lead to their dismissal. If an erroneous perception in the deviation of the ball's direction off the pitch occurs when it is less than 200 ms away from the batsmen, then the batsmen will not have sufficient time to execute a movement compensation [3]. In addition, any deviation in the ball's flight prior to landing, a phenomenon called swerve resulting from the Magnus force [4,5] will further act to confound the perception of the batsman. ...
Introduction:
Profiling of cricket bowlers is performed with motion analyses systems that require the placement of markers on the bowler's body and on the ball. Conventional smart balls such as cricket and baseballs provide only one speed and one spin rate datum at the release point, which is insufficient for biomechanical profiling.
Method:
In this study, we used an advanced smart cricket ball that measures the angular velocity at 815 Hz and calculates four further physical performance parameters (resultant torque, spin torque, power and angular acceleration) and five new skill parameters (precession, normalised precession, precession torque, efficiency and ratio of angular acceleration to spin rate), which we used for profiling and talent identification of spin bowlers.
Results:
The results showed that the spin rate is a function of physical (torque) and skill proficiency, namely how efficiently the torque is converted to angular velocity rather than being wasted for precession. The kind of delivery also influences the efficiency, as finger-spin deliveries were less efficient than wrist-spin ones by 6.8% on average; and topspin deliveries were generally more efficient than backspin ones by 15% on average. We tested three bowlers in terms of physical and skill performance during a 10-over spell, revealing that some parameters can improve or decline. When profiling a topspinner, we detected from the performance parameters a lower skill performance than expected, because there was an initial arm motion for backspin delivery before releasing the ball with a topspin. After training intervention, the skill parameters improved significantly (the efficiency increased from 39% to 59%).
Conclusions:
The advanced smart cricket ball is a classic example of mobile computing for sport performance analysis that can conducted indoors as well as outdoors, generating instant data from 10 performance parameters that provide critical feedback to the coach and bowler.
... na poziomie niedostępnym dla początkującego gracza. W efekcie działania owej "utajonej inteligencji" ich zależność od bardzo szybkich reakcji (które, co istotne, są często obarczone większym ryzykiem) staje się znacznie mniejsza (McLeod, Jenkins, 1991). Tym samym wydaje się, że choć na początkowych etapach rozwoju sportowców tzw. ...
... na poziomie niedostępnym dla początkującego gracza. W efekcie działania owej "utajonej inteligencji" ich zależność od bardzo szybkich reakcji (które, co istotne, są często obarczone większym ryzykiem) staje się znacznie mniejsza (McLeod, Jenkins, 1991). Tym samym wydaje się, że choć na początkowych etapach rozwoju sportowców tzw. ...
... na poziomie niedostępnym dla początkującego gracza. W efekcie działania owej "utajonej inteligencji" ich zależność od bardzo szybkich reakcji (które, co istotne, są często obarczone większym ryzykiem) staje się znacznie mniejsza (McLeod, Jenkins, 1991). Tym samym wydaje się, że choć na początkowych etapach rozwoju sportowców tzw. ...
... na poziomie niedostępnym dla początkującego gracza. W efekcie działania owej "utajonej inteligencji" ich zależność od bardzo szybkich reakcji (które, co istotne, są często obarczone większym ryzykiem) staje się znacznie mniejsza (McLeod, Jenkins, 1991). Tym samym wydaje się, że choć na początkowych etapach rozwoju sportowców tzw. ...
... na poziomie niedostępnym dla początkującego gracza. W efekcie działania owej "utajonej inteligencji" ich zależność od bardzo szybkich reakcji (które, co istotne, są często obarczone większym ryzykiem) staje się znacznie mniejsza (McLeod, Jenkins, 1991). Tym samym wydaje się, że choć na początkowych etapach rozwoju sportowców tzw. ...
... na poziomie niedostępnym dla początkującego gracza. W efekcie działania owej "utajonej inteligencji" ich zależność od bardzo szybkich reakcji (które, co istotne, są często obarczone większym ryzykiem) staje się znacznie mniejsza (McLeod, Jenkins, 1991). Tym samym wydaje się, że choć na początkowych etapach rozwoju sportowców tzw. ...
... na poziomie niedostępnym dla początkującego gracza. W efekcie działania owej "utajonej inteligencji" ich zależność od bardzo szybkich reakcji (które, co istotne, są często obarczone większym ryzykiem) staje się znacznie mniejsza (McLeod, Jenkins, 1991). Tym samym wydaje się, że choć na początkowych etapach rozwoju sportowców tzw. ...
... na poziomie niedostępnym dla początkującego gracza. W efekcie działania owej "utajonej inteligencji" ich zależność od bardzo szybkich reakcji (które, co istotne, są często obarczone większym ryzykiem) staje się znacznie mniejsza (McLeod, Jenkins, 1991). Tym samym wydaje się, że choć na początkowych etapach rozwoju sportowców tzw. ...
... na poziomie niedostępnym dla początkującego gracza. W efekcie działania owej "utajonej inteligencji" ich zależność od bardzo szybkich reakcji (które, co istotne, są często obarczone większym ryzykiem) staje się znacznie mniejsza (McLeod, Jenkins, 1991). Tym samym wydaje się, że choć na początkowych etapach rozwoju sportowców tzw. ...
