ArticlePDF Available

Eucalypts

January 2011

Authors:

Marcel Rejmanek

University of California, Davis

David Mark Richardson

Stellenbosch University

A stand of Eucalyptus globulus on Santa Cruz Island, California. Saplings of eucalypts are usually found only close to plantations. (Photograph courtesy of M. Rejmánek.)

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t is undeniable that unmanaged stands of some eucalypt species can accumulate highly fl ammable dead material. To what extent Tasmanian blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus) groves contributed to the intensity of the tragic Berkeley-Oakland Hills fi re in 1991 remains a subject of bitter discussions. This hazy but dramatic photograph of the 1991 fi re was shot by former fi re captain Wayne Drager through a plexiglass window, using a disposable camera on a bumpy helicopter fl ight. (Photograph courtesy of Wayne Drager.)

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Eucalyptus Species with No Conclusive Evidence of Naturalization

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Naturalized Species of Corymbia and Eucalyptus

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Figures - uploaded by David Mark Richardson

Content may be subject to copyright.

Content uploaded by David Mark Richardson

Content may be subject to copyright.

EUCALYPTS 203

(>740 species). Angophora and Corymbia are often treated

as subgenera of Eucalyptus, sensu lato. The genus Eucalyp-

tus (sensu stricto) is currently divided into ten subgenera,

six of which are monotypic (having only one species).

Naturalized eucalypts belong almost exclusively to the

two largest subgenera, Eucalyptus (Monocalyptus, >140

species) and Symphyomyrtus (>360 species) (Table 1).

Most eucalypts are trees (10 to >50 m in height), some

are “mallees” (multistemmed from ground level, usually

<10 m in height), and a few are shrubs. Eucalypts are the

tallest nonconiferous trees in the world. Several species

(E. regnans, E. grandis, E. deglupta) reach more than 70 m

in height. The tallest known specimen of E. regnans was

110 m. The tallest known living specimen of this taxon in

Tasmania is 99.6 m tall. The maximum age of eucalypt

species, estimated from dendrochronological (tree-ring)

and radiocarbon measurements, is between 400 and 600

years. Interestingly, in spite of the otherwise enormous

range of adaptations among eucalypts, shade-tolerant

subcanopy species are not known.

The eucalypt breeding system is one of mixed mating

with preferential outcrossing. A reduction in fruit (cap-

sule) production, seed set, and seedling vigor has been

demonstrated after self-pollination. However, eucalypts

generally do not need any special pollinators. They are

pollinated by many species of bees and wasps and, to a

lesser extent, by birds, mammals, and wind.

Most eucalypts are well adapted to frequent ﬁ res. The

most common adaptations are lignotubers and epicormic

buds. The lignotuber is a woody swelling at the base of

the stem; most eucalypts sprout from lignotubers. The

epicormic buds (buds present in the outer bark) allow the

sprouting of new branches from stems (after a ﬁ re or after

a severe winter). Some species are able to sprout from both

lignotubers and stems (combination sprouters). Another

adaptation to ﬁ reprone environments is serotiny (most

seeds are kept in fruits and released only after ﬁ re). Some

successful invaders among eucalypts are obligate seeders,

depending completely on seed production (E. conferru-

minata, E. grandis). Seeds can be shed in large numbers

(up to 4,000 seeds per m2). However, eucalypts produce

very small seeds, usually 1–3 mm long and less than 2 mg.

Some species have seeds even lighter than 0.5 mg (e.g.,

E. grandis and deglupta). Eucalypts produce seeds with no

obvious endosperm (tissue that surrounds and nourishes

the embryo). Therefore, the newly emerged seedlings are

sustained by cotyledon photosynthesis, and their roots

have to reach suitable substrate very soon.

Eucalypts are the dominant species of the wet coastal

and near coastal parts of Australia. However, some species

FURTHER READING

Coates, P. 2006. American Perceptions of Immigrant and Invasive Species.

