No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
The effects of audiobooks on the behaviour of dogs at a rehoming kennels
Abstract
Domestic dogs are often kept in kennelled environments. These may be stressful, and impact negatively upon welfare, due to unpredictable variations in space, social interaction and noise. Auditory stimulation such as music has been demonstrated to enhance animal welfare in a range of species, however despite suggested benefits in humans the potential of audiobooks as auditory enrichment for animals has not been investigated. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of audiobooks upon the behaviour of 31 dogs housed in a rescue shelter. The dogs were exposed to five auditory conditions (audiobook, classical music, pop music, psychoacoustically designed dog music and no auditory control) for 2 h with an intervening period of 2 days between conditions. The dogs’ behaviour were recorded every 5 min throughout the 2 h auditory conditions using instantaneous scan-sampling. The findings from the present study indicate that exposure to audiobooks significantly influences the behaviour of kennelled dogs. Audiobooks resulted in dogs spending more of their time resting than when exposed to any of the other auditory conditions (Control: Z = −4.807, P < 0.001; Pop: Z = −4.791, P < 0.001; Classical: Z = −4.732, P < 0.001; Psychoacoustically designed dog music: Z = −3.911, P < 0.001). Dogs also spent less time displaying sitting or standing vigilant behaviour when the audiobook was played compared to all other conditions (Control: Z = −4.579, P < 0.001; Pop: Z = −4.504, P < 0.001; Classical: Z = −3.450, P = 0.001; psychoacoustically designed dog music: Z = −3.514, P < 0.001). This study suggests that exposure to audiobooks can enhance the welfare of kennelled dogs due to their calming influence on dog behaviour. Use of audiobooks provides a simple yet practical tool that can be readily used in many kennel environments to enhance dog welfare and potentially increase the likelihood of successful rehoming of dogs.
... Another way to implement the human voice as sensory stimulation is the use of audiobooks, i.e., audio recordings of someone reading a book, and to play them to shelter animals. Audiobooks can influence the behaviour of shelter dogs, inducing a stronger calming effect compared to other forms of auditory enrichment such as classical music [21]. The effects of audiobooks on the behaviour of shelter cats have not yet been explored. ...
... The presence of unfamiliar people in shelter dog kennels causes high levels of barking, decreased resting behaviour and increased levels of stereotypes [25]. Therefore, there is a need to compare the effects of auditory stimulation with a human present to auditory stimulation without a human present, which has been shown to induce positive behaviour changes in dogs [21]. Hence, the aim of this pilot study was to explore the effect of human presence during the playback of an audiobook on the behaviour of shelter dogs and cats. ...
... Compared to the audiobook only condition, the dogs spent significantly more time in their bed when a human was also present, and more time looking at the audio source and human (as the human was sitting just behind the audio source). As shown in previous studies, playing an audiobook to shelter dogs can result in positive effects as dogs spent more time resting or sleeping and less time barking compared to other types of auditory enrichments [21]. In our study, after the habituation period we also found more time resting particularly when a human was present, but no differences in barking frequency. ...
Reading books to shelter animals combining auditory enrichment with human presence is increasingly used although its effects on animal welfare have not yet been investigated. This study compared the behaviour of single-housed shelter dogs and cats during a prerecorded reading condition in the absence or presence of an unfamiliar human (without direct physical contact). Fourteen dogs and twenty-one cats were observed in their enclosure in the two conditions in a counterbalanced order. Behaviours such as scratching the door, gaze direction and location in relation to the audio source/human were analysed from video recording for 10 min per condition. Dogs spent more time in their bed (p < 0.047) and looking at the auditory source (p < 0.004) when a human was present. Cats showed door scratching and rubbing when a human was present (p < 0.043), whereas they tended to spend more time in the vertical dimension (p = 0.051), where the hiding boxes were located, during auditory stimulation without a human present. These results show that the presence of a human induces greater interest compared to just audio stimulation in shelter dogs and cats but may induce frustration likely due to not being able to physically interact in some animals.
... Overall, classical music was associated with dogs spending more time sitting or lying down, resting and sleeping, and less time vocalizing and standing (Table 1). However, music marketed as being specifically designed for dogs (the five studies examining dog music all used "Through a dog's ear") did not appear to have many beneficial effects over and above those gained by exposing dogs to a random selection of classical music [14][15][16]18,20]. This is likely due to the heterogeneity of the populations studied, and/or a lack of sensitivity in the response variables measured. ...
... While the addition of classical music to kennel and veterinary hospital environments seems to yield positive benefits overall, several considerations arise when using auditory enrichment as a welfare measure. Four of the studies compared the effects of various broad categories of music including Heavy Metal [13,14], Pop [13,15,17] and Soft Rock, Motown and Reggae [17]. Rock and heavy metal music were found to induce undesirable behavioral and physiological changes in dogs, such as increased barking/vocalizing and standing [13,14,17]. ...
... Praising words combined with a praising intonation activate primary reward regions in dog brains [26]. Furthermore, Brayley and Montrose [15] found that playing an audiobook induced calmer behavior than both classical and dog music. Hence, it would be interesting to investigate the effects of instrumental versus vocal classical music, particularly when the text includes praising words. ...
Music therapy yields many positive health outcomes in humans, but the effects of music on the health and welfare of nonhuman animals vary greatly with the type of music played, the ethology of the species, and the personality and learning history of individual animals. One context in which music therapy may be used to enhance animal welfare is to alleviate stress in domestic environments. Here, we review studies of the effects of music exposure on dogs as a case study for the implementation of music therapy in veterinary medicine. Nine reports of experimental testing for the therapeutic effects of music on dogs were found, with most of these studies focusing on changes in behavior. Overall, exposure to classical music appears to have a calming influence on dogs in stressful environments, with no additional benefit observed from any music purposely designed for dogs (specifically "Through a dog's ear"). Given the cost effectiveness and ease of implementation, music therapy holds promise in veterinary medicine and animal welfare. However, to address precise research questions, further studies must use clearly defined characteristics of stimulus music in the experimental design, and consider the variability of each individual animal's physical characteristics and past experience in the selection of candidates.
... Recently, Brayley & Montrose (2016) investigated the effects of audiobooks on the behavior of 31 shelter dogs. Their study revealed that audio-book stimulation was more effective than pop, classical and psycho-acoustically designed music, at reducing barking behavior. ...
... This may be explained by the fact that shelter dogs are likely to be hearing human voices in the form of conversation, everyday. On the contrary, they are not used to hear human voices with the typical features of the narrative style, which is characterized by a "clear and strong enunciation, a steady pace and tempo and a non-monotonous or stilted delivery" (Brayley & Montrose, 2016). Therefore, it seems plausible that, in a shelter context, human voice is not an enriching stimulus per se, but its efficacy at reducing behavioral signs of stress in dogs is strictly linked to the way it is presented. ...
... It is plausible that experiencing the shelter environment may induce behavioral changes that persist even after adoption in the form of undesirable behaviors. The efficacy of sensory stimulation at reducing the level of stress and preventing or limiting the development of stress-related behaviors, such as excessive vocalization, hypermotility and hypervigilance during kenneling (Bowman et al., 2015;Brayley & Montrose, 2016;Graham et al., 2005a;Graham et al., 2005b, Tod et al., 2005 may facilitate the integration process into the foster family. Furthermore, stress induced by passing from a shelter environment to a new home should not be overlooked (Osella et al., 2016). ...
Millions of dogs enter public and private shelters every year. Shelters are often very stressful environments to dogs, which are kept in very limited space and are impeded to appease their social motivations. Furthermore, the environmental stimuli provided are generally quantitatively - hyper/hypo-stimulation - and qualitatively inadequate. In such conditions dogs are likely to develop abnormal behaviors as maladaptive coping strategies that are not only a symptom of low welfare, but they also drastically decrease their chances of being permanently adopted. Environmental enrichment, such as training sessions, additional cage furniture and food-filled toys have been shown to decrease levels of stress in confined dogs. However, many of these programs require a noticeable financial and time commitment. Unfortunately, many shelter running institutions lack necessary funds, personnel and time to provide their dogs with complex environmental enrichment programs. In this light, sensory stimulation may represent a scientifically valid, low-cost and no time-wasting instrument to enhance the average level of welfare of shelter dogs, limit the development of behavioral problems and increase dog adoptability.
... However, it is unclear if the voice recordings used by Tiira [55] had a positive or negative effect on the emotional wellbeing of the pets. Previous research on dogs in shelter environments indicate that exposure to audiobooks results in more time spent resting and less time vocalizing in comparison to a control condition or different types of music [56]. The authors hypothesize that the focused nature of speech delivery in audiobooks, as compared to general conversation, may contribute to the dogs responding positively to the recording [56]. ...