... na poziomie niedostępnym dla początkującego gracza. W efekcie działania owej "utajonej inteligencji" ich zależność od bardzo szybkich reakcji (które, co istotne, są często obarczone większym ryzykiem) staje się znacznie mniejsza (McLeod, Jenkins, 1991). Tym samym wydaje się, że choć na początkowych etapach rozwoju sportowców tzw. ...
Jedna z najczęściej pojawiających się w literaturze definicji inteligencji opisuje ją jako zdolność, która ułatwia człowiekowi przystosowanie do środowiska. Badania psychologiczne prowadzone już od drugiej połowy XIX w. (m.in. przez Francisa Galtona) zdają się potwierdzać adaptacyjny charakter inteligencji. Od samego początku badacze łączyli sprawność intelektualną z funkcjonowaniem szkolnym. W kontekście badania uczniów szkoły średniej zrodziła się koncepcja czynnika inteligencji ogólnej zaproponowana przez Charlesa Spearmana. Nowo powstałe testy inteligencji u progu XX w., początkowo stworzone dla celów edukacyjnych przez Alfreda Bineta, szybko wzbudziły zainteresowanie pracodawców, ponieważ stanowiły efektywne narzędzie wyboru najlepszych kandydatów do pracy. Proces rozpowszechniania się testów inteligencji przyspieszyła I wojna światowa i potrzeba szybkiej selekcji kandydatów do służby wojskowej na różnych stanowiskach. Szkoła i praca, niewątpliwie ważne obszary aktywności człowieka, nie wyczerpują jednak dziedzin, w których inteligencja okazała się ważna. Późniejsze badania, prowadzone m.in. przez zespół szkockiego badacza Iana Deary’ego, pokazały znaczenie inteligencji dla zdrowia i długości życia. Inteligencja jest ogólną zdolnością, która przesądza o sprawności funkcjonowania poznawczego człowieka. Praktycznie każda aktywność ludzka angażuje w jakimś stopniu procesy poznawcze. Nie dziwi zatem fakt, że inteligencja ma znaczenie w niemal każdej sferze życia, od samoregulacji, osobowości, przekonań o świecie, kontroli niepożądanych zachowań i emocji, po aktywność fizyczną, preferencje dobowe i funkcjonowanie w związkach. W niniejszym zbiorze przyglądamy się niektórym z tych obszarów, wskazując na różnorodność wątków związanych z inteligencją. (...)
W pierwszej części książki znalazły się rozdziały odwołujące się bezpośrednio do adaptacyjnego charakteru inteligencji oraz związanymi z nią funkcjami poznawczymi. Pierwszy rozdział autorstwa Marcina Zajenkowskiego stanowi wprowadzenie do całego zbioru i przedstawia rys historyczny dociekań nad inteligencją, jej definicję oraz przegląd badań nad znaczeniem inteligencji dla osiągnięć szkolnych, funkcjonowania w pracy oraz zdrowia i długości życia. Następne trzy rozdziały opisują rolę zdolności poznawczych dla adaptacyjnego zachowania w zakresie samoregulacji (Jan Jędrzejczyk), agresywnego zachowania (Marta Bodecka) oraz uzależnień (Iwona Nowakowska, Karolina Lewandowska, Karol Lewczuk).
Druga część zbioru obejmuje teksty, w których przedyskutowano związki inteligencji i zdolności poznawczych z przekonaniami i emocjami. Marcin Zajenkowski i Oliwia Maciantowicz wskazują na wagę przekonań o własnej inteligencji dla różnych obszarów życia. Kinga Szymaniak przedstawia badania nad związkami gniew–poznanie, wskazując na najnowsze teorie z zakresu psychologii emocji. Paweł Łowicki omawia powiązania inteligencji i zdolności emocjonalno-społecznych z przekonaniami religijnymi. Maria Ledzińska prezentuje obszerny przegląd badań nad metapoznaniem, a więc wiedzą na temat własnych procesów poznawczych, jej związkami z inteligencją i codziennym funkcjonowaniem.
W trzeciej części zbioru przedstawiono rozdziały opisujące rolę inteligencji w specyficznych obszarach życia. Wojciech Waleriańczyk i Maciej Stolarski zebrali informacje na temat roli inteligencji w sporcie. Konrad Jankowski przedstawia badania nad związkami zdolności poznawczych z chronotypem, cechą opisującą preferencje pory dnia dla aktywności człowieka. W ostatnim rozdziale Maria Leniarska i Marcin Zajenkowski dokonują przeglądu badań nad inteligencją ogólną oraz inteligencją emocjonalną i funkcjonowaniem osób w bliskich związkach.
... na poziomie niedostępnym dla początkującego gracza. W efekcie działania owej "utajonej inteligencji" ich zależność od bardzo szybkich reakcji (które, co istotne, są często obarczone większym ryzykiem) staje się znacznie mniejsza (McLeod, Jenkins, 1991). Tym samym wydaje się, że choć na początkowych etapach rozwoju sportowców tzw. ...
SPOSÓB CYTOWANIA: Waleriańczyk, W., Stolarski, M. (2021). Inteligentny sport: o związkach inteligencji z aktywnością fizyczną i poziomem wykonania sportowego. W: M. Zajenkowski (red.), Inteligencja w codziennym życiu (s. 233-257). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Liberi Libri. https://doi.org/10.47943/lib.9788363487515.rozdzial09
... Rhythmic tapping with two hands shows synchronicity with a precision of 6ms (Doumas & Wing, 2007;Doumas, Wing, & Wood, 2008). Top crickets and table tennis players can reliably hit the ball in a temporal window of 4ms (Bootsma & van Wieringen, 1990;MCLEOD & JENKINS, 1991). ...
