No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Relationships of the Practice of Hijab, Workplace Discrimination, Social Class, Job Stress, and Job Satisfaction Among Muslim American Women
Abstract
Religious discrimination in the workplace has received little attention in the research. The present study is an exploratory study that investigated the impact of workplace discrimination on a self-selected sample of diverse Muslim women living across the United States (N = 129). The results of this study revealed that workplace discrimination, job stress, social class, and religiosity were related to lower levels of job satisfaction. Implications of the results are discussed in terms of clinical intervention strategies.
... Muslim students, like their peers, face the typical challenges associated with higher education, such as academic stress and social pressures. However, they also navigate unique stressors related to their religious and cultural identities, such as experiences of discrimination or balancing religious practices with academic demands (Ali et al., 2015). These experiences can be traumatic and test their resilience. ...
... For example, Muslim women may face unique challenges related to gender and religion that could impact their resilience. Similarly, Muslim students in rural areas may have different experiences and resources compared to those in urban areas, influencing their resilience and life values (Ali et al., 2015). ...
... This study holds significant importance due to its unique focus on Muslim higher education students, a demographic that has been underrepresented in the existing literature on resilience and life values (Ali et al., 2015). By examining the interplay of traumatic experiences, gender, and living area within this specific group, this research aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of resilience and life values. ...
This study wanted to see how resilience and life values might be different in Muslim college students based on their past experiences with trauma, their gender, and whether they live in a city or the countryside. We asked students from Aceh, Indonesia, to take part in our study. This area has seen a lot of trauma from a big tsunami and a civil war. We used two tools, the Brief Resilience Scale and the Life Values Inventory, to measure resilience and life values. Our results showed that students who had experienced trauma were more resilient. But we didn't find any differences in resilience or life values based on gender or where the students lived. We did find that students who were more resilient also had stronger life values. This tells us that we need to think about past trauma and life values when we're trying to understand resilience in Muslim college students. In the future, we need to keep studying these things and come up with ways to help these students be more resilient and have strong life values.
... Among the reasons why Muslim women choose to wear the hijab are to fulfill religious demands, to assert their Muslim identity, and further, as a form of agency to resist negative stereotypes toward Muslims (Ali et al., 2015;Droogsma, 2007;Pasha-Zaidi, 2015;Tariq & Syed, 2017;Warren, 2018). On the other hand, among the motives to not wear the hijab are avoiding threats, discrimination, and violence; uncertainty about whether wearing the hijab is genuinely part of the religious obligation; and other personal reasons such as discomfort while wearing a hijab (Cole & Ahmadi, 2003;Ghumman & Jackson, 2009;Pasha-Zaidi, 2015). ...
... In society, factors like hostile media coverage of Islam (Latif et al., 2018;Strabac et al., 2016;Syed & Pio, 2010), provocations by political figures (Croucher, 2013;Frégosi & Kosulu, 2013), and terror attacks in the name of Islam (Barkdull et al., 2011;Rashid, 2016;Wang, 2018) trigger discrimination toward Muslims. These factors conceived Islamophobia, a word that describes deleterious sensitivity toward Islam and Muslims (Ali et al., 2015). ...
Muslims commonly encounter struggles in the workplace due to their identity. This systematic literature review encompasses a range of literature about employment struggles for Muslims. After several screening procedures, 134 papers were deemed suitable for further scrutiny. This study comprises three major topics involving employment struggles for Muslims, which are: (1) Islamic identity and practices in the workplace, (2) Employment challenges for Muslims, and (3) The consequences of workplace struggles for Muslims. The present study also suggests pathways for future management studies based on the respective unit of analysis (organizational, group, and individual).
... Research literature regarding Muslim Americans has shown Islamophobia in the United States has contributed to negative health outcomes and health disparities among members of this population while also alienating them from the health system (Samari, 2016). As a result, Muslim American women have described removing their hijab, which is a traditional headscarf worn to express their religious and cultural beliefs (Ali et al., 2015;Mohibullah & Kramer, 2016), in fear of being profiled or physically attacked by non-Muslims (Ali et al., 2015). ...
... Research literature regarding Muslim Americans has shown Islamophobia in the United States has contributed to negative health outcomes and health disparities among members of this population while also alienating them from the health system (Samari, 2016). As a result, Muslim American women have described removing their hijab, which is a traditional headscarf worn to express their religious and cultural beliefs (Ali et al., 2015;Mohibullah & Kramer, 2016), in fear of being profiled or physically attacked by non-Muslims (Ali et al., 2015). ...
Muslims in the United States report experiencing unequal treatment and racial profiling from non-Muslims. Recent literature (Simon et al., 2018) suggests the need for further research on the intolerance displayed by majority members from the point of view of minority members in the United States. The unwillingness or refusal to respect or tolerate individuals from a different social group or minority groups, who hold beliefs that are contrary to one’s own, is referred to as intolerance. The display of intolerance among members of different cultural and religious backgrounds can hinder the discovery of new information needed to promote positive social change among non-Muslims and Muslims in the United States. To explore the emotional experiences of Palestinian Muslim Americans in Cleveland, Ohio, I conducted semistructured interviews regarding the display of prejudice and discrimination by non-Muslims. The theoretical framework used for this study is the theory of planned behavior. To recruit the 10 participants in the study, purposeful and convenience sampling were used. Data analysis was performed using Giorgi’s psychological phenomenological method, template analysis, and coding. Findings of the study revealed that participants experienced emotional distress from the intolerance displayed by non-Muslims, which involved experiences such as verbal attacks “anywhere” and “everywhere.” The study also found the participants describing the intolerance among Muslims and non-Muslims using terms such as “we vs. they” or “us vs. them.” The discovered information from this study can be used to develop social strategies that promote and improve interactions among non-Muslims and Muslims in the United States.
... Muslim women who wear a hijab are often portrayed by American media as distressed and oppressed, needing to be liberated from a male-dominant culture (Mohibullah & Kramer, 2016). The hijab is a traditional headscarf worn by Muslim women to convey their cultural and religious beliefs (Ali et al., 2015;Mohibullah & Kramer, 2016). Muslim women in the United States who wear the hijab have reported being targets of physical and verbal assaults by non-Muslims in public, which is the result of the hijab being portrayed as a cultural threat and in opposition to Western values and ideals of feminism (Selod, 2014). ...
... Muslim women in the United States who wear the hijab increasingly experience hostility in public and are targets of assaults, as the result of being perceived as submissive and not physically intimidating by non-Muslims. These types of social experiences have led to prejudice and discrimination against Muslim women and motivated some to remove their hijab due to negative portrayals and stereotypes (Ali et al., 2015). ...
Non-Muslims in the United States have openly expressed their opposition regarding Muslim Americans, which has led to the racial profiling and unequal treatment of Muslim Americans. Literature regarding the intolerance displayed by majority members indicates a need for further research that explores the point of view of minorities in the United States. Intolerance is defined as the refusal and unwillingness to respect or tolerate persons of a different social group or members of minority groups who hold beliefs contrary to one’s own. The intolerance displayed among members of different religious and cultural backgrounds can limit the ability to discover new information needed in promoting positive social change among Muslims and non-Muslims in the United States. Semistructured interviews were used to explore the social experiences of Muslim Americans of Palestinian descent in Cleveland, Ohio, regarding prejudice and discrimination displayed by non-Muslims. The theory of planned behavior and impression management theory were used as the framework for this study. Convenience and purposeful sampling were used to recruit the 10 participants chosen for this study. Template analysis, Giorgio’s psychological phenomenological method, and coding were used to analyze the data obtained from this study. Participants revealed experiencing prejudice and discrimination “everywhere” and “anywhere,” including verbal attacks and emotional distress. Participants also described the intolerance among Muslims and non-Muslims as “good and bad” or “it depends.” Information from this study can help in the development of social strategies that can be used to improve the interactions among Muslims and non-Muslims in United States.
... Efforts to capture workplace inclusion and equity indicators also include their counterpart, workplace discrimination. Workplace discrimination is the "prejudicial treatment of an individual based on membership of a certain group or category" (Wood, Braeken, & Niven, 2013, p. 617) and results in prejudice and exclusion (Ali, Yamada, & Mahmood, 2015). Workplace discrimination can be viewed as the opposite of inclusion and equity and a work stressor that negatively affects worker well-being (Wood et al., 2013). ...
... Workplace discrimination can be viewed as the opposite of inclusion and equity and a work stressor that negatively affects worker well-being (Wood et al., 2013). Outside of CW literature, a strong body of literature has examined the relationship between workplace discrimination and worker well-being in various professions (e.g., mental health, occupational health; Hammond, Gillen, & Yen, 2010;Xu & Chopik, 2020) and identities (e.g., gender, race, sexual orientation, religion; Ali et al., 2015). Studies indicate that workplace discrimination has a deleterious impact on psychological well-being, including mental health, job satisfaction, and burnout (Wood et al., 2013). ...
... Islam is one of the fastest-growing religions, with nearly 1.6 billion Muslims scattered around the world. Today, Muslims represent a fifth of the world's population and are expected to become a quarter of the world's population by 2030 (Ali et al., 2015). Those Muslim individuals with different professions are not expected to leave their beliefs at home while being involved in economic activities (Essers and Benschop, 2009). ...
... Islam is the second-largest religion in terms of the number of followers after Christianity and spread across many different countries (Ali et al., 2015). Due to differences in contextual nature, resources, culture, language, histories, thoughts, and politics, the values and practices of Islam have been interpreted differently (Najjar, 2005). ...