... Previous research on dogs in shelter environments indicate that exposure to audiobooks results in more time spent resting and less time vocalizing in comparison to a control condition or different types of music [56]. The authors hypothesize that the focused nature of speech delivery in audiobooks, as compared to general conversation, may contribute to the dogs responding positively to the recording [56]. Consequently, it is possible that voice familiarity in the current study may not have been the sole reason for the lack of observed effects, and the manner in which the speech was delivered may also be important. ...
Dogs may experience negative emotional states when isolated from human caregivers and conspecifics. This study aimed to evaluate how dogs interact with different enrichments during a short period of social isolation, as a first step towards identifying methods for improving their emotional wellbeing. Using a cross-over design, dogs (n = 20) at the Waltham Petcare Science Institute were exposed to four different food-based enrichments while left alone in a familiar room for 20 min: long-lasting chew (Chew), kibble in a treat-dispensing toy (Toy), and kibble dispensed through a smart treat-dispensing device with (Device + Voice) and without (Device) a person talking to the dog. Time spent engaging with each enrichment item and emotional valence and arousal (7-point scale collected every 5-min) were scored from videos. The results of linear mixed models indicated Chew was the most successful enrichment, with dogs having lower arousal scores (p < 0.05 vs. Device and Toy) during the first five minutes of isolation, higher positive valence scores (p < 0.05 vs. all) during the second five minutes of isolation, and spending the most total time engaged (p < 0.01 vs. all). Based on these findings, long-lasting chews should be further explored to assess their impact on dog emotional wellbeing.
... Other studies have focused on the effect music has on laboratory animals or livestock, concluding that some forms of music improve milk production and meat quality, while also decreasing potential indicators of stress, such as heart rate and blood pressure [27]. More commonly, research involving music and companion animals has focused on pet welfare in kenneled environments (working and shelter dog populations) [28][29][30][31][32][33]. Results from these studies have indicated that the type of auditory stimuli is important, with kenneled dogs showing more calm behaviors when exposed to classical music [33], and more active behaviors when exposed to heavy metal music [29]. ...
... Results from these studies have indicated that the type of auditory stimuli is important, with kenneled dogs showing more calm behaviors when exposed to classical music [33], and more active behaviors when exposed to heavy metal music [29]. A separate study found that kenneled dogs displayed more relaxed behavior when exposed to audiobooks than when exposed to any other auditory stimuli [30]. It may not necessarily be the classification of music that is important, but the structure of the piece of music related to its notes, tone, rhythm, and tempo [34], along with the individual dog's previous associations with the music. ...
Veterinary visits can be stressful for dogs, but how their wellbeing changes during a visit is not well understood. Music therapy has been successfully used in clinical practice to alleviate stress and anxiety in people. The present study aimed to understand how canine stress changes during a veterinary visit, establish the effect of music, and highlight measures which may be of practical use. In a randomized crossover design, dogs were exposed to no music and a bespoke piece of classical music at a tempo designed to match their resting heart rate during a mock veterinary visit. Dogs were scored as more “afraid” during the physical examination compared to when they were in the hospital kennel (p < 0.001). Salivary cortisol, IgA, and infrared temperature all increased significantly (p < 0.05) from baseline to post-kennel and post-examination, with no effect of music treatment. Core body temperature (p = 0.010) and the odds of ‘relaxed’ lips (p = 0.020) were lower when dogs were exposed to music compared to control visits. Overall, dogs experienced changes in physiology and behavior, indicative of increased stress, over the course of the visit. Additional research is required to further understand the effect that bespoke music may have in alleviating canine stress during veterinary visits.
... Four studies looked at the effect of music or audio recordings on stress levels (Hypes, 2015;Bowman et al., 2017Bowman et al., , 2015Brayley and Montrose, 2016) and one looked at the effects of reducing noise in the kennels by restricting visitor access (Hewison et al., 2014). Brayley and Montrose (2016) and Hypes (2015) used an ethogram to evaluate differences in stress related behaviors between dogs exposed to audio recordings and a control group consisting of dogs not exposed to the recordings. ...
... Four studies looked at the effect of music or audio recordings on stress levels (Hypes, 2015;Bowman et al., 2017Bowman et al., , 2015Brayley and Montrose, 2016) and one looked at the effects of reducing noise in the kennels by restricting visitor access (Hewison et al., 2014). Brayley and Montrose (2016) and Hypes (2015) used an ethogram to evaluate differences in stress related behaviors between dogs exposed to audio recordings and a control group consisting of dogs not exposed to the recordings. Bowman et al. (2015) measured salivary cortisol and heart rate variability in addition to using an ethogram to evaluate the psychological and physiological changes associated with exposure to classical music in the kennel environment. ...
The aim of this scoping review was to consolidate information pertaining to welfare and quality of life assessments of shelter dogs. Specific objectives were to identify and characterize types of welfare assessment instruments, discuss circumstances where welfare and quality of life assessments are used, and identify research gaps. A comprehensive search strategy was implemented in five databases. Literature published globally between the years 2000 and 2020 was identified using specific search terms. Abstracts and full papers were screened, relevant articles obtained, and welfare assessment methods characterized. Of 670 unique citations identified, 43 met the inclusion criteria of including a welfare or quality of life assessment for shelter dogs. There were 16 different assessment tools used to evaluate welfare and quality of life in shelter dogs. Ethogram-based assessment tools, five of which were validated, were used in 37 publications. Physiological based assessment methods were used to assess welfare in 26 publications. Overall, assessment tools were used to either evaluate a dog’s acclimation to the shelter environment or evaluate welfare interventions. Several validated tools were identified that could be useful to shelters depending on need. The Multi-Operator Qualitative Behavioral Assessment and the Quality of Life Assessment are tools allowing for quick welfare assessments by shelter staff, while the Shelter Quality Protocol and the Shelter Quality Protocol 2 are more comprehensive welfare assessments, which require some experience or training in shelter management. The review identified few papers that evaluated the effects of chronic stress on dogs housed in a shelter environment long-term. Therefore, welfare of these dogs should be a priority for future studies. The range of assessment methods underscores the complexity of evaluating welfare and quality of life in different types of sheltering environments.
... Several studies have explored the use of auditory enrichment to change dogs' behavior and reduce noise in shelter kennels (Wells et al. 2002;Kogan et al. 2012;Bowman et al. 2015;Brayley and Montrose 2016;Bowman et al. 2017), focusing on certain genres of music or types of sound, often those that are perceived as pleasant and mood-enhancing to humans (Rickard et al. 2005). Wells et al. (2002) investigated the impacts of classical, heavy metal, and pop music; human conversation on the radio; and a control condition of no auditory enrichment on the dogs' behavior. ...
Dogs experience a variety of stressors within the shelter that could negatively impact their welfare. The use of enrichment interventions that provide social interaction, either with a human or canine; object enrichment; and sensory stimulation (auditory, olfactory, or visual) is necessary for dogs living in animal shelters, along with the assessment of engagement and determination of benefits. There are a wide range of sampling and measurement techniques for monitoring enrichment usage and its behavioral effects, and such efforts are only worthwhile if the data being collected are used. Data‐informed decisions about which enrichment types are provided, on both the shelter‐wide and individual dog levels, must be consistently re‐evaluated based on the current population of dogs and can allow shelters to most usefully employ their resources and best serve the dogs in their care.
... Surprisingly, species-specific music appears to have no effect on dog behavior (Bowman, Dowell, & Evans, 2017;Bowman, Scottish, Dowell, & Evans, 2015;Kogan, Schoenfeld-Tacher, & Simon, 2012;Wells, Graham, & Hepper, 2002), unlike the preference shown by cats and monkeys (Snowdon & Teie, 2010;Snowdon et al., 2015). In contrast, it has been claimed that the calming effect of audiobooks exceeds that of music for dogs (Brayley & Montrose, 2016), although Wells et al. (2002) previously argued that classical music may outcompete speech. These differences in the dog might reflect adaptation to the human environment or simply a familiarity effect. ...
... In dogs, classical music increased sleep and rest behavior in three studies, whereas rock music led to increased activity and barking in three studies [26][27][28]. However, two other studies reported no effects of music on behavior [29,30]. Thus, the effect of music on dogs is quite mixed. ...
Playing music or natural sounds to animals in human care is thought to have beneficial effects. An analysis of published papers on the use of human-based music with animals demonstrates a variety of different results even within the same species. These mixed results suggest the value of tailoring music to the sensory systems of the species involved and in selecting musical structures that are likely to produce the desired effects. I provide a conceptual framework based on the combined knowledge of the natural communication system of a species coupled with musical structures known to differentially influence emotional states, e.g., calming an agitated animal versus stimulating a lethargic animal. This new concept of animal-based music, which is based on understanding animal communication, will lead to more consistent and specific effects of music. Knowledge and appropriate use of animal-based music are important in future research and applications if we are to improve the well-being of animals that are dependent upon human care for their survival.