Berkeley: University of California Press.

Díez, J. 2005. Invasion biology of Australian ectomycorrhizal fungi intro-

duced with eucalypt plantations into the Iberian Peninsula. Biological

Invasions 7: 3–15.

Doughty, R. W. 2000. The Eucalyptus: A Natural and Commercial History

of the GumTree. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Keane, P. J., G. A. Kile, F. D. Podger, and B. N. Brown, eds. 2000. Dis-

eases and Pathogens of Eucalypts. Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO

Publishing.

Nicolle, D. 2006. A classiﬁ cation and census of regenerative strategies in

the eucalypts (Angophora, Corymbia and Eucalyptus—Myrtaceae), with

special reference to the obligate seeders. Australian Journal of Botany

54: 391–407.

Poore, M. E. D., and C. Fries. 1985. The Ecological Effects of Eucalyptus.

FAO Forestry Paper 59: 1–87. Rome: FAO.

Rejmánek, M., D. M. Richardson, S. I. Higgins, M. J. Pitcairn, and E.

Grotkopp. 2005. Ecology of invasive plants: State of the art (104–161).

In H. A. Mooney, R. N. Mack, J. A. McNeely, L. E. Neville, P. J. Schei,

and J. K. Waage, eds. Invasive Alien Species: A New Synthesis. Washington,

DC: Island Press.

Ritter, M., and J. Yost. 2009. Diversity, reproduction, and potential for

invasiveness of Eucalyptus in California. Madroño (in press).

Slee, A. V., M. I. H. Brooker, S. M. Duffy, and J. G. West. 2006. Euclid:

Eucalypts of Australia, 3rd ed. Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO.

Williams, J., and J. Woinarski, eds. 1997. Eucalypt Ecology: Individuals to

Ecosystems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

EUTROPHICATION,

AQUATIC

KATHARINA A. M. ENGELHARDT

University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science,

Frostburg

Eutrophication is the natural or anthropogenic accumula-

tion of nutrients in soil or water (from Greek eu = “well” and

trophe = “nourished”). Oligotrophic (low-nutrient) waters

FIGURE 1 The impacts of eutrophication on aquatic ecosystems.

(Figure developed by the Integration and Application Network of the

University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science.)

05_Simberloff10_E_p169-222.indd 20905_Simberloff10_E_p169-222.indd 209 9/13/10 10:02:36 AM9/13/10 10:02:36 AM

Microsite Drivers of Natural Seed Regeneration of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. in Burnt Plantations

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2022

Fire regimes are changing in several regions of the world. In those regions, some exotic species may be better adapted to new regimes than the native species. This study focused on identifying the microsite characteristics associated with the occurrence of post-fire Eucalyptus globulus regeneration from seeds, outside the species native-range. This information is important in helping to assess the naturalization status of the species, to understand its invasion risk, and to manage wildlings in plantations. To characterize the establishment niche, pairs of microsites (sapling presence/absence) were sampled in four salvage-logged plantations of E. globulus two years after fire (20 pairs/plantation). Microsites of wildlings from three size classes and control microsites were established in one of these plantations (20 quartets) in order to characterize the recruitment niche and to assess ontogenic niche shifts. Two post-fire wildling cohorts were identified. The first emerged just after fire and was abundant. The second emerged after logging and was scarce, probably due to seed limitation. First-cohort wildlings were observed in microsites characterized by a high incidence of fire-related variables (charcoal, ash, increased soil pH and K). The aggregated distribution of these wildlings and their association with other species may indicate the existence of facilitative relationships and/or the exploitation of resource-rich patches. All these factors were relevant for first-cohort persistence and likely also for its establishment and recruitment. Second-cohort wildlings occurred in microsites where salvage-logging disturbance was evident, showing the importance of this disturbance for its emergence. Wildling size diversity was explained by the two recruitment events and by the asymmetrical competition between wildlings and adults. No niche shifts were detected. The high densities of E. globulus wildlings found established in burnt plantations indicated naturalization was in progress. The timing of major recruitment events and the phenology of the species should be considered for monitoring this regeneration and scheduling control interventions, if required.