... In summary, while there is clearly a place for lab research pertaining to the nature and microstructure of practice, the literature has identified a need to validate the findings in the field (Abernethy, 2013;Farrow & Buszard, 2017;Weissensteiner et al., 2008). The technical production of cricket batting skills often needs to be completed under stressful time and psychosocial demands, where the difference between good and poor bat-ball contact can be a matter of a few milliseconds (Abernethy, 1981;McLeod & Jenkins, 1991). Such paradoxical demands highlight challenges, but equally, provide a fertile context for researchers interested in cricket batting skill, and for coaches designing skill development programmes. ...
This thesis advances understanding of expertise development by addressing notable methodological issues, to become the first in field to quantitatively measure the influence of the microstructure of practice in the development of expertise in a sample of truly elite (super-elite) sportsmen, using machine learning techniques. The research protocol provides a means of bridging the existing gap between expertise development theory and research, and its application for talent identification and development (Baker, Schorer & Wattie, 2018; Holt et al., 2018). The thesis contains six chapters, including three research papers. Chapter 1 critically reviews the research on expertise development in sport to date and presents the rationale for the research programme, which aimed to overcome the theoretical and empirical limitations of this research, namely: (i) restricting investigation to comparisons of practice quantity; (ii) one-dimensional studies of individual expertise domains, disregarding the multifaceted nature of expertise; (iii) reliance on linear analysis techniques in identifying isolated precursors of expertise; (iv) assumptions of homogeneity within sports; and (v) inconsistent benchmarking measures for classifying expertise (Coutinho, Mesquita & Fonseca, 2016; Jones, Lawrence & Hardy, 2018; Schorer & Elferink-Gemser, 2013). Chapter 2 presents two studies to determine whether the relative age effect (RAE) observed in youth sport, extends into ‘super elite’ performers (Cobley, Baker, Wattie & Mckenna, 2009). The findings provide new evidence of RAEs at the super-elite level, presenting both inter and intra-sport differences (Jones et al., 2018). The research developed and applied a set of stringent criteria to benchmark super-elite expertise, and considered inter and intra-sport differences, by assessing RAE prevalence across the disciplines/positions of cricket and rugby union separately. Potential explanations for the findings are explored, owing to the survival and evolution of the fittest concepts, which suggest that RAE is a contributing factor in the efficient turnover of performers who do excel in sport. Chapter 3 applies non-linear machine learning (pattern recognition) analysis to a set of 93 developmental features (variables) obtained from a sample of sub-elite and elite cricket spin bowlers. The analysis produced a holistic predictive model consisting of 12 developmental features, from 93 measured, that discriminated between the elite and sub-elite groups, with very good accuracy (85%). The 12-feature model highlights elite spin bowlers’ greater quantity of domain-specific practice. The external validity of this new multidimensional non-linear model is also tested. Qualitative data obtained was subsequently analysed to achieve a deeper understanding of the discriminating features. A working group of England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) pathway coaches and practitioners were invited to scrutinise the interpretation of findings, producing recommendations for the wider game. Chapter 4 examines the predictive power of the nature and microstructure of practice activity in a comparison of super-elite and elite cricket batsmen, domains of expertise development previously unexplored simultaneously. The findings identify psychologically challenging skill-based practice, relatively early in the development journey (age 16), as a catalyst for progression to super-elite expertise. The study modelled the development experiences of the super-elite and elite by adopting non-linear pattern recognition techniques, producing a holistic predictive model containing 18 features, from a possible 658, that discriminated between the super-elite and elite batsmen with excellent classification accuracy (96.3%). Evidence for the external validity of this model is presented. The impact of the PhD, measured by its overall contribution to the ECB’s talent pathway processes, is presented in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 contains a general discussion of the theoretical implications of the thesis’ discriminating findings, and commonalities identified across the levels of expertise. Finally, the combined theoretical and applied value of the research protocol is further evidenced by its cross-sport application to research programmes recently commissioned by UK Sport and The Rugby Football Union.
... This is in line with an earlier study (Brenner et al. 1998) where changing the timing of an interception takes longer than changing the position. Consequently, Brenner and Smeets (2015) propose that people use time-locked motor planning to achieve the amazing precision that is reported for several sports situations (Bootsma and van Wieringen 1990;Mcleod and Jenkins 1991;Regan 1992). ...
Grip force has been studied widely in a variety of interaction and movement tasks, however, not much is known about the timing of the grip force control in preparation for interaction with objects. For example, it is unknown whether and how the temporal preparation for a collision is related to (the prediction of) the impact load. To study this question, we examined the anticipative timing of the grip force in preparation for impact loads. We designed a collision task with different types of load forces in a controlled virtual environment. Participants interacted with a robotic device (KINARM, BKIN Technologies, Kingston) whose handles were equipped with force sensors which the participants held in precision grip. Representations of the hand and objects were visually projected on a virtual reality display and forces were applied onto the participant’s hand to simulate a collision with the virtual objects. The collisions were alternating between the two hands to allow transfer and learning between the hands. The results show that there is immediate transfer of object information between the two hands, since the grip force levels are (almost) fully adjusted after one collision with the opposite hand. The results also show that the grip force levels are nicely adjusted based on the mass and stiffness of the object. Surprisingly, the temporal onset of the grip force build up did not depend on the impact load, so that participants avoid slippage by adjusting the other grip force characteristics (e.g., grip force level and rate of change), therefore considering these self-imposed timing constraints. With the use of catch trials, for which no impact occurred, we further analyzed the temporal profile of the grip force. The catch trial data showed that the timing of the grip force peak is also independent of the impact load and its timing, which suggests a time-locked planning of the complete grip force profile.