... A major problem when housing dogs is the noise exposure and restlessness caused by barking and other forms of vocalisation. Studies from shelter settings indicate that playing classical music [97] or audio books [98] and offering activity feeding [99] can reduce vocalisations. Feeding enrichment, such as by the provision of puzzle toys filled with food, is furthermore valuable by reducing boredom [40]. ...
A high proportion of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, which in some cases may escalate into aggression. Here, we discuss factors that contribute to negative emotions in a veteri-nary setting and how these can be addressed. We briefly summarise the available evidence for the interventions discussed. The set-up of the waiting area (e.g., spatial dividers; elevated places for cat carriers), tailoring the examination and the treatment to the individual, considerate handling (minimal restraint when possible, avoiding leaning over or cornering animals) and offering high-value food or toys throughout the visit can promote security and, ideally, positive associa-tions. Desensitisation and counterconditioning are highly recommended, both to prevent and ad-dress existing negative emotions. Short-term pain from injections can be minimised by using tactile and cognitive distractions and topical analgesics, which are also indicated for painful procedures such as ear cleanings. Recommendations for handling fearful animals to minimise aggressive re-sponses are discussed. However, anxiolytics or sedation should be used whenever there is a risk of traumatising an animal or for safety reasons. Stress-reducing measures can decrease fear and stress in patients and consequently their owners, thus strengthening the relationship with the cli-ents as well as increasing the professional satisfaction of veterinary staff.
... A major problem when housing dogs is the noise exposure and restlessness caused by barking and other forms of vocalisation. Studies from shelter settings indicate that playing classical music [97] or audio books [98] and offering activity feeding [99] can reduce vocalisations. Feeding enrichment, such as by the provision of puzzle toys filled with food, is furthermore valuable by reducing boredom [40]. ...
A high proportion of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, which in some cases may escalate into aggression. Here, we discuss factors that contribute to negative emotions in a veterinary setting and how these can be addressed. The set-up of the waiting area (e.g. spatial dividers; elevated places for cat carriers), tailoring the examination and the treatment to the individual, considerate handling (minimal restraint when possible, avoiding leaning over or cornering animals) and offering high-value food or toys throughout the visit can promote security and, ideally, positive associations. Desensitisation and counterconditioning are highly recommended both to prevent and address existing negative emotions. Some negative experiences such as short-term pain from injections can be minimised by using tactile and cognitive distractions. Preemptive analgesia is recommended for known painful procedures. Recommendations for handling fearful animals to minimise aggressive responses are discussed. However, anxiolytics or sedation should be used whenever there is a risk of traumatising an animal or for safety reasons. Stress-reducing measures can decrease stress and fear in patients and consequently their owners – thus strengthening the relationship with the clients as well as increasing the professional satisfaction of veterinary staff.
... 7,10 Pharmacological treatment was also recommended but initially declined by the owner. Other environmental measures, such as classical music, recorded audiobooks, and aromatherapy and lavender essential oils, which have been advocated as aiding relaxation in other species, [21][22][23][24][25][26] were discussed for the cat when it was to be left alone. ...
... It thus seems that classical music calms kennelled dogs more effectively than do other music types. Brayley and Montrose (2016) found that exposure to audiobooks also enhanced the welfare of kennelled dogs by increasing their resting behaviour and reducing vocalizing and sitting or standing behaviours. Although sound has been shown to be a useful enrichment tool for dogs, to our knowledge its effects on small groups of dogs have not yet been investigated. ...
Ten healthy pet dogs with an average maximum resting heart rate of 92 bpm that had never been used in studies of auditory stimulation were exposed randomly to one of three sound conditions on each of three occasions within a 5-day period. Posture and behaviour were recorded continuously by video for a total of 20 min over three phases: 5 min before sound exposure, 10 min during sound exposure, and 5 min after sound exposure. Each dog wore a Polar HR monitor throughout testing, and heart rate was recorded by using R–R interval data. Maximum heart rate was significantly greater during heartbeat sound exposure than afterwards, and average heart rate with both heartbeat sound and classical sound showed decrease tendencies.The time spent in dynamic (e.g. movement-related) postures was significantly higher before treatment than during or after under all three conditions. These data suggest that auditory stimuli in dogs may affect physiological responses without necessarily affecting behaviour, and specifically that heart rate may be elevated by auditory exposure to a faster heartbeat.
... In addition, increased sleeping behaviour was also shown in the coconut and ginger conditions. Enhanced sleeping behaviour has been suggested to be indicative of relaxation and improved welfare in kennelled dogs (Kogan et al., 2012;Brayley and Montrose, 2016) and comparable to the increased resting behaviour found from use of enrichment in other kennelled dog studies (e.g. Wells et al., 2002a;Graham et al., 2005). ...
Many domestic dogs are kept in rescue and rehoming shelters which are frequently stressful and under-stimulating environments. Dog welfare is often compromised within these environments and there is a need to determine new practical and effective methods of improving the welfare of these kennelled dogs. Olfactory stimulation has been demonstrated to have positive behavioural effects in a range of contexts, however this field remains relatively understudied in the domestic dog. This study aimed to investigate the effects of olfactory stimulation via vanilla, coconut, ginger and valerian upon the behaviour of 15 dogs at a rescue shelter. The dogs were simultaneously exposed to six olfactory conditions using scented cloths following a fixed order (cloth control, coconut, vanilla, valerian, ginger and odour control) for 2 h a day for 3 days with an intervening period of 2 days between conditions. The dogs' behaviour was recorded every 10 min throughout the 2 h olfactory conditions using instantaneous scan-sampling. Exposure to ginger, coconut, vanilla and valerian resulted in significantly lower levels of vocalisations and movement compared to the control conditions, while coconut and ginger additionally increased levels of sleeping behaviour. These odours may have application in rescue shelters due to the reduction of behaviours such as barking and activity which may be indicative of stress as well as being traits perceived as undesirable by adopters. This research provides support for the use of olfactory stimulation within the kennel environment.
... However, research on the effects of sound in dogs is unclear, and it may be that music is not the most effective method of acoustic enrichment, for dogs at least. A recent study by Brayley and Montrose (2016 [54]) found that the reading of audiobooks was more effective in enhancing the welfare of kennelled dogs than other auditory conditions including classical music. The authors concluded that as dogs are highly social animals whose welfare is enhanced by human interactions, audiobooks may somewhat fulfil this role and provide the illusion of company and comfort. ...
Minimising stress for patients should always be a priority in the veterinary hospital. However, this is often overlooked. While a “no stress” environment is not possible, understanding how to create a “low stress” (sometimes called “fear-free”) environment and how to handle animals in a less stressful manner benefits patients, staff and the hospital alike. Many veterinary practitioners believe creating a low stress environment is too hard and too time consuming, but this need not be the case. With some simple approaches, minimising patient, and hence staff, stress is achievable in all veterinary practices. This article provides a background on why minimising stress is important and outlines some practical steps that can be taken by staff to minimise stress for presenting and hospitalised patients. Useful resources on recognising signs of stress in dogs and cats, handling, restraint, behaviour modification, medications, and hospital design are provided.
The domestic dog has attracted notable attention in relation to the welfare benefits of auditory stimulation. Studies carried out in rescue kennels, an environment in which dogs are prone to chronic stress, have pointed to a calming influence of both classical music and audiobooks. The benefits of auditory stimulation for dogs experiencing more immediate types of stress, however, are still unknown. This investigation thus examined the effect of classical music and the spoken voice in the form of an audiobook on the behaviour of pet dogs in response to separation from their owners, a known short-term stressor. Three conditions of auditory stimulation were employed: (1) a control (the normal environment of the university research room), (2) classical music (Mozart’s Sonata K.448) and (3) an audiobook (Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone). The effect of these conditions was explored using two approaches. Study 1 explored the effects of auditory stimulation using a between-subjects design. Sixty dogs were assigned to one of the 3 conditions and exposed to the relevant auditory stimulus for 1-hour. Each dog’s behaviour was recorded every 10 s using a purpose-designed ethogram. Latency data were recorded by video. Results revealed a significant effect of auditory condition on latency to lie down, latency to settle (i.e., lie down for >30 s) and speaker-directed gaze. Dogs exposed to classical music were significantly faster to lie down than animals in the audiobook condition and quicker to settle than animals in the audiobook and control conditions. Subjects in the audiobook condition spent significantly more time gazing at the speaker than animals in the classical music and control conditions. Dogs in the classical music condition also spent significantly more time looking towards the speaker than control animals. Study 2 examined the effects of auditory stimulation using a repeated measures design. Twenty-two dogs were exposed to each condition of auditory stimulation for 30 min, with a period of 10 min between conditions. Each animal’s behaviour was recorded as per Study 1. Only speaker-directed gaze differed significantly between conditions, with animals spending more time looking at the speaker in the audiobook and classical music conditions than the control. Overall, findings point to only a moderately calming effect of classical music, and no apparent welfare benefits of an audiobook, on dogs separated from their owners. The research points to auditory stimulation having little value to dogs in situations of short-term acute stress. Further research is recommended in this field, ideally in a wider variety of contexts than studied thus far.