This thesis researches the influence of Islamic institutions on aspects of the entrepreneurial phenomenon. It draws from institutional theory and social psychology and contributes to the scholarly study of religion and entrepreneurship. It comprises three papers that examine different facets of the entrepreneurial phenomenon in an Islamic institutional context. The first paper affords a critical review of the cognate literature, to unpack the intricacies of the relationship between Islamic institutions and entrepreneurship – typically eclipsed under one-dimensional treatments of the relationship. Focusing on the cognitive pillar, the second paper discusses how Islamic institutions affect the phenomenon of overcoming doubt during the process of entrepreneurial opportunity belief formation. The third paper examines how Muslim entrepreneurs make sense of failure in light of Islamic cognitive institutions. The first paper is conceptual and analyses the literature from the standpoint of institutional theory. The second and third papers are informed from in-depth interviews with 35 Muslim entrepreneurs from Oman. Overall, the thesis demonstrates that religion is an important element of the community fabric that can materially influence entrepreneurial decision-making and sense-making by shedding light on the nuances of the process.
... Scholars have not significantly come up with a greater reductive explanation for the phenomena, to the extent that the concept even lacks a generally accepted definition (Alas and Mousa, 2016;Hassan, 2016). The literature is dominated by speculative discussion, fragmentation, dearth and incomprehensibility, an American perspective and a marked lack of empirical data, especially quantitative research (Ali et al., 2015;Khaled et al., 2012). Matthieu (2017) goes on to note that, much of this work is in fact, useful and thought provoking, but it needs to be extended with experience or empirical data to prevent theories being remote from the phenomenon they intend to describe. ...
... Their study showed that the perceived view of Muslim workers in their study was that discrimination against them existed within the workplace, whereas in reality employers in the study showed a high level of commitment to respecting the traditions and beliefs of Muslims with little discrimination against Muslim employees being apparent. However, the research by Weller et al. (2001) and Vlas (2017), which examined conflict and discrimination in the workplace as reported by members of different ethnic and religious groups, found that Muslims reported the highest level of such incidents, both in terms of the number of respondents indicating that unfair treatment was experienced, and the number reporting these incidents as frequent rather than occasional and the current climate of Islamophobia in many countries has continued to reflect this nearly two decades on (Mahr and Nadeem, 2019;Sekerka and Yacobian, 2018;Ali et al., 2015). Christians on the other hand were generally much less likely to report unfair treatment than Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus, and nearly all the unfairness they reported was occasional rather than frequent, which highlights recent research that echoes the contemporary issues of racial discrimination in the workplace . ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the emerging spirituality debate with the aim of generating and sustaining tolerance for spirituality in the workplace, with a specific focus upon the impact this can have upon work-based learners. “Spirituality” is gaining impetus worldwide as a growing number of organisations are proactively accommodating their multi-ethnic and multi-faith workforce by adapting their policies to meet employees’ spiritual needs. As yet in the UK, the majority of organisations fail to recognise neither the basic spiritual well-being of their employees nor the impact this can have upon work-based learning processes.
Design/methodology/approach
This study adopts a quantitative approach with questionnaires distributed to a multi-national retail UK-based organisation with an ethnically diverse national workforce. The study was tested by collecting data from managers and employees of this large, multi-million pound retail chain organisation in the UK, consisting of 55 stores and 1,249 employees, in order to gather employees’ perceptions on spirituality within their place of work regarding policies, communication and perceived source of conflict.
Findings
The results revealed that the majority of employees deemed spirituality was not something they felt comfortable discussing or appropriate to practice within the workplace and there were no clear policies and procedures in place to support either management or employees.
Research limitations/implications
This paper highlights areas for further research in the broad professional areas of spirituality in relation to organisational approaches to work-based learning. The research is from one organisation and utilising one method – qualitative research would add depth to the knowledge.
Practical implications
This paper highlights areas for further research in the broad professional areas of spirituality in relation to organisational approaches to work-based learning.
Originality/value
Employee spiritual well-being is under-researched and overlooked by organisations. Changing the current spiritual intransigence is long overdue as employees’ spiritual fulfilment leads to high-trust relationships in the workplace and can further support those engaged in work-based learning.
... T. O'Brien, Blodorn, Adams, Garcia, & Hammer, 2015;Tariq & Syed, 2018;Yu, 2014Yu, , 2016. Several axes of difference also remain underexplored in the intersectional psychological literature, particularly social class, religion, and transgender issues (Ali, Yamada, & Mahmood, 2015; R. M. Lee & Dean, 2004;Reimers & Stabb, 2015), raising issues of inequity in research investment. ...
... Race, immigration status, and religion present avenues for exploring intersectionality in vocational psychology. Muslim women face different forms of discrimination in the workplace that ultimately affect their job satisfaction (Ali et al., 2015). Work earnings may also be affected: In 2000, median earnings for Middle Eastern men were slightly higher than average native U.S. workers (Camarota, 2002), but by 2016, median incomes of households headed by immigrants of Middle Eastern or North African descent were lower than households headed by someone born in the United States (Cumoletti & Batalova, 2018). ...
Vocational psychology scholarship has largely overlooked the work experiences of people of color. In this article, we present evidence that vocational research that addresses the work issues of people of color has been neglected in the key outlets for vocational research among vocational psychologists. We outline seven directions for research inquiry with people of color, namely using culturally sensitive research methods, increasing research on the effectiveness of career interventions, integrating interdisciplinary perspectives, merging psychological and educational science with vocational development, using intersectional approaches, examining collective mobility strategies and structural reforms, and assessing the impact of environmental disasters on long-term educational and work outcomes.
... They decide which demands and interests to consider in the process of decision-making for the employee regulations. Therefore, top-level managers have to consider discrimination in the workplace as an important human resource management issue since discrimination has a significant correlation with a lower level of job satisfaction (Ali et al., 2015). ...
... Top leaders with authoritative, intuitive, and feeling preferences show transformational behaviors even more so than the people with opposite preference pairs. The Asian women worker preferences would rather have a transactional or authoritative managers since they are demanded to provide their best performance to bargain with their request (Ali et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2008;Alam, 1999). ...
The aim of this study is to find out the managers’ perception of employment practices and human rights for Indonesian women employee. The research was conducted by using a quantitative and qualitative approach. Data collection was gathered through a questionnaire before performing the Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U tests that compare the managers’ perception. The samples for the research were top-, middle-, and low-level managers in Indonesian companies. Three primary managers’ perceptions concerning human rights were found. They are requirement of a particular unit to handle discrimination complaint, guarantee of rights to associate and give opinions, and workforce. There are also three primary managers’ perceptions on employment practices. They are sexual harassment, time flexibility for breastfeeding, and training for counseling facilities and employee risk anticipation. The originality of this study is empirical exploration of multilevel managers’ perception of women employment practices and human rights in Indonesia.
... The problems of women, who are involved in every stage of production together with men, have generally been neglected by most classical (male) economists (Eroğlu & İşler, 2004). As an interdisciplinary field, women's studies, especially in working life, sit on a wide ontological spectrum: social class, discrimination, social status, work stress, religiosity, and workplace discrimination (Ali et al., 2015;Beede et al., 2011;Carleton & Clain, 2012). ...
Sanayi devriminden sonra toplum içinde görünür olma çabalarını artıran kadınlar, özellikle iş ve çalışma hayatında yer alabilmek için daha fazla mücadele etmişlerdir. Bu çalışma kadınların iş hayatındaki durumularını ekonomik coğrafya perspektifinden ele almaktadır. Çalışmanın amacı Türkiye’de kadın istihdamının sektörel-bölgesel-mekansal farklılaşmasını ele almaktır. Çalışma nicel araştırma yöntemini benimsemiş olup, analizde Sosyal Güvenlik Kurumu’ndan temin edilen istihdam verileri kullanılmıştır. 2004-2020 yılları arasındaki dönemi kapsayan veriler betimsel olarak analiz edilmiştir. Uzun dönemlik verilerin kullanımından kaynaklanacak sorunları önlemek amacıyla panel veri analizi yapılmış ve Türkiye’de kadın istihdamı üç döneme ayrılarak incelenmiştir. Kadın istihdamının sektörel ve bölgesel ölçekte yoğunlaşma durumu için ise lokasyon katsayısı analizi yapılmıştır. Analizden elde edilen bulgular ArcGIS 10.5 programı yardımıyla haritalandırılmıştır. Buna göre kadınların hizmet sektörünün alt faaliyet kollarında daha fazla istihdam edildiği tespit edilmiştir. Bölgesel ölçekte ise kadın istihdamının daha çok ülkenin batısındaki bölgelerde yoğunlaştığı, fakat 2004’ten 2020’ye kadar geçen süreçte ülkenin diğer bölgelerinde de yoğunlaşma düzeylerinin arttığı görülmüştür. Sonuç olarak kadın istihdamı ile erkek istihdamının bölgesel düzeyde yakınlaştığı ortaya çıkmıştır.
... Studies focusing on pious women's experiences have documented how, to cope with these difficulties, some opt to reinterpret religious norms to engage in professional activities that would, otherwise, be considered breaches of religious imperatives (Ali et al., 2015;Arifeen & Gatrell, 2020;Essers & Benschop, 2009;Syed & Pio, 2010), or how they resist employers' demands, citing religious constraints (Arifeen & Gatrell, 2020;. ...