... Los resultados confirman, en referencia a la atención y la modalidad deportiva, diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre los deportistas que practican Gimnasia Rítmica y Balonmano, que manifiestan un mayor control de la atención-concentración ante conductas y comentarios de los adversarios, con respecto a deportistas que practican Tenis y Fútbol Sala, que experimentan mayor pérdida de atenciónconcentración en tales situaciones. Los resultados coinciden con otros estudios previos, en los que aparecieron también diferencias estadísticamente significativas en atenciónconcentración entre diferentes deportes (Houlston y Lowes, 1993;McLeod y Jenkins, 1991), destacando estos autores, que en deportes que implican lanzamientos o golpeos rápidos de pelota, los deportistas más experimentados presentan mayor capacidad de atención-concentración. Igualmente, los deportistas más hábiles y expertos muestran mayores niveles de atención-concentración (Abernethy, 1993;Reche, Cepero y Rojas, 2010;Summers y Ford, 1995). ...
Este estudio analiza el estado de atención en el deporte en edad escolar, en función del género, edad y tipo de deporte. El tamaño de la muestra es de 816 personas (50.3% varones y 49.7% mujeres) entre 12 y 18 años, que practican diferentes deportes individuales y colectivos en Castilla-La Mancha. El cuestionario utilizado fue el de Características Psicológicas relacionadas con el Rendimiento Deportivo (CPRD). Los resultados muestran en relación con el género, que no existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas en atención; en relación con la edad, no existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas en atención; y en relación con el tipo de deporte, existe mayor nivel de atención y concentración en Gimnasia Rítmica y Balonmano con respecto a otros deportes analizados como Tenis y Fútbol Sala.
... With only nine day-night test cricket matches played to-date, the novelty of the pink ball is slowly being replaced by serious concerns regarding the visibility of the ball from the players (see Lalor, 2016). Considering the highly demanding spatial (see McLeod & Jenkins, 1991) and temporal (see Regan, 1992) demands experienced by cricket batters during competition, changing the colour of the ball with little empirical knowledge on how this may impact the visual strategies and/or movement coordination of the players warrants further attention. Here we seek to elaborate on some of these concerns and call for a thorough investigation exploring the influence of colour on visual-motor behaviour when hitting a fast-moving ball. ...
The sport of cricket has recently undergone a unique transformation with the introduction of day-night test cricket, where the traditional red ball has been substituted with a fluorescent pink ball. Although the concept continues to gain popularity among the wider population, there are growing concerns regarding the visibility of the fast-moving ball along with seemingly little knowledge on how ball-colour may influence the visual-motor behaviour of the players. This paper seeks to highlight some of these concerns by exploring how the pink colour may influence colour contrast and perception, and visual perception. By better understanding the influence of ball-colour on visual-motor behaviour, sporting administrators and researchers alike can work towards further progressing the sport without impacting player safety and/or performance.
... Even further, the distance and direction of the target significantly alters the demands on release timing and the thrower has to sensitively adjust his/her arm movements to the external reference to succeed. Several prior biomechanical analyses of human experiments reported that accurately throwing a ball at a target requires extremely precise timing of ball release, with an accuracy up to 1-2ms [9,[11][12][13][14][15]. These estimates are astonishing as timing variability in other tasks, such as rhythmic finger tapping, has rarely been reported below 10ms, even in professional musicians [16][17][18]. ...
Throwing is a uniquely human skill that requires a high degree of coordination to successfully hit a target. Timing of ball release appears crucial as previous studies report required timing accuracies as short as 1-2ms, which however appear physiologically challenging. This study mathematically and experimentally demonstrates that humans can overcome these seemingly stringent timing requirements by shaping their hand trajectories to create extended timing windows, where ball releases achieve target hits despite temporal imprecision. Subjects practiced four task variations in a virtual environment, each with a distinct geometry of the solution space and different demands for timing. Model-based analyses of arm trajectories revealed that subjects first decreased timing error, followed by lengthening timing windows in their hand trajectories. This pattern was invariant across solution spaces, except for a control case. Hence, the exquisite skill that humans evolved for throwing is achieved by developing strategies that are less sensitive to temporal variability arising from neuromotor noise. This analysis also provides an explanation why coaches emphasize the “follow-through” in many ball sports.
... vision) and action [12,13]. In highly time-constrained situations, however, corrections are harder to make timely, despite the athletes' perceptual -motor system being attuned to uncertainty under time pressure [14]. Therefore, here it was hypothesized that the occurrence and extent of a left-hander's advantage in interactive sports are linked to the contests' underlying time pressure. ...