Behavioral welfare concerns for shelter pets can be a result of the shelter environment itself or due to behavior disorders preexisting the intake of a sheltered pet. Addressing immediate welfare concerns and anticipating long‐term behavior concerns can help to improve adoptability, facilitate a smoother transition to the new home, and often lead to a shorter‐term treatment overall for shelter animals. Understanding the indications and goals for behavior medication use, factors to consider prior to prescribing, requirements to prescribe, monitoring, and medication choices are keys to success. Practitioners must also recognize that behavioral medications should not be used alone, without a working diagnosis, and other aspects of a treatment plan (environmental management, behavior modification). Even shelters with limited resources can do something to meet the requirements of a comprehensive behavior treatment plan that includes the use of medications to improve shelter animal health and welfare.
Facility design and animal care practices impact the quality of life of sheltered dogs, and there is a growing body of data and anecdotal information showing that appropriate housing and husbandry can mitigate the negative impact of many detrimental features commonly attributed to shelters. Using the facility and caring for animals in a way that balances behavioral, medical, and operational considerations while ensuring opportunities for assessment, enrichment, training, and rehabilitation is essential to operating a humane animal shelter. A well‐designed and maintained physical facility can facilitate the development and delivery of an efficient and effective behavioral program in a shelter, with the quality of housing substantially impacting animal health and well‐being.
One of the first theories or concepts university undergraduates studying an animal behaviour degree come across in their academic careers is likely to be Tinbergen's four ‘questions’ relating to animal behaviour. The four questions can be broadly split into two categories; proximate and ultimate explanations for behaviour. This chapter focuses on the ultimate explanations for learning; how learning can effect survival of an individual and evolution of a species. It discusses the main factors, along with a case study, to better understand how learning within zoos is essential for the long term survival of animals if reintroduced; and results in animals which are better representatives of their wild counterparts in zoo education. ‘Indirect benefits’ of learning maybe conferred through changed physiological or psychological parameters, for example positive feedback loops that affect the animal's emotional state; sometimes referred to as secondary benefits.
Zusammenfassung Der tierschutzkonforme Umgang mit den Patienten, ein kundenfreundliches Management und ein tierschut-zorientiertes Beratungsangebot für Tierhalterinnen und Tierhalter erhöhen den Standard der medizinischen Dienstleistungen und gewinnen daher in der tierärzt-lichen Kleintierpraxis zunehmend an Bedeutung. Da ein erhöhtes Wohlbefinden der Patienten beim Tierarztbesuch die Bereitschaft der Tierhalterinnen und Tierhalter zu regelmäßigen Konsultationen erhöht und den Genesungsprozess positiv beeinflusst, verbessern die genannten Maßnahmen auch die präventivmedizi-nische Versorgung und tragen zum Behandlungserfolg bei. Die in diesem Beitrag vorgestellten, auf Anregung des Vorstandes der Vereinigung Österreichischer Kleintiermediziner (VÖK) erarbeiteten Empfehlungen sollen praktizierende Tierärztinnen und Tierärzte da-bei unterstützen, den Schutz von Hunden und Katzen im beruflichen Alltag zu optimieren. Die Empfehlungen sollten zum Wohl der Patienten und ihrer Halterinnen und Halter, aber auch im Interesse des in der tierärztli-chen Praxis tätigen Personals in bestmöglicher Weise implementiert werden.
The recovery crate continues to be a useful part of the home care plan for smaller dogs following orthopaedic surgery. However, small, barren or uncomfortable crates are inappropriate. The crate must offer sufficient space for the patient to lie fully-stretched out, to sit or stand facing in a choice of directions, to turn easily, to eat, and to lick or chew at toys. Open-topped pens should be considered for patients that will not attempt to escape, as these tend to offer more floor area than crates. For larger dogs, a single-level recovery room is a suitable alternative to the crate or pen. This article discusses optimal set-up of crate and recovery room, including size, positioning, flooring, bedding, and methods of enrichment. Confined dogs benefit from a regular routine including controlled exercise, rest, feeding and human interaction. To avoid distress, the dog should be introduced to the crate or recovery room both gradually and preoperatively if at all possible. Owners require clear preoperative advice on the correct size, set-up and use of the recovery space.
Each year, nearly 4 million dogs will enter one of over 13,000 animal shelters operating in the United States. We review programmes implemented at shelters aimed at increasing the likelihood of adoption. The morphology of shelter dogs plays a large role in in-kennel adopter selection, but their behaviour is also influential in out-of-kennel adopter interactions. Previous studies suggest that dogs have the ability to readily learn new behaviours at the shelter, and programmes designed to improve behaviour of the dogs can increase adoption rates. Whilst human interaction has been well-established to improve behavioural and physiological outcomes of dogs living in shelters, analysis of the effects of sensory, environmental, and social-conspecific enrichment has not resulted in clear conclusions. We also review the literature on the relinquishment of owned dogs and return rates of previously adopted dogs. Whilst owner-and dog-related risks to relinquishment are discussed, we show that there is a notable lack of research into programmes that address issues that may prevent the initial surrender of dogs to shelters, or that could prevent re-relinquishment. It is likely that factors, unrelated to the dog, play a larger role than previously believed. Suggestions for further research include multi-site studies, investigations into the efficacy of in-shelter enrichment programmes, predictive validity of behavioural assessments, understanding of adopter behaviour at the shelter, and programmes within the community focused on keeping dogs in their homes.
Classical music has been shown to reduce stress in kennelled dogs; however, rapid habituation of dogs to this form of auditory enrichment has also been demonstrated. The current study investigated the physiological and behavioural response of kennelled dogs (n = 38) to medium-term (5 days) auditory enrichment with five different genres of music including Soft Rock, Motown, Pop, Reggae and Classical, to determine whether increasing the variety of auditory stimulation reduces the level of habituation to auditory enrichment. Dogs were found to spend significantly more time lying and significantly less time standing when music was played, regardless of genre. There was no observable effect of music on barking, however, dogs were significantly (z = 2.2, P < 0.05) more likely to bark following cessation of auditory enrichment. Heart Rate Variability (HRV) was significantly higher, indicative of decreased stress, when dogs were played Soft Rock and Reggae, with a lesser effect observed when Motown, Pop and Classical genres were played. Relative to the silent period prior to auditory enrichment, urinary cortisol:creatanine (UCCR) values were significantly higher during Soft Rock (t = 2.781, P < 0.01) and the second silent control period following auditory enrichment (t = 2.46, P < 0.05). Despite the mixed response to different genres, the physiological and behavioural changes observed remained constant over the 5d of enrichment suggesting that the effect of habituation may be reduced by increasing the variety of auditory enrichment provided.
In this article we wish to introduce and discuss a theoretical framework for a possible conceptualisation of the differences between reading a printed book and listening to an audiobook. We tend to introduce similarities and differences between reading with the eyes and reading with the ears, implying that we should not discuss the audiobook experience as a remediation of the printed book experience only, but as an entirely different experience that could be conceptualised in continuation of mobile listening practises. As a methodological strategy we will emphasise the differences between the literary practices, reading with the eyes and reading with the ears. These different perspectives on reading are used to accentuate the distinct experiences, and future thorough analyses in continuation of this framework would appear much more complex and connected than in the present article.
Combined effects of music, environmental enrichment, and filial imprinting were tested on meat strain chicks (broilers) from
1 to 7 days old (Study I) or from one to 8 wk old (Study II). In six experiments conducted in two separate studies, chicks
were exposed to a blue plastic box (30 × 30 × 38 cm) containing speakers from which red gloves were hung at the chicks’ eye
level. Classical music was provided intermittently (1 h on/1 h off) from speakers located in the boxes. Approach response,
feeding behavior, fear behavior, body weight, feed:gain ratio, and mortality were evaluated.
Approach response tests (Study I) demonstrated that attachment to the imprinting enrichment and music (IEM) object was greater
among treated chicks, whereas fear response tests indicated that IEM-treated chicks were also less fearful. Evaluation of
feeding behavior (Study II) indicated that IEM chickens fed significantly more often than controls, particularly when the
music was activated.
Feed:gain ratios of the IEM-treated chicks in Study I were significantly improved (1.48 vs. 1.58) compared with those of controls for three of the four experiments. The exception occurred in Experiment 3, when chicks
were exposed to heat stress, and nonsignificant differences for feed:gain ratios were observed. Body weight and mortality
differences were not observed. Results of Study II, however, demonstrated significant influences of imprinting, enrichment,
and music on body weight at 8 wk of age (2.63 vs. 2.57 kg), whereas differences in feed conversion and mortality were not significant.