This paper examines the creation of women-only organizational spaces as a diversity practice and assesses their potential to facilitate the workforce inclusion of religious women from gender-conservative groups. Based on longitudinal fieldwork in two ultra-Orthodox-Jewish women-only colleges in Israel and interviews with students and staff, we demonstrate how this practice constitutes three types of liminality-spatial, social, and epistemic-that enable ultra-Orthodox women to move unimpeded between a familiar, religious environment and a secular one. In this protected and carefully curated environment, they feel safe and are able to develop new identities relevant to the secular labor market while maintaining or even enhancing their traditional, religious sense of self. The liminal space of the college reinforces their sense of belonging to a space of their own and serves as a bridge that helps them cope with the secular world. K E Y W O R D S gender-religion, inclusion, liminal identities, liminal places, safe spaces, ultra-Orthodox women
... Such classification will augment individual differences, which in turn demystify the line between minority and majority. Hence, seeing the reports of discrimination toward religious minorities like non-Muslim in Muslim-majority countries (Akbaba, 2009;Fox, 2013) or toward Muslims in Muslim-minority countries (Ali et al., 2015;Salahshour and Boamah, 2020) are rather unsurprising. ...
THE UPLOADED PUBLIC FULL-TEXT FILE IS THE ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT VERSION. It is in accordance with the SAGE’s Author Archiving and Re-Use Guidelines.
________________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Research on discrimination and inequality has seen a significant increase in workplace religious discrimination toward Muslims. However, it is not well understood how macro-societal, meso-organizational and micro-individual factors contribute to workplace discrimination toward Muslims. Using a systematic literature review (SLR), this study analyses 134 articles to frame a comparative lens of discrimination toward Muslims in Muslim-minority and Muslim-majority countries. This study reveals different discrimination patterns in both country types. In Muslim-minority countries, only the macro-societal level factors are consistently linked to blatant discrimination form while the other two levels (meso-organizational and micro-individual) contribute towards a mixture of blatant and subtle discrimination incidents. Meanwhile, Muslim-majority countries' discrimination cases specifically occur towards women in subtle manners at each level. The different discrimination patterns in the two country types also leads to other notions such as the logic of in-group discrimination toward Muslim women in Muslim-majority countries and the repositioning of gender and religious identities.
... Religion has been known as one of the significant elements that influence an individual's value system and, consequently, shapes an organization's cultural environment (Kutcher et al., 2010). After September 11, 2001, the incidents of religious discrimination for the minorities in western democracies, especially against Muslims, flourished (Akbaba, 2009;Ali et al., 2015;Oskooii, 2016). Subsequently, most western researchers and practitioners have perceived this rise of confessional working diversity as a new managerial challenge, which needs to be attended to. ...
The large size and function of the Lebanese civil service emphasize the significant value of civil service performance and equal employment opportunities. Generally, it is hard to attest to discrimination in recruitment because it is hidden in informal practices. Also, the selection process and the probable discrimination incident usually differ from one job seeker to another. This study investigates and analyzes the impact of confessional diversity on recruitment and selection, affective commitment, and career satisfaction in the Lebanese Ministry of Finance, where 195 questionnaires were distributed to different department employees. The proposed model is analyzed with partial least squares (PLS) path modeling in Smart PLS 3.0 software.
... Stressor-strain theory posits that stress occurs when environmental challenges tax or exceed the ability to cope, resulting in strain. For example, relating to the strain of experiencing everyday workplace discrimination, research has indicated that perceived experiences of workplace discrimination negatively affect workers' physical health (e.g., hypertension; Okechukwu et al., 2014;Xu & Chopik, 2020), mental health (e.g., depression and anxiety; Hammond et al., 2010;Matheson et al., 2019), and psychological well-being (e.g., job satisfaction, burnout, and psychological safety; Ali et al., 2015;Singh et al., 2013). ...
... Again, a material and not just formal approach to these matters has radically different consequences: the application of the aforementioned internal regulations results in the dismissal of Muslim women while men of the Islamic faith remain in their jobs. Muslim women are subjected to multiple discrimination, different and specific regarding the discrimination suffered by Muslim men (see Ahmad and Sheriff 2003;Razack 2004;Freedman 2007;Brems 2014;Ali et al. 2015), first on grounds of being Muslim, "second, on grounds of their sex and, third, on the basis of the interaction between their sex and ethnoreligious affiliation" (Kofinis 2011, 125). ...
The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) has had the opportunity to address the sensitive matter of the wearing of the Islamic headscarf in the workplace in two preliminary rulings. The result of these decisions implies that the wearing of this veil at work is, in general, neither proscribed nor always justified as a legitimate expression of religious beliefs. However, the law studied and applied deals exclusively with discrimination in the workplace on religious grounds. Nonetheless, the Islamic headscarf is only worn by (some) Muslim women (never by men). This article reviews the EU legislation and policy on equality, intersectionality and multiple discrimination to verify that gender mainstreaming does not reach the work of the Court. Only the inclusion of a feminist perspective to the application of justice, with a clear methodology, can guarantee that gender does not disappear in cases of complex discrimination.
... Internal consistency reliability for scores on the SIG has been good in prior research with Cronbach's α ranging from .73 to. 89 (Ali et al. 2015;Mullen et al., 2018b;Lim & Cortina, 2005;Raver & Gelfand, 2005;Stanton et al., 2001). In this study, Cronbach's α for the SIG scores in this study was .87, ...
In this cross-sectional quantitative study, we employed survey research to examine the differences in school counselors’ ( N = 327) burnout, job stress, and job satisfaction based on their student caseload size. The results indicated that higher caseloads were associated with higher degrees of burnout and job stress, along with lower job satisfaction. The results produced small to medium effect sizes. We discussed how such factors relate to the effectiveness of providing student services and school leaders’ support for school counselors.
... The practice of wearing the hijab is one of the most highly visible forms of religious expression. However, due to experiences of prejudice and discrimination, especially after the 9/11 bombing of the New York World Trade Centre, many Muslim women chose to remove the hijab (Ali, Yamada & Mahmood, 2015). Only those who perceive a favourable environment and few negative consequences are likely to keep wearing the hijab (Reeves & Azam, 2012). ...
This conceptual paper addresses the issue of discrimination that females who wear the hijab encounter when working in Malaysian hotels. Malaysia is considered as one the most popular destinations for Muslim tourists. Yet, some hotels still prohibit hijab wearers from occupying job positions that involve personal contact and interaction with guests. The most common justification for such discriminating policy is that Western tourists have a negative perception of the hotel when they encounter hijabis serving them. Hotel management staff fear that such perception among guests could lead to lower room occupancy, thus minimising profits. They believe that Western tourists prefer non-hijabis serving them at the hotel. Furthermore, some international hotel chains claim that their standard operating procedure (SOP) stipulates that front-liners should not wear the hijab. In order to investigate the extent to which individuals wearing the hijab encounter discrimination in the hotel workplace, a qualitative research approach is suggested whereby in-depth, semi-structured interviews are to be conducted among hotel employers and their employees. This study is expected to contribute to existing literature on discriminatory behavior against Muslims, especially focusing on hotel personnel decisions. In terms of managerial implications, this study highlights current discriminatory practices among hoteliers. By understanding how and why such unfair treatment exists, appropriate policies could be initiated by the government to safeguard the rights of individuals to practice their religion.
... Studies have also found that Muslim children aged between 11 and 18 developed more social withdrawal, sadness, and distress as a result of experiencing difficulty in acculturation due to perceived or actual anti-Muslim discrimination (Goforth, Oka, Leong & Denis, 2014;Goforth, Pham, Chun, Castro-Olivo & Yosai, 2016). Further, Ali, Yamada and Mahmood (2015) reported lower levels of job satisfaction among Muslim women (both those who wear the hijab and those who do not) due to perceived or actual discrimination at the workplace based on their religious beliefs and traditions. The increasing rise of bias-related crimes has also caught the attention of a few authors, leading to their viewing hate crimes toward Muslim-Americans as a public health issue (Samari, 2016). ...
This paper explores how supply of the fast food restaurants is distributed in the US
metropolitan areas by using spatial and count data models at the census-tract level.
We empirically investigate the relationship between the number of fast food
restaurants and socioeconomic status (i.e., race, gender, income inequality,
educational attainment, and unemployment) in US cities. Findings suggest that
income inequality stimulates the prevalence and the density of the fast food
restaurants. Among the other neighbourhood and demographic characteristics, low
income and black population dominated census-tracts are more attractive for fast food
chains. Another key finding is the number of the fast food restaurants increases
around the public and private schools in the census tracts.
... However, there is a large body of research in social psychology that demonstrates that coworker discrimination exists, explains the various ways prejudices and discrimination in the workplace manifest, and identifies the consequences of workplace discrimination (Colella & King, 2018). This literature has documented workplace discrimination based on gender and sex (Heilman & Caleo, 2018;Manchester, Leslie, & Dahm, 2018;Taylor, Buck, Bloch, & Turgeon, 2019), race and ethnicity (Avery, Volpone, & Holmes, 2018;Bradley-Geist & Schmidtke, 2018;Gheorghiu & Stephen, 2016), age (Ryan, King, & Finkelstein, 2015;Truxillo, Finkelstein, Pytlovany, & Jenkins, 2018), disability (Baldridge, Beatty, Boehm, Kulkarni, & Moore, 2018;Graham, McMahon, Kim, Simpson, & McMahon, 2019), religion (Ali, Yamada, & Mahmood, 2015;Ghumman & Ryan, 2018), and sexual orientation (Di Marco, Hoel, Arenas, & Munduate, 2018;Pichler & Ruggs, 2018). It shows that workplace discrimination can take the most subtle and covert forms that often fall under the legal radar (Marchiondo, Ran, & Cortina, 2018), and that there are significant impacts of workplace discrimination on targeted individuals (del Carmen Triana, Trzebiatowski, & Byun, 2018), organizations (Smith & Simms, 2018), as well as on perpetrators (Madera, 2018). ...