According to the fighting hypothesis, frequency-dependent selection gives relatively rarer left-handers a competitive edge in duel-like contests and is suggested as one mechanism that ensured the stable maintenance of handedness polymorphism in humans. Overrepresentation of left-handers exclusively in interactive sports seems to support the hypothesis. Here, by referring to data on interactive ball sports, I propose that a left-hander's advantage is linked to the sports' underlying time pressure. The prevalence of left-handers listed in elite rankings increased from low (8.7%) to high (30.39%) time pressure sports and a distinct left-hander overrepresentation was only found in the latter (i.e. baseball, cricket and table tennis). This indicates that relative rarity and the interactive nature of a contest are not sufficient per se to evoke a left-hander advantage. Refining the fighting hypothesis is suggested to facilitate prediction and experimental verification of when and why negative frequency-dependent selection may benefit left-handedness.
... Keeping one's eyes on the ball after the bounce is advantageous in terms of updating one' visual representation at the critical moment. It is particularly advantageous if the ball's path can be diverted slightly when it bounces off the surface due to the ball spinning or the surface being uneven (McLeod and Jenkins, 1991). Interception is by no means the only task in which people consistently direct their gaze where critical information for updating their actions is likely to be. ...
In this chapter, we discuss the way in which visual information is gathered and try to relate this to the task at hand. It is well established that people direct their gaze toward the places at which they expect to be able to gather the most useful information. Studies of gaze during goal-directed actions show that people also make sure to gather information precisely at the moment that they need it. We argue that the eye movements that people make during interception tasks and the precision that people achieve in such tasks suggest that people constantly update their estimates of the details that are needed to successfully hit the target. The updating predominantly consists of replacing the previously acquired information, rather than of adding to such information.
... Some studies have found significant differences between groups (Balko´et al., 2016;Kioumourtzoglou, Kourtessis, Michalopoulou, & Derri, 1998;Kuar, Paul, & Sandhu, 2006;Monte´s-Mico´, Bueno, Candel, & Pons, 2000). Other studies have found no significant differences between experts and non-experts in measures of RT (Classe´et al., 1997;McLeod & Jenkins, 1991;Mori, Ohtani, & Imanaka, 2002;Starkes, 1987). ...
The purpose of the study was to determine the changes in simple reaction time and to define correlations between simple reaction time and technical and tactical actions performed by elite Greco-Roman wrestlers during a match. Twenty Greco-Roman wrestlers (M age = 19.5 years, SD = 1.8) from the Wrestling Sports Centre in Radom participated in the study. Simple reaction time (including reaction time and movement time) before a match and after the first, the second, and the third round was analyzed. The wrestlers’ reaction time and movement time changed in the course of performance. Wrestlers with higher sports achievements demonstrated a smaller decrement in simple reaction time and performed more technical and tactical actions during a match. The strongest correlations were observed between both reaction time and movement time and the number of technical and tactical actions performed during the last round. Quick reaction was a significant factor in determining the match outcome, which is revealed at submaximal intensity of the effort during a match.
... Despite not being able to deal with acceleration reliably, people can time the way they hit falling balls very precisely (Brenner, Driesen, & Smeets, 2014;Brenner, van Dam, Berkhout, & Smeets, 2012;McLeod & Jenkins, 1991;McLeod, McLaughlin, & Nimmo-Smith, 1985). Moreover, they can intercept balls falling under gravitational acceleration with very little visual information (Katsumata & Russell, 2012;Lo´pez-Moliner, Brenner, Louw, & Smeets, 2010;Zago, McIntyre, Senot, & Lacquaniti, 2008, 2009, and even if the ball initially had a lower acceleration because it was rolling down a slope (La Scaleia, Zago, & Lacquaniti, 2015). ...
People are known to be very poor at visually judging acceleration. Yet, they are extremely proficient at intercepting balls that fall under gravitational acceleration. How is this possible? We previously found that people make systematic errors when trying to tap on targets that move with different constant accelerations or decelerations on interleaved trials. Here, we show that providing contextual information that indicates how the target will decelerate on the next trial does not reduce such errors. Such errors do rapidly diminish if the same deceleration is present on successive trials. After observing several targets move with a particular acceleration or deceleration without attempting to tap on them, participants tapped as if they had never experienced the acceleration or deceleration. Thus, people presumably deal with acceleration when catching or hitting a ball by compensating for the errors that they made on preceding attempts.
... Cricketers like Lara are also able to make shots that require very minimal batball contact in order to deflect the ball from its original path, e.g., playing a leg glance. McLeod and Jenkins (1991) showed that, in order to play a leg glance stroke, the cricketer has only a 4 ms error margin. The beginner often reacts too slowly but the expert can repeatedly hit balls moving at 140-190 km/h (80-90 mph). ...
... For instance, in baseball a batter must estimate the time to contact within 7-9 ms to hit a ball travelling at 144-km·h −1 (Bahill & Karnavas, 1993). The best cricketers, for example, can achieve a timing accuracy of ±2 ms, being the maximum accuracy possible (McLeod & Jenkins, 1991). Le Runigo, Benguigui, and Bardy (2010) suggested that in tennis a time reduction in visual processing by a few milliseconds could provide better accuracy in each individual stroke, which when multiplied by the several hundred strokes that comprise a single tennis match, could provide a significant advantage. ...