Many studies have attempted to use music to influence the behavior of nonhuman animals; however, these studies have often led to conflicting outcomes. We have developed a theoretical framework that hypothesizes that in order for music to be effective with other species, it must be in the frequency range and with similar tempos to those used in natural communication by each species. We have used this framework to compose music that is species-appropriate for a few animal species. In this paper we created species-appropriate music for domestic cats and tested this music in comparison with music with similar affective content composed for humans. We presented two examples of cat music in counter-balanced order with two examples of human music and evaluated the behavior and response latencies of cats to each piece. Cats showed a significant preference for and interest in species-appropriate music compared with human music (Median (IQR) 1.5 (0.5-2.0) acts for cat music, 0.25 (0.0-0.5) acts for human music, P <0.002) and responded with significantly shorter latencies (Median (IQR) 110.0 (54-138.75) s for cat music, 171.75 (151-180) s for human music (P< 0.001). Younger and older cats were more responsive to cat music than middle-aged acts (cubic trend, r2 = 0.477, P < 0.001). The results suggest novel and more appropriate ways for using music as auditory enrichment for nonhuman animals.
The dog (Canis familiaris) has been domesticated for thousands of years but the effects of different housing regimens on canine behaviour are poorly understood. This study presents behavioural data collected from solitary and group-housed dogs housed in animal shelters and laboratories. The dogs differed greatly in their behaviour under the different housing regimens. Solitary dogs were more inactive (72-85% of observed time compared with group-housed dogs 54-62% of observed time), and spent more time in non-social repetitive locomotory behaviour categories (4-5% compared with group-housed 0.9-2% of observed time). Group-housed dogs were not only able to interact socially, but also spent more time investigating the floor of their pens, presumably because of the increased olfactory stimuli. Group-housed laboratory dogs provided with kennels used them for: rest, play and the control of social interactions. Single-housed dogs, which were housed in smaller pens, had low overall activity and tended towards stereotyped circling rather than pacing. At all the sites the opportunities for interactions with humans were limited (0.24-2.52% of the time observed). The results are discussed in terms of cage design and animal husbandry.
It is well known that music could have relaxing and antidepressant effects on humans, other mammals and birds. The present study aimed to evaluate music effects on common carp Cyprinus carpio growth and physiology, under different light conditions. Therefore, common carp (130.9 ± 0.67 g) was reared, in recirculating water system, under constant darkness (D) or normally illuminated conditions (L) for 12 weeks. Classical music was transmitted underwater and music treatments consisted of no music at all (control groups, C) and three music transmissions either of 30 min duration at 1.5 h intervals (M30) or of 60 min duration at 1 h intervals (M60). Obtained results showed that light conditions had a negative effect on fish growth (L–C versus D–C, P < 0.01), but when 30 min music was transmitted (L-M30) growth was improved and equal to D–C. Fish groups presenting reduced growth exhibited significantly increased brain neurotransmitters levels, indicating the occurrence of stressful conditions. Also, music transmission significantly affected carcass and liver fatty acid composition. Present results showed that music could be regarded as a stress relieving or inducing factor. Possible use of music as a growth and product quality promoter, as well as a means to ensure fish welfare under intensive fish farming is discussed.
Six weeks of social and spatial restriction were used as a model to induce chronic stress in Beagles. Behavioral and physiological measurements were performed during a period of enriched spacious outdoor housing in groups (GH) and during a subsequent period of solitary housing in small indoor kennels (IH). Behavioral parameters that may indicate chronic stress in dogs are reported. During IH, the dogs showed significantly (comparison-wise error rate <0.05) lower postures than during GH. IH induced enduring increments in frequencies of autogrooming, paw lifting, and vocalizing, and was associated with incidents of coprophagy and repetitive behavior. So far, we interpret the behavioral changes as signs of chronic stress. Relatively low levels of walking, digging, intentions to change from one state of locomotion to another, and increments in circling are conceived as obvious adaptations to the specific features of the IH system. By challenging the dogs outside their home kennel we tested whether the dogs’ coping abilities were affected by IH. Dogs that were challenged were introduced into a novel environment, given the opportunity to escape from their home kennel, restrained, walked down an unfamiliar corridor, presented a novel object, exposed to loud noise, given food, or confronted with a conspecific. During IH, challenged dogs exhibited higher postures, showed more tail wagging, nosing, circling, urinating, and defecating, and changed more often from one state of locomotion (or posture) to another than during GH. These behavioral changes were observed across the different types of challenges, with the exception of the noise administration test. In the presence of conspecifics, the socially and spatially restricted male dogs behaved more dominantly and aggressive than during the time that they were kept in groups. Such behavior manifested as increased performances of raised hairs, growling, paw laying, and standing over. Both sexes showed increases in paw lifting, body shaking, ambivalent postures, intentions to change from one state of locomotion to another, and trembling in any of the challenges, excluding the walking down the corridor test. In short, during a variety of challenges, socially and spatially restricted dogs exhibited a heightened state of aggression, excitement, and uncertainty. Behavioral differences between dogs that had experienced pleasant and bad weather conditions during GH, suggested that “pleasant-weather individuals” had experienced early stress during the control period, and, as a result, responded to the subsequent period of IH differently. Regardless of the housing conditions, challenged bitches showed stronger indications of acute stress than male dogs. Gender did not affect the chronic stress responses to social and spatial restriction. A low posture and increased autogrooming, paw lifting, vocalizing, repetitive behavior, and coprophagy may indicate chronic stress in dogs, and as such, can help to identify poor welfare. When challenged, chronically stressed dogs may show increased excitement, aggression, and uncertainty, but the nonspecificity of such emotional behavior will complicate its practical use with regard to the assessment of stress.
The aim of this literature review is to explore how music therapy influences the behaviour of older people with dementia.
Music therapy is often informally used in residential care units to enhance communication, emotional, cognitive and behavioural skills in elderly patients diagnosed with dementia both nationally and internationally. However, in Ireland the benefits of music therapy have not been fully recognized. Many studies have been carried out to establish the effectiveness of music therapy on the behaviour of older people with dementia with positive findings. Music therapy should be welcomed into care of the elderly settings in Ireland and elsewhere; however, more research is required to validate the effects of this therapy as a holistic tool to build altruistic connections between carers and clients.
A comprehensive review of nursing literature using the online databases CINAHL, PsycINFO and MEDLINE were carried out. The search was limited to articles in the English language and peer-reviewed journals dating 2003-2009.
Thirteen studies were reviewed and the majority of these studies reported that music therapy influenced the behaviour of older people with dementia in a positive way by reducing levels of agitation. The research further identified a positive increase in participants' mood and socialization skills, with carers having a significant role to play in the use of music therapy in care of the elderly nursing. However, methodological limitations were apparent throughout each of the studies reviewed.
With reference to clinical practice, the authors recommend the undertaking of further research to explore the effects of music therapy on the behaviour and wellbeing of older people with dementia.
Four groups of dogs, which had been subjected to housing conditions of varying quality for years, were assumed to experience different levels of stress. The groups were compared for behavioural and hormonal parameters in order to identify measures that indicate chronic stress in the dog and which may help to identify poor welfare in this species. As a standard for comparison, one of the four groups was composed of privately owned dogs; we assumed that chronic stress levels were relatively low in this group (GI). The three remaining groups of dogs (GII, GIII and GIV) were kept under conditions of low to relatively high austerity, and had basal urinary ratios of cortisol to creatinine, adrenaline to creatinine and, to a lesser extent, noradrenaline to creatinine, that varied from low to high, respectively. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in cortisol to creatinine ratios when comparing GI to GII, GIII and GIV and when GII was compared to GIV. Statistical analyses indicated that the mean adrenaline to creatinine ratio in GI differed from that in the remaining groups and that the ratio in GII differed from that in GIII. Noradrenaline to creatinine ratios differed significantly only between GI and GIII. Dopamine to creatinine ratios and noradrenaline to adrenaline ratios did not differ significantly between groups. When dogs were not disturbed, those that were kept under the most austere conditions typically had high levels of locomotor activity, nosing, urinating and paw lifting. After mild disturbance by a slamming door or in the presence of a researcher these animals reacted actively, with increased locomotor activity, circling and nosing, and they showed high levels of behaviours that have previously been associated with acute stress: body shaking, yawning, ambivalent postures and displacement behaviours. Chronic stress in dogs may be identified by increased paw lifting when animals are not disturbed and by ample behavioural expressions of arousal when they are mildly stimulated. Since some behaviours may occur in contexts not related to stress, behavioural data are easily misinterpreted with regard to chronic stress. Interpretation will only be meaningful when physiological measures such as urinary adrenaline to creatinine ratios and, especially, urinary cortisol to creatinine ratios are also determined.