We used an experiment to investigate whether people’s decisions over employment opportunities are affected by the ethnicity and sex of their potential future coworkers. University students (N = 1,406) were asked to state the lowest hourly wage rate at which they would be willing to accept a job on a campus food truck, where they would work alongside the food truck owner. The ethnicity and sex of the food truck owners were randomized across participants. Results showed no signs of coworker prejudice in terms of the probability of being interested in the job and reservation wage.
... Transparency and discussion are crucial steps, making recent global publicity of pervasive sexual harassment, 1 pay inequality 39 and occupational segregation 40 particularly welcome. WPDI scores among female Somaliland respondents were higher than those of male or UK respondents and similar to a recent study among Muslim American women, 41 underscoring the severity of workplace discrimination and prejudice in selected low-income and high-income settings. Recognition of intersectional barriers and the need for them to be approached with sensitivity in Somaliland supports calls for recognition of intersectionality in global health. ...
Worldwide recognition of gender inequality and discrimination following the #MeToo movement has been slow to reach the field of global health. Although international institutions have begun to address gender, the perspectives of front-line global health workers remain largely undocumented, especially in regions not captured by large-scale surveys. Long-term collaborative relationships between clinicians and educators participating in paired institutional partnerships can foster cross-cultural dialogue about potentially sensitive subjects. King’s Somaliland Partnership (KSP) has linked universities and hospitals in Somaliland and London, UK, for health education and improvement, since 2000.We collaboratively developed an anonymous, mixed methods, online survey to explore workplace experiences among Somaliland and UK-based staff and volunteers. We adapted the Workplace Prejudice/Discrimination Inventory to address gender inequality, alongside qualitative questions. Somaliland (but not UK) women reported significantly more gender prejudice and discrimination than men (medians=43 and 31, z=2.137, p=0.0326). While front-line Somaliland workers described overt gender discrimination more frequently, UK respondents reported subtler disadvantage at systemic levels. This first survey of its kind in Somaliland demonstrates the potential of global health partnerships to meaningfully explore sensitive subjects and identify solutions, involving a range of multidisciplinary stakeholders. We propose priority actions to address pervasive gender inequality and discrimination, including wider engagement of academia with gender-focused research, institutional actions to address barriers, national prioritisation and nurturing of grassroots initiatives, through institutional partnerships and international networks. Without sustained, concerted intervention across all levels, gender inequality will continue to hinder progress towards the vision of good health for all, everywhere.
... Much of the academic research in the multicultural field has been focused on race/ ethnic, LGBT, and gender discrimination, but religious discrimination as a multicultural topic has been largely ignored (Sheridan 2006;Jordanova et al. 2015). For example, research on religious discrimination in the workplace has received much less attention than other workplace discrimination protections (Lund Dean et al. 2015;Ali et al. 2015). Furthermore, Hodge (2007) noticed a paucity in social work literature regarding religious discrimination. ...
This study presents the development and initial psychometric evaluation of the Religious Discrimination Scale (RDS). This 11-item instrument identified three dimensions based on perceived discrimination experiences of members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS): Perceived Prejudice, Closet Symptoms, and Negative Labels. The psychometric evaluations of the RDS indicated a strong and clear factor structure as well as good internal consistency reliability. The test of measurement and structural invariance across gender also suggested that the RDS scale is equally appropriate to be used with both men and women. Implications for practice and research as well as future directions are discussed.
... Stanton and colleagues (2001) provided evidence for convergent and discriminate validity of the SIG. The internal consistency reliability of the SIG has been good in prior research with Cronbach's α ranging from .73 to.86 (Ali, Yamada, & Mahmood, 2015;Lim & Cortina, 2005;Raver & Gelfand, 2005;Stanton et al., 2001). The Cronbach's α of the SIG scores in this study (α = .88) ...
We know women earn less than men in Engineering professions. As a female employee, if I am paid less than an equally qualified male counterpart, my employer is telling me they undervalue my work. Do I get paid enough to care about my employer or my work? Am I expected to do the same quality and quantity of work for less compensation and lower workplace status? Identity diverse workforces are vital, as research shows diverse workplaces are more productive. Attendees will learn the causes and consequences of workplace gender inequity as based on academic evidence from my recently published Sociology of Gender textbook. Topics presented include workplace psychological safety, violence, job satisfaction, biological fallacies, invisible barriers, physical appearance, compensation, and worker self-advocacy. Attendees will learn how they and their employer can make substantive changes to improve the status of female and non-binary engineers in the workplace.
Learning Objectives:
Recognize barriers to gender equity in the workplace.
Recognize facilitators to gender equity in the workplace.
Understand how to implement a gender equitable environment and future equitable pathways in the workplace.
This paper presents the findings of a qualitative study of religious practice in a working-class and middle-class Muslim American community. Given the small sample size (N = 18), this study is exploratory and suggests avenues for future research on social class and religious practice among Muslim Americans. The results indicate that different social classes have different views regarding the proper role of religion in their lives. Moreover, social class provides people with unequal resources to meet certain demands placed on them by their religious community and society in general. Other aspects of community life (e.g., social networks) also intervene and mediate institutional relationships and affect religious practice. The social and cultural elements that facilitate perceived compliance with a particular interpretation of religious praxis can be analysed in terms of social and cultural capital. This study suggests that social and cultural capital can help scholars understand differences in religious practice among Muslims across different localities and classes.
The current study examined the novel role of solo status, or being the only Muslim in different settings, in the relationship between discrimination and distress for Muslim women in the United States who wear the hijab, the Islamic headscarf, and Muslim women who do not wear the hijab. Psychological distress was examined through symptoms of anxiety, somatization, and paranoia. Results from a sample of 123 Muslim women in the United States showed that the impact of solo status was different for Muslim women who always wear the hijab compared to Muslim women who never wear the hijab. Namely, high solo status exacerbated the impact of discrimination on all psychological symptoms for Muslim women who wear the hijab. In contrast, low solo status compounded the effect of discrimination on all psychological symptoms for Muslim women who never wear the hijab. Given these findings, clinical, training, research, and advocacy implications are discussed.
The religious composition of the United States is rapidly shifting. As institutions and their stakeholders negotiate the needs of an increasingly diverse public, leaders of national chaplaincy organizations offer insight into how actors can effectively understand and engage matters of religious pluralism. This article identifies two distinct institutional frameworks (“mandate” and “interpersonal care”) that provide chaplaincy leaders with different schemas, tools, and strategies to use when understanding and motivating their engagement with religiously diverse publics. Using interviews with sixteen national chaplaincy leaders working in public and private settings, we delineate how institutional leaders interpret, articulate, and fulfill their roles as negotiators of religious differences within their respective frameworks. Our findings allow scholars and leaders to better understand how institutions and their actors can successfully interact with a diversifying, religiously pluralistic public.
Stereotyping and discrimination against hijab-wearing women have been studied extensively in many Western countries, which are home to Muslim diasporas. However, there is a paucity of research on Muslim-majority countries. The purpose of this study is to address this gap and explore interpersonal attitudes toward both hijab-wearing and non-hijab-wearing women, in Pakistan, a Muslim Majority country. In this paper, we used the presence or absence of hijab as the independent variable, and measured competence and warmth using items from the Stereotype Content Model (SCM), as well as social and task attraction using items from the Interpersonal Attraction Scale (IAS) as dependent variables. Study 1 included 352 undergraduate students, while Study 2 involved 151 human resource professionals. The findings from both studies were consistent in suggesting that participants had a higher attribution of competence, warmth, and social and task attraction toward the hijab-wearing women compared to the non-hijab-wearing women. Conversely, participants in the non-hijab condition attributed lower levels of warmth, competence, and social and task attraction. We interpret these findings such that in a homogeneous society, individuals who strongly identify with and internalize Muslim culture, and exhibit a preference for their own cultural and religious values (cultural endogamy), attribute higher levels of competence, warmth, social attraction, and task attraction to the protagonist who wears hijab. This research has implications for employment opportunities and attitudes toward women in the workplace in Muslim-majority countries, both for hijabis (women who wear a headscarf) and non-hijabis (women who do not wear hijab).
h1>Abstract
Muslim Americans have reported experiencing racial profiling, physical threats, and verbal abuse based on their religion, ethnicity, and color (Samari, 2016). These types of lived experiences can have negative personal consequences for Muslim Americans and influence their attitudes and behavior toward non-Muslims. A literature review conducted by Simon et al. (2018) suggests the need for research that explores the point of view of minorities regarding intolerance displayed by majority members. Intolerance is defined as the refusal and unwillingness to tolerate or respect individuals from different social or minority groups who hold different beliefs. Prejudice and discrimination can hinder the discovery of new information needed to promote positive social change by influencing social boundaries among groups based on their negative lived experiences (Ellis & Abdi, 2017). Semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore the attitudes of Palestinian Muslim Americans in Cleveland, Ohio, regarding prejudice and discrimination displayed by non-Muslims. The theory of planned behavior was used as the theoretical framework for this study. Purposeful and convenience sampling were used to recruit the 10 participants in this study. Giorgi’s (2012) psychological method, coding, and template analysis were used to perform data analysis. The study revealed the participants described prejudice and discrimination among Muslims and non-Muslims as “good and bad” or “it depends.” The study also found participants used the terms “we versus they” or “us versus them” when describing the behavior displayed by non-Muslims. Information discovered from this study can be used to develop new social strategies that can help improve the social interactions among Muslims and non-Muslims in the United States.