Art and Land: Eucalyptus Plantations in Brazilian Documentaries

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2022

Santiago G. Gesteira

In Brazil, since the early 2000s, different documentaries have raised awareness about the problematic issues that tree plantations, especially eucalyptus, provoke, as they are propagated across the country. By means of interviews and a mix of investigative and expository styles, these films address and denounce the controversial role and power of the timber industry. However, in the last few years, other works have approached the relationships between planted forests and local ecosystems, offering an alternative perspective. This essay analyzes two recent films on the issue, the short film Gerais, and the 78 min long Do pó da terra, released in 2015 and 2016, respectively, while looking at another short documentary, Desertos verdes: plantações de eucaliptos, agrotóxicos e água, released in 2017, a straightforward documentary that advocates against eucalyptus plantations, interviews specialists and activists, and shows data that work as a report about the situation. In Gerais and Do pó da terra, forest plantations are not central narratives, rather, the focus is on specific communities and their customs. Through testimonial, observational, and poetic modes, they discuss the challenges faced by local inhabitants as their unique lifestyles and sociocultural expressions are threatened. Thus, this essay explains how, instead of images of destruction and the specificities of eucalyptus environmental effects, these documentaries choose to show the connection of local people and their art with the land, their daily life, and the changes they face. By crucially emphasizing the different timelines in play, that of western modernity, and that of alternative understandings of life–nature, they differ from other approaches towards filming environmental conflict that stress the immediacy of the situation. These two films offer a more intimate perspective of human beings, in interplay with their ecosystem, which allows for reflection on how they cohabitate and look forward.

Sustainable management of Eucalyptus pellita plantations: A review

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Jun 2023
FOREST ECOL MANAG

Costa et al. 2022 The Genetics and Ecology of Post-Fire Eucalyptus globulus recruitment in an isolated stand in Central Portugal

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2022

Eucalyptus globulus Labill. is a widespread forest tree species, reported as naturalized across the introduced range, often showing abundant natural regeneration after wildfires. This paper studies a post-fire cohort of seedlings derived from a small, isolated E. globulus stand in central Portugal. The aim is to better understand the genetic dynamics and dispersal mechanisms of naturally established E. globulus populations in the introduced range. The seedling density at 55 m from adult trees was 12,000 ha−1, the farthest seedling being registered at 101 m. Post-fire expansion occurred in a southward direction, in accordance with predominant wind. Seedlings had significantly lower levels of genetic diversity (Ae = 5.8.; He = 0.8) than adult trees (Ae = 6.5; He = 0.8). Crossings were strongly unbalanced, with only eight trees contributing to the sampled seedlings, and one single tree contributing to 52% of these seedlings. Moreover, the co-ancestry amongst seedlings more than doubled (from θ = 0.03 to 0.076), and the population status number was around one third of the value registered for the adult population (from Ns = 16.2 to 6.6). Despite its isolation, external pollen was detected in the stand, and appears to have travelled at least 700 m, contributing to 22% of the offspring. Overall, the seedling cohort is much less diverse than the parent trees, with expected lower resilience and persistence to environmental stresses.