Our surrounding auditory environment has a dramatic influence on the development of basic auditory and cognitive skills, but little is known about how it influences the recovery of these skills after neural damage. Here, we studied the long-term effects of daily music and speech listening on auditory sensory memory after middle cerebral artery (MCA) stroke. In the acute recovery phase, 60 patients who had middle cerebral artery stroke were randomly assigned to a music listening group, an audio book listening group, or a control group. Auditory sensory memory, as indexed by the magnetic MMN (MMNm) response to changes in sound frequency and duration, was measured 1 week (baseline), 3 months, and 6 months after the stroke with whole-head magnetoencephalography recordings. Fifty-four patients completed the study. Results showed that the amplitude of the frequency MMNm increased significantly more in both music and audio book groups than in the control group during the 6-month poststroke period. In contrast, the duration MMNm amplitude increased more in the audio book group than in the other groups. Moreover, changes in the frequency MMNm amplitude correlated significantly with the behavioral improvement of verbal memory and focused attention induced by music listening. These findings demonstrate that merely listening to music and speech after neural damage can induce long-term plastic changes in early sensory processing, which, in turn, may facilitate the recovery of higher cognitive functions. The neural mechanisms potentially underlying this effect are discussed.
Removal of 1 member of a long-standing pair of adult domestic dog (Canis familiaris) kennel mates from the home run for 4 hr had no effect on the behavior or plasma glucocorticoid levels of the remaining dog. When tested in a novel environment, dogs showed increased activity and elevated glucocorticoid levels at the end of the session, but these responses were as large when the dogs were with their kennel mates as when they were alone. However, activity and glucocorticoid levels were not elevated if the dogs were exposed to the novel environment in the presence of their human caretaker. Dogs more often were observed in proximity with, and soliciting social behavior from, the human than the kennel mate. These results highlight the importance of human companionship for the domestic dog and point to a difference in the nature of the social relationships of dogs with humans and with conspecifics.
This study investigated the impact of different types of music on tension, mood, and mental clarity. A total of 144 subjects completed a psychological profile before and after listening for 15 minutes to four types of music (grunge rock, classical, New Age, and designer). With grunge rock music, significant increases were found in hostility, sadness, tension, and fatigue, and significant reductions were observed in caring, relaxation, mental clarity, and vigor. In contrast, after listening to the designer music (music designed to have specific effects on the listener), significant increases in caring, relaxation, mental clarity, and vigor were measured; significant decreases were found in hostility, fatigue, sadness, and tension. The results for New Age and classical music were mixed. Feeling shifts among subjects were observed with all types of music. Designer music was most effective in increasing positive feelings and decreasing negative feelings. Results suggest that designer music may be useful in the treatment of tension, mental distraction, and negative moods.
This study carried out a survey in an Italian shelter to analyze adoptions resulting in the rejection of the newly adopted dog. The results of this study show that the number of dogs adopted and returned was stable during the study, that more females than males were adopted, and that males were more likely to be returned. Almost all the dogs were returned because of behavioral problems, and most were more than 6 months of age. Some dogs were returned more than once, with 20% of the people who adopted the same dog at different times reporting the same behavioral problem. Having a house with a yard, a garden, or a terrace appeared to be important for better management of the dog and influenced the length of adoption. Half of the adopters had previous experience as caregiver for a dog; compared to adopters who had no previous experience, however, they returned their companion animal after a shorter period and because of behavioral reasons. Understanding why adopters return their dogs to shelters is an important step toward attempting to minimize relinquishments and, thus, optimize adoptions.
This survey-based study describes the prevalence and onset of behavioral indicators of poor welfare in dogs kenneled at United Kingdom rescue shelters. It describes key factors contributing to individual variation in behaviors. At 8 rescue shelters, staff trained in the care of nonhuman animals recorded daily whether dogs in their care displayed each of 15 behaviors. The study originally involved 302 dogs; for the first 14 days, it monitored only 148 dogs daily. The study observed dogs for a maximum of 6 weeks from admittance, observing all 15 behaviors at least once during the first 2 weeks (n = 148). The proportion of dogs observed to perform each behavior differed within the sample. The most commonly observed behavior (24.3% of dogs) was excessive barking. The remaining 14 behaviors ranged from listlessness (20.3%) to repetitive tail-chasing (1.3%). Over the 6 weeks, the proportion observed to pace repetitively and wall bounce increased. The proportion who lacked appetite and displayed fear-associated behavior decreased. Breed differences, gender, and age partially explained variability in the onset and prevalence of behavioral indicators of poor welfare in kenneled dogs.
While the transformation of the traditionally print-based book industries to digital and multi-format publishing industries is the subject of much debate, the audiobook industry has largely escaped attention. In a sense, this is curious, given the fact that audiobook publishers have been at the forefront of the technological transformation of the book industry from reel-to-reel tapes and long-playing records all the way into the digital era. All the while, audiobook publishing has never been entirely integrated into the publishing world at large and has somewhat remained an outsider industry, often seen to cater for niche markets. In this article I argue that traditional book publishers venturing into digital publishing can learn from successes and failures in the history of audiobook innovations. Basing the discussion in theories of cultural production and innovation, the article explores the interplay between technology and publishing strategy by way of analysing audiobook technologies from 1980 to 2012 in light of industry and technology developments in the book industry in general, with specific attention to the Norwegian audiobook market, where four case studies of publishers and service providers are analysed. The central issue in the article is how and to what extent the development of audiobook publishing technologies is indicative of technology development in the book industries in general.
On admission to rescue and rehoming centres dogs are faced with a variety of short- and long-term stressors including novelty, spatial/social restriction and increased noise levels. Animate and inanimate environmental enrichment techniques have been employed within the kennel environment in an attempt to minimise stress experienced by dogs. Previous studies have shown the potential physiological and psychological benefits of auditory stimulation, particularly classical music, within the kennel environment. This study determined the physiological/psychological changes that occur when kennelled dogs are exposed to long-term (7days) auditory stimulation in the form of classical music through assessment of effects on heart rate variability (HRV), salivary cortisol and behaviour. The study utilised a cross over design in which two groups were exposed to two consecutive 7day treatments; silence (control) and classical music (test). Group A was studied under silent conditions followed by 7days of test conditions during which a fixed classical music playlist was played from 10:00-16:30h. Group B received treatment in the reverse order. Results showed that auditory stimulation induced changes in HRV and behavioural data indicative of reduced stress levels in dogs in both groups (salivary cortisol data did not show any consistent patterns of change throughout the study). Specifically, there was a significant increase in HRV parameters such as μRR, STDRR, RMSSD, pNN50, RRTI, SD1 and SD2 and a significant decrease in μHR and LF/HF from the first day of silence (S1) to the first day of music (M1). Similarly, examination of behavioural data showed that dogs in both groups spent significantly more time sitting/lying and silent and less time standing and barking during auditory stimulation. General Regression Analysis (GRA) of the change in HRV parameters from S1 to M1 revealed that male dogs responded better to auditory stimulation relative to female. Interestingly, HRV and behavioural data collected on the seventh day of music (M2) was similar to that collected on S1 suggesting that the calming effects of music are lost within the 7days of exposure. A small '9-Day' study was conducted in attempt to determine the time-scale in which dogs become habituated to classical music and examination of the results suggests that this occurs within as soon as the second day of exposure. The results of this study show the potential of auditory stimulation as a highly effective environmental enrichment technique for kennelled dogs. However, the results also indicate the requirement for further investigations into the way in which auditory stimulation should be incorporated within the daily kennel management regime in order to harness the full physiological and psychological benefits of music.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Inc.
Several studies have demonstrated that auditory enrichment can reduce stereotypic behaviors in captive animals. The purpose of this study was to determine the relative effectiveness of three different types of auditory enrichment—naturalistic sounds, classical music, and rock music—in reducing stereotypic behavior displayed by Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Three gorillas (one adult male, two adult females) were observed at the Buffalo Zoo for a total of 24 hr per music trial. A control observation period, during which no sounds were presented, was also included. Each music trial consisted of a total of three weeks with a 1-week control period in between each music type. The results reveal a decrease in stereotypic behaviors from the control period to naturalistic sounds. The naturalistic sounds also affected patterns of several other behaviors including locomotion. In contrast, stereotypy increased in the presence of classical and rock music. These results suggest that auditory enrichment, which is not commonly used in zoos in a systematic way, can be easily utilized by keepers to help decrease stereotypic behavior, but the nature of the stimulus, as well as the differential responses of individual animals, need to be considered. Zoo Biol. XX:XX–XX, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
In the wild, animals are exposed to an ever-changing array of sensory stimuli. The captive environment, by contrast, is generally much more impoverished in terms of the sensory cues it offers the animals housed within. In a bid to remedy this, and promote better welfare, researchers have started to explore the merits of sensory stimulation (i.e. stimulation designed to trigger one or more of an animal's senses) as a potential method of environmental enrichment for captive animals. This paper reviews the research in this area, focusing specifically on auditory, olfactory and visual methods of sensory stimulation. Studies exploring the efficacy of each type of stimulation as an enrichment tool are described, where appropriate, making a distinction between those that occur in the animal's natural habitat, and those that do not. Overall, it is concluded that sensory stimulation harbours enrichment potential for some animals housed in institutional settings, although the specific merits gained from these enrichments are likely to depend upon a wide variety of factors including, for example, species, sex, age and housing conditions. Programmes of sensory enrichment that target the dominant sense for the species under scrutiny, using harmless, non-stressful stimuli, are likely to result in the greatest benefits for animal welfare. Stimuli specific to a species’ natural habitat should not always be considered meaningful, or advantageous, to an animal's welfare; in some cases stimuli that do not occur naturally in the wild (e.g. classical music) may offer more in the way of welfare advantages. Shortcomings in the research, and factors to consider when implementing enrichment of this nature, are discussed throughout.