Research shows that perceived workplace discrimination shapes an individual's job satisfaction and intent to leave a job. This study considers whether these impacts may be attenuated if an individual views their work as a spiritual calling. Using data from a nationally representative survey ( N = 9,907), our analysis shows that perceived work discrimination due to race, gender, and religion are all independently associated with less job satisfaction net of a variety of other measures. Viewing work as a spiritual calling is associated with greater job satisfaction, even when accounting for traditional measures of religiosity. The negative impact of perceived discrimination on job satisfaction is weaker among those who view work as a spiritual calling. These findings provide evidence of the mechanisms underlying job satisfaction and have implications for understanding how religion might help mitigate the negative consequences of perceived discrimination in the workplace, or allow discrimination to potentially go unaddressed.
Stigmatization of the hijab or headscarf is a common xenophobic reaction in the workplace. From America to France, and Germany to India, Muslim women who wear the hijab face prejudice and bigotry. This chapter offers empirical evidence of wide-spread discrimination against hijab-wearing Muslim women in the U.S., and how this and other forms of religious discrimination have increased since the September 11, 2001 attacks. The study serves as an example of how the interplay of the legal protections, motivational factors, organizational standards, and social barriers informs options of religious discrimination or inclusion in the workplaceKeywordsHijabReligious garb and groomingMuslim womenReligious discriminationWorkplace stigma
The present study examined the extent to which age, religious centrality, and solo status experiences predict reports of discrimination for American Muslim women. We also examined the role of solo status as a moderator in the relationship between age and perceived discrimination and the relationship between religious centrality and perceived discrimination. Results showed that age and religious centrality did not predict experiences of discrimination among American Muslim women, while solo status was a significant and positive predictor of discrimination experiences. The two-way interactions provided showed that solo status interacts with age and religious centrality to exacerbate perceived discrimination. Ultimately, while controlling for the effects of wearing the hijab, young and highly religious-identified Muslim women with high experiences of solo status appeared to be the most perceptive of and vulnerable to religious-based discrimination.
Penelitian bertujuan melihat penggambaran perempuan berhijab dari berbagai negara yang mendapatkan diskriminasi pada Artikel Hijab Wolipop sepanjang tahun 2019. Ditemukan 18 artikel terkait peristiwa diskriminasi, penolakan, larangan yang dihadapi Muslimah di dunia. Artikel tersebut dianalisis menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dengan metode analisis wacana Michel Foucault. Dua fokus utama wacana Foucault adalah produksi wacana dan wacana yang terpinggirkan. Hasil penelitian menemukan, Wolipop mengkonstruksikan hijabers masih berada di ranah perjuangan untuk mempertahankan pilihan berbusana, sekaligus mendapatkan hak atau mencapai posisi dan cita-cita yang ingin diwujudkan, meskipun kerap menjadi target kekerasan. Mengenakan hijab merupakan perjuangan hak bagi perempuan muslim di beberapa negara. Bukan hanya berkaitan dengan agama tapi juga cara hidup dan segala hal yang diyakini secara spiritual, walaupun kekuatan untuk melanggengkan steriotipe terhadap hijabers tidak dipersoalkan.
To date, research on Christians’ attitudes toward Muslims has generally focused on the cognitive components of these attitudes. Based on Eagly and Chaiken’s conceptualization of the ABC Model of Attitudes, this study extended that research by considering multiple evaluative aspects of attitudes. Relevant questionnaires from a larger study of 209 self-identified Christians were used to predict attitudes toward American Muslims. It was hypothesized that adding a behavioral component beyond the cognitive would significantly increase prediction of attitudes toward Muslims in the United States. Drawing on research on related prejudices, it was also predicted that the often-neglected affect of disgust would significantly increase the prediction of attitudes toward Muslims beyond only combining behavioral and cognitive factors. In this study, behavioral factors included engagement with people of different faiths, while cognitive factors included dogmatism and endorsement of Christian nationalism. A hierarchical regression analysis indicated that combining behavioral with cognitive components significantly increased the prediction of American Christians’ attitudes toward American Muslims. Yet, further adding the affective component of physical disgust beyond the cognitive and behavioral components did not significantly increase predictive power. Implications of these findings for the Christian church and American society at large are addressed in the light of the important social implications of understanding attitudes toward Muslims. The need for future research to emphasize the multifaceted nature of anti-Muslim attitudes is also discussed.
The consequences of the global health crisis and racial disparities have an impact on the employment opportunities for individuals with marginalized identities. Through an intersectionality lens, career counselors need to be aware of the multiple sources of oppression impacting their clients and develop the skills necessary to understand their worldview. Utilizing a case study and a social justice leadership framework, the authors discuss the importance of career counselors implementing praxis across internal and external dimensions.
Keywords: career counseling, social justice, intersectionality
This research analyses the influence of Islamic religiosity and the Islamic work ethics on job satisfaction of employees in Islamic Financial Institutions in Gorontalo Indonesia. Using a questionnaire method, this research had 137 employees as samples spreading in 14 Islamic financial institutions in Gorontalo Province. This research used multiple linear regression approach. Based on data analysis, the result showed that simultaneously the religiosity and Islamic work ethics variables affected the employee’s job satisfaction, whereas in partial, only the Islamic work ethics variable influenced the job satisfaction. Overall, the employees have not yet found a medium to explore their Islamic potential, thus their expressions of religiosity seemed to be scriptural and only limited to practices and rituals.Keywords : Islamic Religiosity, Islamic Working Ethics, Job Satisfaction Abstrak. Relevansi Religiusitas Islam, Etika Kerja Islam, dan Kepuasan Kerja Pegawai Lembaga Keuangan Syariah di Gorontalo. Penelitian ini melihat pengaruh religiusitas Islam dan etika kerja Islam terhadap kepuasan kerja di lembaga keuangan syariah di Provinsi Gorontalo. Berdasarkan hasil analisis data yang diolah dengan menggunakan metode regresi linier berganda dengan mengambil sampel sebanyak 137 pegawai yang tersebar di 14 lembaga keuangan syariah di Provinsi Gorontalo. Penelitian ini menyebutkan bahwa secara simultan variabel religiusitas dan etika kerja Islam berpengaruh terhadap kepuasan kerja, sedangkan secara parsial hanya variabel etika kerja islam yang memberi pengaruh pada kepuasan kerja. Secara menyeluruh bahwa pegawai belum memiliki wadah untuk mengeksplor potensi keberagamaan mereka sehinga ekspresi kebebasan keberagamaan masih terkesan kaku dan hanya terbatas pada praktik dan ritualisme semata.Kata Kuci: religiusitas islam, etika kerja Islam, dan kepuasan kerja
Bu çalışmanın amacı Dini Ayrımcılık Ölçeği’nin Türkçeye uyarlanmasıdır. Araştırmanın örneklemi 2021 yılında farklı inançlara sahip bireylerden 86 (%41,5) erkek ve 121 (%58,5) kadın olmak üzere 207 kişiden oluşmaktadır. Açımlayıcı faktör analizi sonucunda toplam açıklanan varyansın %61,75 olduğu ve maddelerin üç faktör altında toplandığı saptanmıştır. Güvenirlik çalışması sonucunda Cronbach alfa katsayısı ,89 olarak hesaplanmıştır. Ölçeğin 11 maddelik şekline ilişkin iki yarı güvenirlik analizi sonucunda Spearman-Brown korelasyon değeri (r= ,91) uygun değerde ve iki yarıya ilişkin Cronbach alfa güvenirlik katsayıları ,79 ve ,80 olarak bulunmuştur. Doğrulayıcı Faktör Analizine göre uyum indeksleri incelendiğinde ki-kare değeri 1,59, RMSEA 0,05, SRMR 0,05, GFI 0,95, NFI 0,95, RFI 0,93, CFI 0,98 ve IFI 0,98 olarak bulunmuştur. Araştırma sonucunda Dini Ayrımcılık Ölçeği’nin bireylerin toplum içinde uğradığı ayrımcılığı ölçmede geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçme aracı olduğu belirlenmiştir.
The purpose of this study is to adapt the Religious Discrimination Scale to Turkish. The sample of the study consists of 207 people, 86 (41.5%) men and 121 (58.5%) women, from individuals with different beliefs in 2021. As a result of the exploratory factor analysis, it was determined that the total explained variance was 61.75% and the items were grouped under three factors. As a result of the reliability study, the Cronbach alpha coefficient was calculated as .89. As a result of the two-half reliability analysis of the 11-item form of the scale, the Spearman-Brown correlation value (r = .91) was found to be appropriate and the Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients for the two halves were found as .79 and, .80. When the fit indices were examined according to the Confirmatory Factor Analysis, the chi-square value was 1.59, RMSEA 0.05, SRMR 0.05, GFI 0.95, NFI 0.95, RFI 0.93, CFI 0.98 and IFI 0.98 has been found. As a result of the research, it was determined that the Religious Discrimination Scale is a valid and reliable measurement tool in measuring the discrimination that individuals experience in society.