Patterns of introduction, naturalisation, invasion, and impact differ between fleshy- and dry-fruited species of Myrtaceae

Article

Oct 2021
PERSPECT PLANT ECOL

Recent studies on patterns of biological invasions in several plant families have confirmed general findings (e.g., taxa with larger native range sizes are more likely to become invasive; and taxa with longer residence time in new regions are more likely to naturalise) and highlighted some context-specific findings relevant for management (e.g., resistance to Phytophthora is a pre-requisite for successful naturalisation in Proteaceae). We explore these issues for the plant family Myrtaceae, specifically by contrasting taxa with fleshy fruits with those with dry fruits to develop hypotheses around the role of seed dispersal in the invasion process. To this end we: 1) compiled a comprehensive list of introduced Myrtaceae; 2) determined the degree of establishment of each species in its introduced range; 3) compared the distribution of native, introduced, and invasive ranges; 4) assessed traits associated with the degree of establishment; and 5) assessed the magnitude and types of impacts of invasive Myrtaceae. A slightly higher proportion of dry-fruited species have been introduced than fleshy-fruited species [170 out of 2257 (7.5%) vs. 236 out of 3741 (6.7%)], though the difference was not significant. However, introduced dry-fruited Myrtaceae have naturalised more frequently than fleshy-fruited taxa [90 out of 170 (53%) vs. 40 out of 236 (17%)], whereas naturalised dry-fruited taxa have become invasive at a lower rate [22 out of 90 (24%) vs. 18 out of 40 (46%)]. Invasions of fleshy-fruited taxa seem to be more common on islands. Although invasions by fleshy- and dry-fruited species had similar impact mechanisms and magnitudes, naturalised fleshy-fruited Myrtaceae are more likely to have impacts on islands than dry-fruited confamilials. Synthesis Fleshy- and dry-fruited taxa of Myrtaceae differ in rate of transition along the invasion continuum and where invasions and impacts occur. We speculate that seed dispersal abilities, lack of competitors, and the availability of areas suitable for germination might explain these differences.

A rapid survey of naturalized and invasive eucalypt species in southwestern Limpopo, South Africa

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022
S AFR J BOT

Numerous eucalypts (species in the genera Eucalyptus, Angophora and Corymbia) have been introduced to South Africa over the past two centuries. Several species have become naturalized or invasive and are the focus of control programmes. Because many eucalypts are difficult to identify in the field, the distribution patterns of many species in the country are poorly documented. A recent assessment of the distribution of E. camaldulensis highlighted two invasion hotspots in South Africa: the Western Cape, and the Modimolle region in southwestern Limpopo. Records for all eucalypts (many of which list only “Eucalyptus sp.”) show similar hotspots. We conducted a rapid assessment to determine the species identity, extent of plantings, and invasive tendencies of eucalypt species at 113 localities in southwestern Limpopo. We recorded five species at the various localities, two of which have not been recorded in this area previously: E. blakelyi Maiden and E. distans Brooker, Boland & Kleinig. Two other species (E. camaldulensis and E. grandis) were observed invading river courses at numerous localities and are of concern. The South African Plant Invaders Atlas (SAPIA) and iNaturalist have only 73 records of eucalypts known from this area, in contrast to the 113 we recorded in this study. Besides providing new records of species, the survey highlighted the paucity of information on the identity and introduction status of eucalypts in South Africa. A systematic study to provide an inventory of eucalypts and their introduction status for the entire country is needed to serve as the foundation for strategies to manage species to capitalize on their benefits and minimize their impacts.

Land Use and Land Cover Changes Driven by Expansion of Eucalypt Plantations in the Western Gurage Watersheds, Central-south Ethiopia