Auditory stimulation has long been employed as a form of therapy for humans and animals housed in institutions. Its effect on one of our closest-living relatives, the gorilla, however, is largely unknown. This study explored the effect of auditory stimulation on the behaviour and welfare of six gorillas housed in Belfast Zoo. All animals were exposed to three conditions of auditory stimulation: a control (no auditory stimulation), an ecologically relevant condition (rainforest sounds) and an ecologically non-relevant condition (classical music). The gorillas’ behaviour was recorded in each condition using a scan-sampling technique. There was no significant effect of the auditory environment on the gorillas’ behaviour, although animals tended to show more behaviours suggestive of relaxation (i.e. resting, sitting) and fewer behaviours typically associated with stress (i.e. aggression, abnormal behaviour) during the ecologically relevant, and, in particular, the non-relevant, conditions than the control. Overall, findings suggest that certain types of auditory stimulation may hold some merit as a method of enrichment for zoo-housed gorillas, although more long-term work with a larger number of animals is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn.
Olfactory stimulation has been shown to influence the behaviour of a wide variety of species and is now considered a useful form of environmental enrichment for many captive animals. To date, the effect of odour introduction on the behaviour of primates has been subject to little attention. This study thus investigated the behaviour of six zoo-housed western lowland gorillas in response to five odours (no odour [control], orange, vanilla, almond, peppermint) introduced individually on cloths into the animals’ exhibit for a period of 5 days per stimulus. The gorillas’ behaviour was recorded in each condition using a scan-sampling technique. Analysis showed that the gorillas sniffed the odour-impregnated cloths slightly (although not significantly) more frequently than the control cloths. There was no significant effect of olfactory stimulation on the gorillas’ general behaviour (P>0.05 for all behaviours). Overall, findings suggest that olfactory stimulation in the form of odour-impregnated cloths has little effect on the behaviour of captive gorillas. This raises questions over the value of olfactory stimulation as a useful method of environmental enrichment for this species. Further research using different odours, methods of olfactory presentation, and larger numbers of animals is required, however, before firm conclusions regarding the value of olfactory stimulation for the great apes can be reached.
Noise levels (sound pressure levels, SPLs) were monitored over 24 and 48 h in a number of different types of kennels including shelters, training establishments and research laboratories. Two measures of SPL were used, Lpeak and Leq, over both low (1 Hz-20 kHz) and high (12.5–70 kHz) frequency ranges and using a linear weighting. At most sites the noise levels followed a diurnal pattern; levels were generally low and relatively constant overnight, increased gradually in the early morning and then fluctuated during the working day. Levels decreased in the evening at different times depending on the local regimes. In one facility near railway lines the diurnal pattern was less obvious. During the day Lpeak values regularly exceeded 100 dB and often reached 125 dB; Leq values were between 65 and 100 dB.The high noise levels were caused mainly by barking, but husbandry procedures such as cleaning also contributed to them. The noise levels recorded here may have welfare implications. If this is shown to be the case, it is not yet clear what are the best methods of reducing the levels. There is currently a lack of adequate guide lines for noise levels in dog kennels. The current work has highlighted an area of concern in dog husbandry that urgently needs to be addressed.
Domestic dogs can be housed in a variety of confined conditions, including kennels, shelters and laboratories. Concern over the well-being of dogs housed in human care has prompted much research in recent years into the enrichment of environments for kennelled dogs. This paper highlights the findings and recommendations arising from this work. Two types of general enrichment method are discussed, namely animate (i.e. enrichment through the provision of social contacts with conspecifics and humans) and inanimate (i.e. enrichment through the provision of toys, cage furniture, auditory and olfactory stimulation). The benefits and, where relevant, possible disadvantages, to these various types of enrichment method are highlighted throughout.
Because of very real practical constraints, conditions in animal shelters are often reminiscent of those in early primate deprivation studies. Dogs are frequently surrendered to shelters because of behavior problems, and aspects of the shelter environment may induce anomalous behavior, increasing the chances that adopted dogs will be returned to the shelters. Comparative psychologists, psychobiologists, and other behavioral scientists possess the knowledge and techniques to help shelters intervene in this cycle. Experience suggests human interaction and the application of basic conditioning procedures can reduce the impact of the shelter environment, and ease the transition into the adoptive home. A program developed to meet these goals is described. Shelters can provide opportunities both for the training of students in animal-related exercises and for limited applied research. Behavioral scientists stand in a unique position to help transform conditions in animal shelters to the benefit of all involved.
The effects of different spatial areas and different social conditions on behaviours of beagles maintained in a laboratory were evaluated. Eighteen female purpose-bred beagles were divided into six groups of three, and housed individually for 3 months each in six different housing conditions: (A) a 6.1 m × 9.1 m outdoor pen; (B) a 1.8 m × 6.1 m outdoor run; (C) a 1.2 m × 3.66 m indoor run; (D) a 0.9 m × 1.2 m × 0.84 m cage; (E) a 0.9 m × 1.2 m × 0.84 m cage with 30 min of forced treadmill exercise, 5 days week-1; (F) a 0.71 m × 0.86 m × 0.69 m cage. Behaviours of six dogs housed in pairs in Conditions A and C were also compared. Behaviours studied were movement, vocalisation, lying down, sleep, object manipulation, barrier manipulation, barrier jumping, fence running, agonistic and affiliative activities, and proximity. Behavioural effects were compared among housing conditions, order of rotation through each housing condition, and behavioural changes over time during each 3 month rotation. Dogs spent more time moving in pens and runs than in cages. Dogs housed in the greatest degree of social isolation spent the most time moving, exhibited the greatest number of bizarre movements, and vocalised the most. Dogs housed in the smallest cages spent more time grooming and in manipulation of enclosure barriers than those housed in any other conditions. Forced treadmill exercise did not significantly alter behaviours. When housed in pairs, dogs spent more time sleeping and showed a tendency to spend less time vocalising than when housed singly. The results indicate that spatial area and activity are not likely to be the most important factors to be considered when evaluating psychosocial well-being of dogs. In assessing the psychosocial well-being of dogs, social isolation may be as harmful or more harmful than spatial restriction.
In Italy the law forbids euthanizing shelter dogs unless they are severely ill or dangerous. This has created a problem: many dogs are housed for long periods of time in shelters. It is important to the welfare of these dogs for us to find methods to increase successful adoption rates. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different management factors such as the number of dogs in a pen, Temporary Adoption Programs (TAPs), and animal-owner-related characteristics on successful adoptions of kenneled dogs. The study included 763 dogs, 92 of whom were dogs showing behavioral problems. The age of the dogs upon arrival at the shelter was the most important determinant for length of stay, with younger dogs being adopted faster (Kruskal-Wallis, H = 150.27; df = 3; n = 733; p < 0.001). Dogs up to six months of age (n = 73) were adopted more quickly than older dogs (average length of stay: 1.4 vs. 6.4 months). The year of admittance was also significant since dogs who were admitted in a year in which more dogs were brought to the shelter spent more time in the shelter before being re-homed (Kruskal-Wallis, H = 96.18; df = 2; n = 733; p < 0.001). Dogs' gender had no effect on length of stay (Mann-Whitney, U = 64563; Z = 0.81; p = ns; n1 = 389; n2 = 344). Temporary Adoption Programs had a significant positive effect in reducing the return rate when the final adopter was the same person who had “temporarily” adopted the dog (Fisher exact test, p = 0.0063). Return rate was also associated with behavioral problems. Fearful dogs were returned more often than dogs with other problems (Fisher exact test, p = 0.029). It is concluded that, although young age is the most important factor leading to quick adoption, programs which include increased human interaction, and special training for dogs with behavioral problems, could aid in the successful re-homing of shelter dogs.