Este trabajo analiza la relación entre la presencia femenina en los máximos órganos de administración y dirección de la empresa y la consideración en el código ético de la misma de no discriminar a un trabajador por su religión. Los resultados indican que: a) de 2013 a 2017 se ha producido un incremento de las empresas con código ético, pero una disminución de los códigos en los que se recoge el rechazo a este tipo de discriminación; b) la presencia de más de dos mujeres en el consejo influye en que la empresa incluya este tipo de discriminación al elaborar su código de conducta, pero solo en los años 2015 y 2017; y, c) en cuanto a la presencia de féminas en la alta dirección solo se ha conseguido tal resultado para el año 2015, estando en los años analizados (2013, 2015 y 2017), la mujer más presente en el consejo que en la alta dirección.
Ziel des Artikels ist es, einen systematischen Überblick über das Forschungsfeld Religion im Kontext der Managementforschung zu geben. Es zeigt sich, dass analog zu einer westlichen Perspektive auf Management, der Fokus der Forschung v.a. auf dem Christentum lag, die Zahl der Artikel zum Islam in Arbeitskontexten in den letzten Jahren jedoch stark zugenommen hat. Nach einem allgemeinen Mapping Review wird vertiefend auf den Zusammenhang von Islam und Managementforschung eingegangen. Ausführlicher dargestellt wird die Forschung zu islamischen Symbolen und Artefakten, Islam und Führung und positive Auswirkungen von muslimischer Religion auf das Arbeitsumfeld. Die Kongruenz zwischen der islamischen und protestantischen Arbeitsethik sowie eine stärkere Thematisierung von Religion im Arbeitsumfeld wird als Potenzial für konstruktives, kulturelles Diversity Management herausgestellt.
After the Islamic revolution in Iran, wearing hijab became mandatory for women in Iran by law based on the Islamic republic legal system in 1983. Many controversial debates have started since then about hijab. Background: Some studies mentioned that mandatory hijab excludes women from the public domain while others stated that policing hijab is necessary for Islamic society in order to make a safer society for women to participate in the public arena. So, such point of view assumes that women who are more religious and wear hijab could participate in the Islamic society after revolution easier than non-religious women who do not wear hijab. Objective: In this study, I want to examine the relationship between the level of religiosity of women and their employment status. Method: I used secondary data analysis in this study to examine this relationship. In order to conduct this study, I used the World Value Survey (WVS) 2005 dataset relate to Iran.
This paper explores the phenomenon of discrimination in the workplace and how embracing the identity and culture of diverse workers holds benefits for the entire organization. Beginning with an investigation of the term “identity”, this paper delves into the complex yet crucial acknowledgement of cultural differences among workers and how it can lead to miscommunication and perpetuation of stereotypes. Shortly after follows a discussion of workplace discrimination and the impact of religious discrimination on the careers of Muslim-Americans. The paper closes with an example of one business dedicated to inclusive practices and how their business plan might be used to guide other organizations on their journey to embracing diversity.
49.6% of the world’s population is women, and this ratio is roughly similar in Muslim majority countries except Qatar, UAE, Bahrain, and Oman where women constitute about 40% of the population. Islamophobia and stereotyping of Muslim women date back to the time of the crusades (http://bridge.georgetown.edu/islamophobia-the-right-word-for-a-real-problem/, Mary O’Hara Anti-Muslim groups have tripled in the U.S., and Islamophobia doesn’t stop at the border. https://www.splcenter.org/ Feb 2017. Accessed 25 Nov 17), but the past few decades have seen an exponential increase in Islamophobic rhetoric which negatively stereotypes Muslim women. The negative stereotyping of Muslim women in popular media and in western societies has added fuel to an already volatile situation (Bridge Initiative Team. New study highlights the damaging effects of Islamophobia on Muslim Women. http://bridge.georgetown.edu/new-study-highlights-the-damaging-effects-of-islamophobia-on-muslim-women, Council on American-Islamic Relations. Poll: 1-in-4 Americans holds anti-Muslim views: negative images of Muslims far more prevalent than positive ones. 2016. Council on American-Islamic Relations News Release Posted on April 24, 2015 at 3:19 am. Accessed 14 Dec17). The caricatures constructed regarding Muslim women depict them as a homogenous group supporting regressive beliefs, values, and practices incompatible with modern life, completely disregarding the history and diversity of Muslim women. Hate crimes against Muslims are disproportionately higher for Muslim women. According to a study in the Netherlands, 90% of the Islamophobia victims were women (Martijn Enar – forgotten women: the impact of islamophobia on Muslim women in Europe. https://religionresearch.org/closer/2016/05/26/enar-forgotten-women-the-impact-of-islamophobia-on-muslim-women-in-europe. May 26, 2016. Accessed 14 Dec 17). In the current climate, overt adherence to Islam confers an elevated risk for experiencing hate crimes and Islamophobia. Up to 69% of Muslim women wearing a hijab (head covering) have experienced discrimination at least once (Rippy AE, Newman E, unpublished raw data, 2008, American Civil Liberties Union Foundation’s Women’s Rights Project. “Discrimination Against Muslim Women.” November 2008. http://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/womensrights/discriminationagainstmuslimwomen11.08.pdf. Accessed 14 Dec 2017). Additionally they are frequently victims of physical and verbal assaults. Islamophobic incidents create an insurmountable barrier for Muslim women to integrate into western societies. The social isolation promotes negative stereotypes of Muslim women and broadens the chasm between them and the society. There is a need in clinical settings in particular to understand, evaluate, and treat Muslim women based on their unique individual characteristics and preferences. This will dispel myths, prevent stigmatization, and avoid delivery of suboptimal care. In the following chapter, we will outline the basic historic roles and rights of Muslim women who symbolize the progressive approach of Islam and provide recommendations for healthcare providers.
Using the theoretical framework of inequality regimes, this article offers a reconceptualization of purdah as it is practised, lived and experienced by women doctors of Pakistan. Based on an ethnographic study of Pakistani women doctors, this research indicates that practising purdah in the workplace is perceived as doing femininity within the hegemonic masculine workplace culture of Pakistan. In Pakistani organizations, individual and institutionalized practices of purdah create a gendered substructure which marginalizes women doctors by dictating the norms of conduct, international ethics, organization of physical space and work allocation. Patriarchal interpretations of religious doctrines of modesty provide legitimacy to the existence of these inequality regimes. Based on this, the article argues for a system‐level theorization of purdah that accounts for both individual and institutional norms of veil. Such conceptualization contributes to our understanding of how religion intersects with gender, class and race to create complex systemic inequities in organizational structure.
Purpose
The marginalization of Muslims can foster anxiety, anger, or fear in the workplace. Such negative reactions may prompt incivility among coworkers, denigrating a thoughtful regard for others. While legal protections are intended to promote fairness, mandates do not always prevent discrimination. As a result, management needs to frame anti-Muslimism as an ethical issue and proactively cultivate environments that support respect. The paper aims to discuss these issues.
Design/methodology/approach
To understand how anti-Muslimism may emerge in organizational settings, this work defines Islamophobia and examines how it manifests as workplace discrimination. The extant literature on the subject and a sample of anti-Muslim discrimination cases are studied to better understand this phenomenon.
Findings
An analysis of representative Equal Employment Opportunity Commission cases shows that a lack of accommodation for religious practices is a major ethical issue. Management can proactively address value tensions by creating safe spaces for organizational learning. Balanced experiential inquiry is offered as a process to help employees reveal their embedded biases through personal reflection and collective inquiry.
Practical implications
If managers intend to encourage equity and inclusion, they need to foster organizational learning that tackles emerging forms of discrimination like Islamophobia. A sustained focus on moral development becomes an imperative toward establishing an ethical climate and a workplace that fosters respect for all organizational members.
Social implications
Because organizations are at the intersection of business and society, it is incumbent upon managers to create environments that reject hostilities toward those who may be perceived as different.
Originality/value
In today’s sociopolitical climate, the concern of discrimination toward Muslims is a mainstream ethical issue. A compliance-based approach to advance organizational ethics is not enough. The authors present a way forward, building moral strength through moral competency.
This study extends Flores et al.'s (2006) 36-year analysis of racial/ethnic minority (REM) career research to identify recent trends in choice of topics and leading individual and institutional contributors. The authors identified 166 articles on REM career research published from 2005 to 2015 in the Journal of Vocational Behavior, The Career Development Quarterly, the Journal of Career Assessment, and the Journal of Career Development. Of these studies, 92% were empirical, with more than three quarters of these using quantitative rather than qualitative methodology. Most frequently, the empirical studies (n = 153) were based on samples of high school (30.7%) or undergraduate (34.6%) students. The authors discuss the implications of their findings and suggest ways to expand REM career research in the future.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to call to public leaders to exercise moral courage in choosing to understand and address phobic biases and prejudicial attitudes toward Muslims in the workplace. With reference to developments in the USA, workplace discrimination is framed as an ethical issue, with Islamophobia viewed as a rapidly growing concern.
Design/methodology/approach
This work is a practical application of existing theory and research in positive organizational scholarship to address the concern of workplace discrimination; specifically Islamophobia. Propositions are developed to depict how public leaders can address Islamophobia and other forms of discrimination by role modeling moral courage.
Findings
The findings show that Islamophobia is an ethical challenge for public leaders, one that can begin to be addressed by exercising character strength that promotes tolerance, civility, and respect. This proactive approach will enable public leaders to serve as pillars of openness, inclusion, and thoughtful regard for others, regardless of organizational members’ faith or culture.