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2021

Land use and land cover Land use/Land Cover (LULC) change is a common trend in all parts of the globe. The possible reasons might be economic, political, social or cultural motives. In Ethiopia, most of the rural and urban people are highly dependent on eucalypts for various purposes, particularly, for fuel wood and construction materials. In the study area, Western Gurage Watersheds of Omo-Gibe Basin, eucalypt plantations have become the emergent and dominant activity next to growing Enset. The specific objectives of this study were to assess the land use and land cover changes driven by eucalypt plantations over time and agro-ecological extent, and to identify socio-economic, demographic, and environmental factors that facilitated expansion of eucalypts plantation. Landsat images from 1987(TM), 2001 (ETM) and 2017 (Landsat 8 OLI) were used for detecting LULC changes. Digital image processing operations, i.e. haze removal, geo-referencing, contrast enhancement and classification, were completed using ERDAS Imagine 2011 Software. During the period between 1987 and 2017, the area cover of LULC types, namely plantation forest, Enset-based agroforestry, cereal crop and built-up areas increased in the study watersheds at the expenses of natural forests and grassland. The total forest cover declined in the study period from 1987-2000 and, then, increased from 2001-2017 as a result of expansion of eucalypts in bare land, grazing land and cereal crop land use types. The drivers for the expansion of eucalypts in the watersheds are population growth, ‘Meskel’ and ‘Arafah’ celebrations, land degradation and conservation, road development, increased access to markets, and economic factors, such as the growing need for fuel wood, construction materials, and growing need for money. The divergent interest of stakeholders, skepticism and debate around eucalypts; call for further scientific investigations and management options.

Management and fire, a critical combination for Eucalyptus globulus dispersal

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2021
FOREST ECOL MANAG

In a context of growing demands for wood and wood derived products, plantations of exotic tree species have globally increased. Fast growth and high productivity made Eucalyptus one of the most successful tree genus around the world. Nevertheless, this genus is often associated with negative ecological impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning and the risk of expansion is considered a major threat. Eucalyptus globulus is the most planted tree species in Portugal, but common silvicultural measures, including periodic control of the understory vegetation, have traditionally limited natural regeneration. However, forest fires constitute a main driver of E. globulus dispersal and regeneration and, under the current climatic change scenario, the possible extension of the summer fire regime to previous months in spring and/or later months in autumn, may have a profound effect on E. globulus dispersal capacity. Moreover, isolated eucalypt trees, seed-trees, are often left uncut and many plantations are poorly managed potentially increasing the risk of E. globulus dispersal. To evaluate the impact of both management and fire event dates on E. globulus dispersal, we assessed the establishment of saplings beyond plantations and seed-trees surrounding areas in absence of fire and after 2017 June and October fires in managed and unmanaged conditions. Sapling survival was also analyzed two years after fire. Our results point out that sapling establishment in our study area is not a major concern in the absence of fire. Also, our findings showed that E. globulus establishment is highly dependent on the time of the year a fire occurs and that pre-fire management practices constrain E. globulus dispersal. We also found that seed-trees are high seed dispersers after fire even in managed conditions, deserving great concern. Additionally, sapling survival two years after October fire indicate that out of season fires might constitute an emerging issue regarding E. globulus expansion.

Opportunities and challenges of Eucalyptus plantations in Europe: the Iberian Peninsula experience

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2021
EUR J FOREST RES

Although native to Australia, Eucalyptus species are found throughout Europe. At present, they are located mainly in the Iberian Peninsula and Eucalyptus globulus is the most commonly planted species. Climate forecasts anticipate an expansion of Eucalyptus to other regions of Europe. The fast growth of E. globulus, together with its resprouting ability and wood properties, has promoted the use of this species in the Iberian Peninsula. The total volume of E. globulus harvested there was close to 14 million m3 in 2019. Eucalyptus species represent the main source of raw material for the pulp and paper industries and provide an important source of income to non-industrial owners. Being exotic fast-growing trees, their expansion has also been associated with negative environmental impacts. The species therefore poses a series of challenges, while also generating opportunities. The objectives of this review paper are: (1) to summarize the importance of Eucalyptus plantations in Europe; (2) to analyse the opportunities and challenges of this genus in present and future plantations in Europe; (3) to assess to what extent forest management, at both stand and landscape levels, can reduce negative impacts; (4) to make policy and management recommendations that may support the use of this genus in other European regions. These aims are accomplished based on a thorough literature review, particularly focused on research developed in the Iberian Peninsula.