Abstract This longitudinal study investigated visual evoked potentials (VEPs) in 11 young female volleyball players who participated in extensive training for 2 years. The control group consisted of 7 age-matched female students who were not involved in any regular sports activity. Recordings of VEPs were performed twice: baseline recording (i.e., before training began) and after 2 years of systematic, volleyball-specific athletic training. The effect of athletic training on visual signal conductivity was assessed by recording the latency of N75, P100 and N135 components of the VEPs waveform. Extensive experience with volleyball training reduced signal conductivity time through visual pathway. Specifically, the latency of P100 was reduced on average by 2.2 ms during binocular viewing. Moreover, athletes had reduced N75 latency (difference of 3.3 ms) for visual stimuli that generated greater response from peripheral retina. These results indicate that sport training can affect very early sensory processing in athletes.
... The spatial standard deviation of 2.8 mm is similar to the values found in some earlier studies Smeets 2007, 2011b) but poorer performance has also been reported (Brenner and Smeets 2009). The temporal standard deviation of 8 ms (corresponding to 3.2 mm of target motion) is also better than many estimates of human temporal precision Smeets 2009, 2011b), although slightly more precise performance has also been reported McLeod and Jenkins 1991). In our simulations, about 7 % of the spatial variability and 25 % of the temporal variability are in the plan. ...
Do people perform a given motor task differently if it is easy than if it is difficult? To find out, we asked subjects to intercept moving virtual targets by tapping on them with their fingers. We examined how their behaviour depended on the required precision. Everything about the task was the same on all trials except the extent to which the fingertip and target had to overlap for the target to be considered hit. The target disappeared with a sound if it was hit and deflected away from the fingertip if it was missed. In separate sessions, the required precision was varied from being quite lenient about the required overlap to being very demanding. Requiring a higher precision obviously decreased the number of targets that were hit, but it did not reduce the variability in where the subjects tapped with respect to the target. Requiring a higher precision reduced the systematic deviations from landing at the target centre and the lag-one autocorrelation in such deviations, presumably because subjects received information about smaller deviations from hitting the target centre. We found no evidence for lasting effects of training with a certain required precision. All the results can be reproduced with a model in which the precision of individual movements is independent of the required precision, and in which feedback associated with missing the target is used to reduce systematic errors. We conclude that people do not approach this motor task differently when it is easy than when it is difficult.
... Modern empirical work on the development of expertise can be traced back to the pioneering studies of de Groot (1946), who found that chess experts were far superior to novices in their ability to select the best moves after a brief examination of the chessboard. In succeeding decades, studies have scrutinized expertise in a wide range of sports, professions, and other activities, including chess (Charness, 1989;Chase & Simon, 1973), medical diagnosis (Elstein, Shulman, & Sprafka, 1990), computer programming (Adelson & Soloway, 1985;Jeffries, Turner, Polson, & Atwood, 1981), music (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993;Sloboda, 1991), cricket (Lamb & Burwitz, 1988;McLeod & Jenkins, 1991), table tennis (Bootsma & van Wieringen, 1990), snooker (Abernethy, Neal, & Koning, 1994), and volleyball (Allard & Starkes, 1980). This body of literature has concluded that a particular activity, called deliberate practice, is essential to the acquisition of expertise (see reviews in Ericsson, 2002;Ericsson & Lehmann, 1996). ...
Research on the moral faculty indicates that morality emerges naturally over the course of normal human development, similar to other competencies such as face perception, language, numerical reasoning, and some motor skills (running, jumping, etc.). One implication of this is that there should be a roughly normal distribution of moral skills. Thus, while most people develop competent moral skills, a few fail to develop these skills and a few develop them to an “expert” level. The skill development literature indicates that deliberate practice is necessary for the acquisition of expertise. Religious participation appears to provide the basic elements of deliberate “moral practice.” Empirical evidence is reviewed supporting the notion that religion provides the means and opportunity for the acquisition of moral expertise. A program of research into moral expertise is proposed with testable hypotheses presented.
... This suggests that the prolonged CUD is not so much a prolonging of transfer time as a strengthening of within-hemisphere coordination at the expense of between-hemisphere coordination, as also suggested by the results of Mikeev et al. (2002). In some kinds of hitting involved in sports, the precision required may be a matter of ±2 ms (McLeod & Jenkins, 1991), and avoidance of interhemispheric transfer may provide just this degree of extra precision. The results are consistent with those of a meta-analysis by Marzi et al. (1991) showing slower transfer from the right to left hemisphere than from the left to the right, but the comparison here is contaminated by the overall left-hand advantage. ...
ABSTRACT The authors' aim was to compare interhemispheric transfer time between 2 groups: highly skilled sportsmen and control subjects. Left- and right-handed individuals were included in the study. The Poffenberger paradigm was used to measure the crossed-uncrossed difference, representing the time to transfer information from one hemisphere to the other. No difference in laterality was found, but the results revealed a greater crossed-uncrossed difference in the skilled sportsmen than in the controls. The authors suggest that this may be due to more highly developed within-hemisphere integration of inputs and outputs, at the expense of cross-hemisphere integration.
... In these studies "expert" and "novice" participants were shown video or film clips depicting the point of view of a participant in a reactive sports situation such as defending shots-on-goal in hockey and soccer (McMorris & Colenso, 1996), blocking attacking shots in volleyball (Wright, Pleasants, & Gomez-Meza, 1990), batting a bowled ball in cricket (McLeod & Jenkins, 1991) or a pitched baseball (Paul & Glencross, 1997), and returning service in a variety of racquet sports (e.g., Abernethy, 1991). Participants were asked to make predictions about the outcome of the opponent's action. ...