Social implications
The social implications are to encourage discourse among global public leaders, prompting awareness and concern for Islamophobia and promoting more informed paths for productive scholarship.
Originality/value
Studies of workplace discrimination typically focus on race and gender, with few considering how Muslims face increasing Islamophobia. This work adds value to the existing literature by explicitly encouraging public leaders to respond, rather than react, to discrimination with moral competency.
Using gender approach, the article describes mutually excluding standards for Muslim women who wear hijab in everyday life in one of the non-Muslim regions of Russia — Tyumen region. On the one hand, secular society imposes restrictions on wearing hijabs. On the other hand, Muslim women and Muslim community basing on religious norms insist that a woman must be «covered» when being in public. Besides, within the Muslim community it is discussed how a hijab should look, and the parties involved in this discussion stigmatize each other. In this regard, the issue of interest is to clarify what wearing a religious headscarf means for young Muslim women. What impact do hijab restrictions have on their daily lives?
The religious profile of the world is rapidly changing, driven primarily by differences in fertility rates and the size of youth populations among the world’s major religions, as well as by people switching faiths. Over the next four decades, Christians will remain the largest religious group, but Islam will grow faster than any other major religion.
In this chapter, we illustrate the ways in which characteristics of organizations may contribute to or attenuate discrimination throughout the organization. Grounded within an open-systems model of organizations, we begin with a brief overview of environmental factors, such as the legal, economic, and social environment that serve as inputs into the organization that are relevant to the phenomenon of discrimination. Then, the major section of the chapter is devoted to a detailed analysis of the existing literature on discrimination at the level of the organization. This exploration is accomplished through examination of six different organizational throughputs: organizational structure, organizational culture, leadership, strategy, HR systems, and organizational climate. We then briefly discuss some of the outcomes associated with organizational discrimination and the ways in which these outputs are then fed back into the environment in which organizations function. Finally, we conclude with future directions for the study of discrimination at the organizational level.
The authors report the development of the Religious Commitment Inventory—10 (RCI–10), used in 6 studies. Sample sizes were 155, 132, and 150 college students; 240 Christian church-attending married adults; 468 undergraduates including (among others) Buddhists (n 52), Muslims (n 12), Hindus (n 10), and nonreligious (n 117); and 217 clients and 52 counselors in a secular or 1 of 6 religious counseling agencies. Scores on the RCI–10 had strong estimated internal consistency, 3-week and 5-month test–retest reliability, construct validity, and discriminant validity. Exploratory (Study 1) and confirmatory (Studies 4 and 6) factor analyses identified 2 highly correlated factors, suggesting a 1-factor structure as most parsimonious. Religious commitment predicted response to an imagined robbery (Study 2), marriage (Study 4), and counseling (Study 6).
Europe's largest Muslim population of 4-5 million Muslim resides in France. On February 10, 2004 the French government approved an internationally controversial ban on headscarves, known as the hijab, worn by Muslim women attending public schools. Although the law banned all religious symbols, in this paper I focus on the ramification it has on the Muslim girls adhering to the hijab. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the legislation ban of the hijab in France. Several questions are explored at various stages of the discussion including the following: Is wearing the hijab an expression of culture, religious obligation, or both? Does wearing the hijab jeopardize secularism, as French educational policy suggests? What are the alleged reasons, explicit and underlying, for the French legislation under scrutiny? What do French educators think of the law banning the hijab? Did the legislation take into account the decision's effect on young Muslim women in France, their self-esteem, their educational pursuits, and their identity formation?
We describe the construction of a Job in General (JIG) scale, a global scale to accompany the facet scales of the Job Descriptive Index. We applied both traditional and item response theory procedures for item analysis to data from three large heterogeneous samples (N = 1,149, 3,566, and 4,490). Alpha was .91 and above for the resulting 18-item scale in successive samples. Convergent and discriminant validity and differential response to treatments were demonstrated. Global scales are contrasted with composite and with facet scales in psychological measurement. We show that global scales are not equivalent to summated facet scales. Both facet and global scales were useful in another organization (N = 648). Some principles are suggested for choosing specific (facet), composite, or global measures for practical and theoretical problems. The correlations between global and facet scales suggest that work may be the most important facet in relation to general job satisfaction.
This study examined the job satisfaction of 253 Latino/a newcomers in three rural communities in the Midwest. Specifically, the authors explored the effects of ethnic identity, Anglo acculturation, Latino/a acculturation, perceptions of the community (social relations, discrimination/racism, and language pressures), job tenure, work hours, and salary on participants’ job satisfaction. Results of a hierarchical regression analysis indicated that ethnic identity and Anglo acculturation had a positive effect, while perceptions of the community related to discrimination/racism had a negative effect on job satisfaction. Latino/a acculturation, perceived social relations in the community, perceived language pressures in the community, job tenure, hours worked, and wages were not significantly related to job satisfaction. The regression model accounted for 16% of the variance in job satisfaction. The implications of the findings for career counseling practice are discussed, and suggestions for future research on Latino/a immigrants’ career development are provided.
The present study focused on the development and validation of scores on the Stress in General scale. Three diverse samples of workers (n = 4,322, n = 574, n = 34) provided psychometric and validity evidence. All evidence converged on the existence of two distinct subscales, each of which measured a different aspect of general work stress. The studies also resulted in meaningful patterns of correlations with stressor measures, a physiological measure of chronic stress (blood-pressure reactivity), general job attitude measures, and intentions to quit.
The authors report the development of the Religious Commitment Inventory--10 (RCI-10), used in 6 studies. Sample sizes were 155, 132, and 150 college students; 240 Christian church-attending married adults; 468 undergraduates including (among others) Buddhists (
n= 52), Muslims (
n=12), Hindus (
n=10), and nonreligious (
n= 117); and 217 clients and 52 counselors in a secular or 1 of 6 religious counseling agencies. Scores on the RCI-10 had strong estimated internal consistency, 3-week and 5-month test-retest reliability, construct validity, and discriminant validity. Exploratory (Study 1) and confirmatory (Studies 4 and 6) factor analyses identified 2 highly correlated factors, suggesting a 1-factor structure as most parsimonious. Religious commitment predicted response to an imagined robbery (Study 2), marriage (Study 4), and counseling (Study 6). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
How familiar are you with the religion and cultural aspects of Islam and with Muslim clients? As a psychologist, you likely will work with a Muslim client, given the growing number of Muslims in America. Yet very little psychological research or literature discusses Muslim clients or their experiences. This article provides some foundational information psychologists will need to work effectively with Muslim clients. An overview of the Muslim American community, including cultural values, gender role expectations, behavioral prescriptions, and immigration issues relevant in counseling and therapy, is provided. A case example illustrates how clinicians can effectively incorporate cultural aspects of Islam in their work in order to be culturally competent when working with Muslim clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A new inventory designed to assess perceptions of prejudice and discrimination experiences on the job was developed. Three approaches to validating it were employed. First, factor analysis was done for responses from one set of workers then replicated with responses from a second sample. These analyses indicated that a single significant factor accounted for a large proportion of the variance in responses to 15 of the 16 items on the inventory. Second, to begin to develop its place in a nomological network, a study was done in which the prejudice/discrimination inventory scores were correlated with other theoretically relevant constructs. Finally, a known-group comparison approach was taken in which scores on the inventory were contrasted from three groups of respondents known to differ in perceptions of workplace prejudice/discrimination levels. Both the correlational and the comparative data generally supported the validity of the instrument
A new measure of subjective socioeconomic status (SES) was examined in relation to self-rated physical health in pregnant women. Except among African Americans, subjective SES was significantly related to education, household income, and occupation. Subjective SES was significantly related to self-rated health among all groups. In multiple regression analyses, subjective SES was a significant predictor of self-rated health after the effects of objective indicators were accounted for among White and Chinese American women; among African American women and Latinas, household income was the only significant predictor of self-rated health. After accounting for the effects of subjective SES on health, objective indicators made no additional contribution to explaining health among White and Chinese American women; household income continued to predict health after accounting for subjective SES among Latinas and African American women.
The objective of this paper was to the mentoring relationships of gay and lesbian protégés and the effects workplace discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation (hereafter perceived workplace discrimination) may have on the relationships. Perceived workplace discrimination was found to be an obstacle to obtaining a mentor in the United States but not in Canada. The amount of psychosocial support received by protégés was found to be affected by an interaction of perceived discrimination and nationality. Mentors in the United States were reported to provide less psychosocial support and Canadian mentors more.
Self-report surveys and anecdotal evidence indicate that US firms use social networking sites to seek information about prospective hires. However, little is known about how the information they find online actually influences firms’ hiring decisions. We present the design and preliminary results of a series of controlled experiments of the impact that information posted online by job applicants can have on employers’ hiring behavior. The experiments focus on traits that US employers are not allowed to inquiry about during interviews, but which can be inferred from perusing applicants' online profiles.
This article reports on a qualitative investigation of 15 young Muslim-American women living in New York City, after 9/11 and in the midst of the Patriot Act. Participants completed surveys about identity, discrimination, and coping; drew “identity maps” to represent their multiple identities and alliances; and participated in focus groups on several college campuses in the New York metropolitan area. Focus groups were conducted to investigate collectively their sense of hyphenated identities, their experiences of surveillance and their responses to scrutiny in families, communities, on the streets and in the political public sphere. Implications for the theoretical and empirical study of immigrant youth “under siege” are developed, with a particular focus on the burdens and responsibilities embodied by daughters of the second generation of Muslim-Americans.