Post-Fire Demography, Growth, and Control of Eucalyptus globulus Wildlings

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021

Several eucalypt species are known for their capacity to massively regenerate through seeds in recently burned areas, becoming an ecological problem in regions where the species is not native. Here we study the demography and the development of highly dense Eucalyptus globulus wildling populations established one year after a fire and test two methods to control these populations. We monitored five mixed E. globulus stands along one year, in Central Portugal. We established a set of plots in each stand, with three treatments: mechanical cutting, herbicide spraying and no disturbance (control plots). Herbicide was applied in four concentrations. We tagged randomly selected plants in the control plots to monitor their growth. The initial mean wildling density was 322,000 plants ha−1, the highest ever recorded in the introduced range. Wildling density was significantly dependent on the density of surrounding adult E. globulus trees. Wildling density in control plots decreased 30% in one year, although showing positive variations over time because of new recruitment. Despite seasonal growth differences, wildlings showed a high growth rate throughout the year, reaching 15.6 cm month−1 in the summer. The growth rate of tagged wildings was positively affected by solar radiation and negatively affected by evapotranspiration and maximum temperature. Mechanical cutting reduced wildling density by 97% while herbicide reached results between 80% for the lowest concentration and 99% for the highest concentration. Herbicide-treated plants were more likely to resprout than cut plants. Regardless of the control method adopted (cutting or herbicide), management strategies should include the follow-up of the treated areas, to detect the establishment of new recruits and resprouting.

Ecology of invasive plants: state of the art

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2005

Invasion biology of Australian ectomycorrhizal fungi introduced with eucalypt plantations into the Iberian Peninsula

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2005

Jesús Díez

In the last two centuries, several species of Australian eucalypts (e.g. Eucalyptus camaldulensis and E.␣globulus) were introduced into the Iberian Peninsula for the production of paper pulp. The effects of the introduction of exotic root-symbitotic fungi together with the eucalypts have received little attention. During the past years, we have investigated the biology of ectomycorrhizal fungi in eucalypt plantations in the Iberian Peninsula. In the plantations studied, we found fruit bodies of several Australian ectomycorrhizal fungi and identified their ectomycorrhizas with DNA molecular markers. The most frequent species were Hydnangium carneum, Hymenogaster albus, Hysterangium inflatum, Labyrinthomyces donkii, Laccaria fraterna, Pisolithus albus, P. microcarpus, Rhulandiella berolinensis, Setchelliogaster rheophyllus, and Tricholoma eucalypticum. These fungi were likely brought from Australia together with the eucalypts, and they seem to have facilitated the establishment of eucalypt plantations and their naturalization. The dispersion of Australian fungal propagules may be facilitating the spread of eucalypts along watercourses in semiarid regions increasing the water lost. Because ectomycorrhizal fungi are obligate symbionts, their capacity to persist after eradication of eucalypt stands, and/or to extend beyond forest plantations, would rely on the possibility to find compatible native host trees, and to outcompete the native ectomycorrhizal fungi. Here we illustrate the case of the Australasian species Laccaria fraterna, which fruits in Mediterranean shrublands of ectomycorrhizal species of Cistus (rockroses). We need to know which other Australasian fungi extend to the native ecosystems, if we are to predict environmental␣risks associated with the introduction of Australasian ectomycorrhizal fungi into the Iberian Peninsula.

American perceptions of immigrant and invasive species : Strangers on the land

Article

Jan 2007

P.A. Coates

Sometimes by accident and sometimes on purpose, humans have transported plants and animals to new habitats around the world. Arriving in ever-increasing numbers to American soil, recent invaders have competed with, preyed on, hybridized with, and carried diseases to native species, transforming our ecosystems and creating anxiety among environmentalists and the general public. But is American anxiety over this crisis of ecological identity a recent phenomenon? Charting shifting attitudes to alien species since the 1850s, Peter Coates brings to light the rich cultural and historical aspects of this story by situating the history of immigrant flora and fauna within the wider context of human immigration. Through an illuminating series of particular invasions, including the English sparrow and the eucalyptus tree, what he finds is that we have always perceived plants and animals in relation to ourselves and the polities to which we belong. Setting the saga of human relations with the environment in the broad context of scientific, social, and cultural history, this thought-provoking book demonstrates how profoundly notions of nationality and debates over race and immigration have shaped American understandings of the natural world.