This study builds on a body of research in sports science that has used video as a means of measuring and training perceptual and decision-making skills in a variety of sports. Expert-novice studies using a video occlusion method have shown that expert athletes are able to make bet-ter and earlier recognition of an opponent's action, such as a baseball pitch, priming a rapid response. Training using video occlusion targets the time frame, measured in less than one-half second, which is associ-ated with expert perception and decision-making. This is the first such study to measure transfer of video training to game performance. Video training in pitch recognition was associated with significantly better bat-ting averages for college baseball players, as measured by rank correla-tion. The part-task approach has implications for training expert percep-tual decision-making in other sports and in areas beyond sports, such as emergency response, vehicle operation, and use-of-force training.
... Cricket batting provides an ideal task to examine the complexities of hitting a ball, particularly when seeking to understand performance at the temporal and spatial limits of human achievement. When batting, the player (a batter) often has , 600 ms from the moment of ball release to judge the future arrival point of the ball (McLeod & Jenkins, 1991; Land & McLeod, 2000), and may be required to hit a ball within a temporal window as short as 2 –5 ms to ensure optimal contact (Regan, 1992; Tresilian, 2004). Further, batters may need to contend with additional spatial constraints created as a result of a cricket ball adopting a curvilinear flightpath (swing, much like curve in baseball), and also by the ball laterally deviating off the playing surface after it has bounced on the ground (seam and spin bowlers will deliberately seek to do so to deceive the batter). ...
Cricket batting is an incredibly complex task which requires the coordination of full-body movements to successfully hit a fast moving ball. Biomechanical studies on batting have helped to shed light on how this intricate skill may be performed, yet the many different techniques exhibited by batters make the systematic examination of batting difficult. This review seeks to critically evaluate the existing literature examining cricket batting, but doing so by exploring the strong but often neglected relationship between biomechanics and visual-motor control. In three separate sections, the paper seeks to address (i) the different theories of motor control which may help to explain how skilled batters can hit a ball, (ii) strategies used by batters to overcome the (at times excessive) temporal constraints, and (iii) an interpretation from a visual-motor perspective of the prevailing biomechanical data on batting.
... In contrast, the longest form of the game, 'Test' match cricket of 5 days duration, demands a more selective use of stroke varieties, as the consequences of dismissal are typically magnified for the batter and their team. The technical production of the skill often needs to be completed under stressful time demands where the difference between good and poor bat -ball contact can be a matter of a few milliseconds (Abernethy, 1981;McLeod & Jenkins, 1991). Such paradoxical demands highlight the challenges but equally provide a fertile context for researchers interested in cricket batting skill, and coaches designing skill development programmes. ...
This review synthesises the biomechanical and skill acquisition/sport expertise literature focused on the skill of cricket batting. The literature is briefly reviewed and the major limitations, challenges, and suggested future research directions are outlined. This is designed to stimulate researchers to enhance the understanding of cricket batting biomechanics and skill acquisition and in turn assist cricket coaches develop efficacious batting skill development programmes. An interdisciplinary approach between biomechanists and skill acquisition specialists is advocated to further knowledge of the underlying processes and mechanisms of cricket batting expertise. Issues such as skill measurement, practice design, ball machines, skill transfer, the impact of Twenty/20 cricket, video simulation, and skill decomposition are discussed. The ProBatter ball machine systems are introduced along with suggestions for best practice approaches for coaches when designing batting skill development programmes.
After just months of simulated training, on January 19, 2019, a 23-year-old E-sports pro-gamer, Enzo Bonito, took to the racetrack and beat Lucas di Grassi, a Formula E and ex-Formula 1 driver with decades of real-world racing experience. This event raised the possibility that practicing in virtual reality can be surprisingly effective for acquiring motor expertise in real-world tasks. Here, we evaluate the potential of virtual reality to serve both as a space for training to expert levels in highly complex real-world tasks in time windows much shorter than those required in the real world and at much lower financial cost without the hazards of the real world. We also discuss how VR can also serve as an experimental platform for exploring the science of expertise more generally.
Processing latencies for coherent, high level percepts in vision are at least 100 ms and possibly as much as 500 ms. Processing latencies are less in other modalities, but still significant. This seems to imply that perception lags behind reality by an amount equal to the processing latency. It has been proposed that the brain can compensate for perceptual processing latencies by using the most recent available information to extrapolate forward, thereby constructing a model of what the world beyond the senses is like now. The present paper reviews several lines of evidence relating to this hypothesis, including the flash-lag effect, motion-induced position shifts, representational momentum, static visual illusions, and motion extrapolation at the retina. There are alternative explanations for most of the results but there are some findings for which no competing explanation has yet been proposed. Collectively, the evidence for extrapolation to the present is suggestive but not yet conclusive. An alternative account of compensation for processing latencies, based on the hypothesis of rapid emergence of percepts, is proposed.