Feminist standpoint theory suggests that, although powerful discourses attempt to define women on the "margins" of society, women's cultural positions provide them with heightened understandings of the contradictions between their experiences and the ways the dominant group defines them. Thus, while many Americans believe hijab - also called a "veil" or "headscarf" - functions to oppress women, veiled women probably possess alternative understandings. In this study, 13 veiled American Muslim women share their experiences, and under the lens of standpoint theory, the participants' definition of hijab emerges. Specifically, the women inscribe hijab with meanings shaped by their unique cultural standpoints. Hijab functions to define Muslim identity, perform a behavior check, resist sexual objectification, afford more respect, preserve intimate relationships, and provide freedom.
This article illustrates the ways in which immigrant Muslim women in Canada perceive the hijab and associate it with diverse meanings. The article reveals a gap between dominant understandings of the hijab as a symbol of Muslim women's oppression, and the self-expressed sense of women participating in the study that the wearing of the hijab is a positive experience in their lives. Through focus groups, the participants stated that the hijab confirms their Muslim identities, provides them a chance to take control of their lives, and offers them the status of “respectable person.” The meaning of the hijab, nonetheless in this study, is not limited to attire and most participants described modesty as being an important dimension of the hijab. The concept and deeper meanings of the hijab as expressed by the participants of the study, however, are not woven into larger Canadian society, and this article argues that the hijab in the form of Muslim woman's clothing emerges as a device to negotiate spaces within the Muslim community, as well as in the dominant western culture.
Social Forces 84.4 (2006) 2367-2368
In one of the most comprehensive collections on workplace discrimination, the contributing authors make a strong case that workplace discrimination is alive and well, but workplaces are not beyond repair. As the title suggests, this collection of 18 chapters draws mainly from psychology to frame a discussion of workplace discrimination although some authors incorporate perspectives from management, economics and sociology into their discussions. In addition to synthesizing research on workplace discrimination, this volume also establishes a new framework for studying discrimination and new directions for future research.
The chapters are grouped into three sections with overlapping themes. The first section provides a comprehensive explanation of the individual, group, organization and extra-organizational causes of discrimination at work. While each chapter in this section covers one source of discrimination, the authors recognize that all levels contribute to and shape how people exhibit, experience and respond to discrimination. One chapter in this section, Chapter 3, critiques relational demography's ability to explain discrimination. The authors of this chapter suggest four ways relational demography can improve our understanding of discrimination. Their suggestions bridge the gap between psychology and demography in ways that easily translate into practice. Consistent with the section's focus, Chapter 4 discusses the role of group membership and demographic composition on workplace discrimination. This chapter offers tangible ways for organizations to avoid group-based discrimination: construct new identities for members or allow members' multiple identities to coexist. I anticipated greater specificity in the authors' solutions, but understand that space limitations and complexity of their solutions made that difficult. In this section's last chapter, the authors chart the environmental inputs, organizational throughputs and behaviors/processes, and multi-level outputs of discrimination. This framework will be extremely useful for scholars studying the organizational and environmental causes and consequences of discrimination. We learn from the chapters in this section that discrimination stems from a set of complex, inter-related processes and systems and that the elimination of discrimination requires equally complex solutions.
The second section considers discrimination on the basis of group membership. Chapter 6, which addresses organizational race composition, clearly demonstrates the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to the study of workplace discrimination as well as a major limitation of all disciplines – the failure to study race beyond a black-white dichotomy. Less a criticism than a caveat, Chapter 7, on gender discrimination, concisely summarizes a substantial body of work, but does so at the expense of identifying the specific ways employers discriminate on the basis of sex. This section's remaining chapters discuss research on salient yet understudied dimensions of discrimination: sexual orientation, age, disability, personality and physical appearance. Together, these chapters demonstrate a crucial point about workplace discrimination – the underlying mechanisms linking different group memberships to disparate outcomes are varied. As a result, the theories that apply to one type of discrimination (e.g., race discrimination) do not necessarily apply to other forms of discrimination (e.g., age discrimination). For example, paternalism and pity on the part of a discriminator may set in motion disability discrimination. An entirely different mechanism, homophobia, may play a role in the discrimination that lesbians and gays face at work. That said, the chapters in this section offer researchers a theoretical framework for investigating multiple types of discrimination and point out just how little we know about discrimination outside of race and sex discrimination.
The volume's final section consists of six chapters that focus on the practice, policy and legal implications for the research summarized here. With the exception of Chapter 16 (a summary of the causes and consequences of employment discrimination outside of the United States) and Chapter 17 (a description of the process of studying Wyoming's sex wage gap), the chapters in this section offer researchers and practitioners advice on what to do about workplace discrimination. Readers should read Chapters 13 and 15 together. The former identifies human resource practices that can diversify organizations; the latter highlights the unintended (negative) consequences of some human resource...
Conducted prior to the terrorism of September 11, 2001, this qualitative study explored the perceptions and experiences of 7 women who veiled on a large college campus in the Midwest. With national origins ranging from Pakistan, Turkey, Egypt, to the United States, some participants reevaluated and subsequently unveiled due to their college experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Integrating justification-suppression and stereotype content models of prejudice, this research examines religious discrimination in employment settings. In the first study, confederates dressed in either Muslim-identified or nonreligious attire, who either did or did not provide stereotype-inconsistent information, applied for retail jobs. No differences emerged with regard to interview offers between job applicants dressed in traditional Muslim attire and those in the control condition. However, interactions were shorter and rated (by confederates, observers, and naïve coders) as more interpersonally negative when applicants wore Muslim attire and did not provide stereotype-inconsistent information than when applicants wore nonreligious attire. Similarly, results from a second experimental study in which participants rated fictitious Muslim or non-Muslim job applicants suggest that reactions were most negative toward Muslim applicants who did not provide stereotype-inconsistent information. Together, these findings suggest that justification-suppression and stereotype content models are complementary, and that Muslims may face challenges to employment that reflect a lack of acceptance of this religious identity.
The aim of the present study was to extend previous research which has investigated the association between religiosity and scores on Eysenck's Personality Questionnaire to a Moslem population. The Moslem Attitude towards Religion Scale was developed and found to be associated with lower Psychoticism scale scores and higher Lie scale scores.
Using the interactional model of cultural diversity, we examined whether the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination on affective commitment can be mitigated by perceived organizational efforts to support diversity. Across 3 studies, we found that perceptions of workplace racial discrimination are negatively related to affective commitment. In 2 out of 3 studies, this negative relationship was attenuated as employees perceived more organizational efforts to support diversity. Studies 1 (mostly Whites) and 2 (mostly Hispanics) showed that organizational efforts to support diversity attenuate the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination on affective commitment. However, in Study 3 (African Americans), results showed that when organizational efforts to support diversity are high, the negative relationship between perceived racial discrimination and affective commitment became stronger. Studies 2 and 3 also extended these results by showing that the interaction of perceived racial discrimination and organizational efforts to support diversity indirectly influences turnover intent.
To examine, among middle-aged individuals, if subjective socioeconomic status (SES) predicts health status and change in health status over time better than objective SES.
Data are from the Whitehall II study, a prospective study of British civil servants. SES data are drawn from Phase 5 (1997-1999) of the study and health data from Phases 5 and 6 (2000-2001). Physical and mental component scores from the Short Form 36, the General Health Questionnaire, and self-rated health were used to assess health status. Multiple linear regressions were used to examine the relationship between SES and health and change in health status.
Complete data were available on 5486 people. Results show both measures of SES to be global measures of SES. Both measures of SES were significantly associated with health outcomes and with decline in health status over time. However, when both objective and subjective measures of SES are entered simultaneously in the model to predict change in health status, it was only the latter that continues to be significantly associated with health and changes in health.
Subjective SES is a better predictor of health status and decline in health status over time in middle-aged adults. These results are discussed in terms of three possible explanations: subjective SES is a more precise measure of social position, the results provide support for the hierarchy-health hypothesis, and the results could be an artifact of common method variance.
In this article the author explains the social role of Muslim woman in a postmodern society through a public symbol of her identity--the veil. The article's thesis is that the Muslim women's manifestation of their Islamic denomination through veiling and wearing appropriate clothes (in the case of men through growing beards and wearing clothes considered appropriate for them) signifies an expression of a new, Islamic shaped identity. This is a postmodern identity based on modernity rather than a fundamental reaction to modernity. The veil, a public symbol of Muslim identity, is often given a different meaning by its observers than the person actually wearing it. Therefore, the intention of this article is to analyze the elements of a particular, postmodern identity that a Muslim woman's veil, as a public symbol, represents.
The MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status
- N E Adler
- J Stewart
The psychologies in religion: Working with the religious client
- S. R. Ali
- S. L. Nielson
Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU
- C Allen
- J S Nielsen
Muslims report rising discrimination at work.The New York Times
- S Greenhouse
Triple jeopardy: Muslim women's experience of discrimination. Retrieved from Canadian Council of Muslim Women website
- D Hamdani
Muslims face growing bias in the workplace
- E Tahmincioglu
Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work
- R. L. Worthington
- L. Y. Flores
- R. L. Navarro
Muslim Americans exemplify diversity potential
- M Younis
2010 Muslims face growing bias in the workplace NBC News http
- E Tahmincioglu
The status of Muslim civil rights in the United States: Without fear of discrimination http://www.cair.com/images
- Council On American-Islamic
- Relations
The future of world religions: Population growth projections
- Pew Research
- Center
Islamophobia: A challenge for us all
- Runnymede Trust