Diversity, Reproduction, and Potential for Invasiveness of Eucalyptus in California

Article

Jul 2009

In the 150 years since their introduction to the state, species in the genus Eucalyptus have become the most common non-native trees in California. A clearer understanding of the ability of different species to reproduce in the state is important for how we monitor the ecological impact of these abundant non-native trees and for predicting possible future invasions. Here we present current data on the diversity of Eucalyptus in California, which species are spontaneously reproducing, or have the potential to do so, where they can be found, how they can be identified, and our analysis, based on herbarium and field observations, of the potential ecological impacts of various species in the locations where they have been introduced. We also present a new dichotomous identification key, and botanical drawings of all naturalized species. We discuss the degree to which factors such as life history traits, commonness of planting, and native range influence reproductive behaviors of different species.

The Eucalyptus: A Natural and Commercial History of the Gum Tree

Article

Apr 2002

A classification and census of regenerative strategies in the eucalypts (Angophora, Corymbia and Eucalyptus—Myrtaceae), with special reference to the obligate seeders

Article

Jul 2006

Dean Nicolle

A survey of regenerative strategies in the eucalypts, including lignotuber development, was undertaken by extensive field observations, seedling trials and trials of cultivated individuals over a 12-year period. Four broad regenerative strategies were identified, viz. obligate seeders, lignotuber sprouters, stem sprouters and combination sprouters. These four regenerative strategies are based on the ability to develop a lignotuber and the regeneration strategy after whole-crown destruction. These regenerative strategies do not wholly correspond to the tree, mallee, mallet, marlock and shrub habit categories commonly applied to eucalypts. The obligate seeders include many more terminal taxa than have been previously documented as mallet taxa, with 78 western obligate seeders (the ‘true’ mallets) and nine eastern obligate seeders listed herein. Obligate seeders do not possess a lignotuber and are killed by crown-destructive events, and as such are relatively short-lived in most natural environments. A further 16 taxa are also known to be non-lignotuberous, but these are capable of producing epicormic regrowth from the trunk following crown destruction and are defined as stem sprouters. The remaining two regenerative strategies include taxa that are both lignotuberous and able to regenerate vegetatively following disturbance events. The persistent and conjecturous mallet–marlock–moort distinction is rejected, this study showing it to be dependent on stand density. Data presented indicate no significant difference in germination time or maturation time between western obligate-seeder taxa and closely related sprouter taxa. The conservation status of obligate-seeder taxa is discussed. Nomenclatural issues regarding the taxonomic distinction between obligate-seeder and resprouter sister taxa are discussed. A census of regenerative strategies for all recognised eucalypt taxa is included as an accessory publication on the web.

The Ecological Effects of Eucalyptus

Article

Jan 1985

Diseases and Pathogens of Eucalypts

Jan 2000

P J Keane
G A Kile
F D Podger

Keane, P. J., G. A. Kile, F. D. Podger, and B. N. Brown, eds. 2000. Diseases and Pathogens of Eucalypts. Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO Publishing.

Invasive Alien Species: A New Synthesis

H A In
R N Mooney
J A Mack
L E Mcneely
P J Neville
Schei

In H. A. Mooney, R. N. Mack, J. A. McNeely, L. E. Neville, P. J. Schei, and J. K. Waage, eds. Invasive Alien Species: A New Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Eucalypt Ecology: Individuals to Ecosystems

Jan 1997

J Williams
J Woinarski

Williams, J., and J. Woinarski, eds. 1997. Eucalypt Ecology: Individuals to Ecosystems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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