In a series of three experiments, the effect of training under restricted light conditions on one-handed catching performance is investigated. Training in the dark - with only a luminous ball visible - is shown to produce performances equivalent to those of subjects who train in full light provided that sessions of training in the dark are interspersed with trials in full-light. A proportion of the increase in performance, following on training under the restricted light condition, is demonstrated to be attributable to increases in spatial accuracy. The positive changeover effects - from training in the dark to performing in the light - and the negative effects - from performing in the light to training in the dark - are shown to be attributable to increases/decreases in spatial accuracy (additional increases/decreases in temporal accuracy also are not excluded - the methodology used, however, did not allow categorical statements in this respect to be made). These findings are discussed from the point of view of two contrasting theoretical frameworks - information-processing and ecological psychology.
Drawing together evidence from a wide range of scientific disciplines, this book presents an evolutionary history of religion. That history begins with the social lives and rituals of our primate ancestors. As our ancestors' social world grew increasingly complex, their mental powers grew in concert. Among these mental powers was an increasingly sophisticated imagination. A supernatural world filled with gods, spirits, and ancestors was an outgrowth of that imagination-especially children's imagination. Belief in the supernatural provided important adaptive benefits. Religion's initial adaptive benefit was its power to heal. Quickly, though, this benefit was augmented by religion's power to create highly cooperative and cohesive groups. So significant were these benefits that eventually human groups bonded together by religion out-competed all other groups and literally conquered the world. The book argues that at its core, religion is relational-it represents a supernatural extension of the human social world. Far from just a frivolous adornment, this expanded social world holds the key to what made us human.
Expert performers in striking sports can hit objects moving at high speed with incredible precision. Exceptionally well developed anticipation skills are necessary to cope with the severe constraints on interception. In this paper, we provide a review of the empirical evidence regarding expert interception in striking sports and propose a preliminary model of expert anticipation. Central to the review and the model is the notion that the visual information used to guide the sequential phases of the striking action is systematically different between experts and nonexperts. Knowing the factors that contribute to expert anticipation, and how anticipation may guide skilled performance in striking sports, has practical implications for assessment and training across skill levels.
El presente estudio analiza el comportamiento visual de porteros de balonmano y
deportistas con baja experiencia en percepción de móviles mediante la presentación
en laboratorio de una tarea de percepción de trayectorias de pelotas. Una
máquina lanza-pelotas situada frente a los sujetos y a una distancia de 6 y 9 metros
de los mismos se encarga de lanzar aleatoriamente pelotas con distinta dirección
y altura hacia la portería de balonmano en la cual se ubican los porteros. El objetivo
de los sujetos es percibir la trayectoria de la pelota y emitir un juicio de valor
sobre la zona de la portería por la cual creen que la pelota ha sobrepasado la línea
de gol. Para registrar el comportamiento visual se utiliza el sistema de seguimiento
de la mirada mientras que para analizar el juicio de valor se utiliza el registro
de vídeo y planillas de datos.
Introduction. – This study investigates the effect of post-rebound’s trajectory duration on the precision of the forehand stroke in tennis.Subjects and Methods. – The experimental device was composed of a ball-delivery robot, different time captors and a target. During the first experiment, six high level players are submitted to a free striking condition (C1) and a condition where they have to hit the ball before 500 ms after the rebound (C2). The second experiment explore the effects of various ejection’s angles and trajectories when high-level players have no constraint on their hitting moment.Results. – In the first experiment, the players hit the ball in the (550–600 ms) interval under C1 et have a better precision than in C2. Moreover, subjects who hit the ball during the (400–450 ms) interval under C2 have a lower precision than those using the (100–400 ms) interval. In the 2nd experiment, the (400–450 ms) interval is still unexploited under the six conditions.Conclusion. – An explanation to the existence of the (400–450 ms) critical interval could be the transition from one modality of visual information pick-up to another.
Expert performers in striking sports can hit objects moving at high speed with incredible precision. Exceptionally well developed anticipation skills are necessary to cope with the severe constraints on interception. In this papr we provide a review of the empirical evidence regarding expert interception in striking sports and propose a preliminary model of expert anticipation. Central to the review and the model is the notion that the visual information used to guide the sequential phases of the striking action is systematically different between experts and nonexperts. Knowing the factors that contribute to expert anticipation, and how anticipation may guide skilled performance in striking sports, has practical implications for assessment and training across skill levels.
In the “expertise” approach, recognized experts in a particular skill domain are compared to non-experts in tests thought to reflect components required to perform well in the domain. If experts are better than nonexperts at the experimental tasks, the tasks must reflect some knowledge or ability required for expert performance. It is apparent that any experimenter wishing to use this approach is faced with two problems: determining a criterion for what constitutes an expert, and selecting tasks that evaluate the components of the skill. Various approaches to the study of expertise in skilled motor performance are discussed. Ecological psychology has made a major impact in the area of motor learning/control. According to this perspective, perception and action are woven together such that perception guides action and action provides richer perceptual data. The perception-action link is so direct that no cognitive activity intervenes between them. According to the information processing approach to skilled motor performance, any skilled action is the product of a chain of events, beginning with the analysis of sensory data, followed by a decision about what movement to perform, and ending with the execution of the selected motor pattern.
IntroductionAbout the Game of CricketThe Role of the Sport Psychologist in CricketDifficulties and Constraints in BattingExpertise in Batting: How Do Experts Deal with the Task Constraints and Difficulties?Practice and Coaching: Intervention Opportunities For the Enhancement of Skill LearningConclusion
Author NotesReferences
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