Accessible via Sci-Hub - https://sci-hub.hkvisa.net/10.2752/089279306785415556
This study explored the influence of five types of auditory stimulation (human conversation, classical music, heavy metal music, pop music, and a control) on the behaviour of 50 dogs housed in a rescue shelter. The dogs were exposed to each type of auditory stimulation for 4 h, with an intervening period of one day between conditions. The dogs' position in their kennels (front, back), their activity (moving, standing, sitting, resting, sleeping), and their vocalisation (barking, quiet, other) were recorded over 4 h at 10 min intervals during each condition of auditory stimulation. The dogs' activity and vocalisation were significantly related to auditory stimulation. Dogs spent more time resting and less time standing when classical music was played than when any of the other stimuli were played. Exposure to heavy metal music encouraged dogs to spend significantly more of their time barking than did other types of auditory stimulation. Classical music resulted in dogs spending significantly more of their time quiet than did other types of auditory stimulation. It is suggested that the welfare of sheltered dogs may be enhanced through exposure to appropriate forms of auditory stimulation. Classical music appears particularly beneficial, resulting in activities suggestive of relaxation and behaviours that are considered desirable by potential buyers. This form of music may also appeal to visitors, resulting in enhanced perceptions of the rescue shelter's environment and an increased desire to adopt a dog from such a source.
Dogs can be held temporarily or permanently in kennels for a number of reasons, not necessarily for their own benefit. Although restrictive environments have been associated with poor welfare, priorities for research and change cannot be understood unless the various aspects of the kennel environment are appreciated separately. This review critically evaluates the experimental research regarding the physical, social, sensory, occupational, nutritional and psychological aspects of the kennel environment and their effects on canine welfare, with a view to providing a consolidated report on our current state of knowledge on this subject. However, the lack of within-dog, single manipulations and a focus on quantitative measures affects the ability to make valid conclusions about the welfare benefits of several aspects, including social housing, kennel size and location. Despite these criticisms, the evidence for the positive benefits of group housing is strong. There is also considerable evidence for the benefits of positive human contact particularly on sociability and stress responses in other situations. Surprisingly few studies have looked at other forms of enrichment and even less have considered the potential for the kennel to be over-stimulating in an auditory, olfactory and visual sense. Such topics are suggested as priorities for further research, in addition to ways of minimising aggression in group housing and the effect of establishment of predictability on adjustment to kennelling.
This study explored the effect of auditory stimulation on the behavior and welfare of four zoo-housed, female Asian elephants (
Elephas maximus). All animals were exposed, in an ABA design, to two conditions of auditory stimulation: a 'control' (no auditory stimulation), and an 'experimental' condition, during which the animals were presented with a commercially-available CD of classical music. Each condition lasted for five days, with an interim period of two days between each condition (Study 1). The elephants' behavior was recorded every minute for four hours a day for the full five days of each condition using instantaneous scan-sampling. The procedure was repeated four months later (Study 2), for a shorter period of time (one day per condition, again using an ABA design) to assess whether the results are generalizable. Analysis of both studies revealed that the elephants spent significantly less of their time stereotyping during the experimental conditions than the control. None of the other behaviors recorded were influenced significantly by auditory stimulation. Overall, the findings from this study suggest that auditory stimulation, in the form of classical music, may be a useful method of reducing stereotypic behavior in zoo-housed Asian elephants, although more long-term work with a larger number of animals is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Music is an enjoyable leisure activity that also engages many emotional, cognitive, and motor processes in the brain. Here, we will first review previous literature on the emotional and cognitive effects of music listening in healthy persons and various clinical groups. Then we will present findings about the short- and long-term effects of music listening on the recovery of cognitive function in stroke patients and the underlying neural mechanisms of these music effects. First, our results indicate that listening to pleasant music can have a short-term facilitating effect on visual awareness in patients with visual neglect, which is associated with functional coupling between emotional and attentional brain regions. Second, daily music listening can improve auditory and verbal memory, focused attention, and mood as well as induce structural gray matter changes in the early poststroke stage. The psychological and neural mechanisms potentially underlying the rehabilitating effect of music after stroke are discussed.
The objective of the present research study was to understand what benefits the use of audiobooks (both school-books and books of various genres, recorded on digital media) could bring to preadolescents and adolescents with developmental dyslexia. Two groups, each consisting of 20 adolescents, were compared. The experimental group used the audiobooks, while the control group continued to use normal books. After 5 months of experimental training, the experimental group showed a significant improvement in reading accuracy, with reduced unease and emotional-behavioural disorders, as well as an improvement in school performance and a greater motivation and involvement in school activities.
137 undergraduate Le Moyne College students volunteered in a study on music and its effects on mood and memory. In a 2 x 3 between-subjects design, there were 2 lyric conditions (Happy and Sad Lyrics) and 3 music conditions (No Music, Happy Music, and Sad Music). Participants were asked to listen to instrumental music or mentally to create a melody as they read lyrics to themselves. The study tested cued-recall, self-reported mood state and psychological arousal. Analysis suggested that mood of participants was influenced by the music played, not the lyrics. Results also showed those exposed to No Music had the highest score on the recall test. Personal relevance to the lyrics was not correlated with memory.
Two groups of beagles, accustomed to spacious group housing, were subjected to social and spatial restriction and studied for manifestations of chronic stress with a time interval of 7 weeks between the groups. The change from outside group housing (the control period) to individual housing in small indoor kennels resulted in sustained decreases in urinary adrenaline/creatinine and noradrenaline/creatinine ratios for the total group. Urinary dopamine/creatinine and noradrenaline/adrenaline ratios were statistically unaffected. Socially and spatially restricted dogs that had experienced pleasant weather during the control period showed (a) increased salivary and urinary cortisol concentrations, (b) a diminished responsiveness of the pituitary-adrenal axis to a sudden sound blast or exogenous CRH, (c) intact plasma ACTH and cortisol suppressions after dexamethasone administration, and (d) increased concanavalin A induced lymphocyte proliferations. When social and spatial restriction was preceded by a control period during which the weather was bad, these physiological responses were either augmented (lymphocyte proliferation), or offset (salivary and urinary cortisol), or directed oppositely (CRH-induced ACTH and cortisol responses). Together with the previously presented behavioral observations, these data suggest that bad weather conditions during spacious outdoor group housing induced early stress that attenuated the negative appraisal of the subsequent period of social and spatial restriction. In comparison to male dogs, bitches showed increased HPA responses to a sound blast or exogenous CRH. Their increased attenuations of the ACTH and cortisol responses to CRH after 5 weeks of restricted housing indicates that bitches are not only more susceptible to acute stress, but also to chronic housing stress. It is concluded that the quality of circumstances preceding a period of affected well-being determines the magnitude and even the direction of the behavioral and physiological stress responses. Basal salivary and urinary cortisol measurements are useful for the assessment of chronic stress, and of poor welfare in dogs. The use of urinary catecholamine, peripheral leucocyte, and lymphocyte proliferation measures requires further investigation.
This study examined the prevalence of behaviour problems exhibited by dogs within 4 weeks of acquisition from a rescue shelter in Northern Ireland. One thousand five hundred and forty-seven people who had purchased a dog from a rescue shelter in Northern Ireland were sent a postal questionnaire designed to collect information on the behaviours exhibited by their dog within the first month of acquisition. Five hundred and fifty-six people responded to the survey, representing a response rate of 37%. The majority of respondents (68.3%) reported that their dog exhibited a behaviour problem, the most common being fearfulness. Most of those respondents (89.7%) who returned their dog to the shelter did so because the animal exhibited behaviour that they considered undesirable. Male dogs showed more unacceptable behaviours than females, specifically inter-male aggression, sexual problems and straying tendencies. More stray dogs displayed undesirable behaviour than unwanteds, specifically straying tendencies. Puppies were less likely to exhibit unacceptable behaviours than juveniles or adults, particularly fearfulness, sexual problems and straying tendencies. More juvenile dogs showed excessive activity and excessive barking than puppies or adults. More adult dogs displayed aggression towards other dogs than juveniles or puppies. Findings indicate that dogs purchased from rescue shelters do exhibit behaviour problems that may lead to their return. The number of dogs admitted or returned to rescue shelters with behaviour problems may be reduced by raising public awareness regarding the value of behaviour therapy and introducing behaviour therapy schemes to rescue shelters.
Behaviour and urinary cortisol/creatinine ratios (C/C) were monitored in twenty-six dogs, on days 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 10 following their admission to a rehoming kennel. Half had been relinquished from homes, and half were either strays or returns to the shelter. Drinking and grooming increased with time, while panting and paw-lifting decreased, but only drinking was linked with C/C; dogs observed drinking on the first day had significantly lower C/C than dogs not observed drinking. Mean molar C/C (40 x 10(-6)+/-16 x 10(-6)) tended to decrease with time in the strays and returns, and to increase in dogs relinquished from homes, although C/C on the first day was highly variable and not distinguishable between these two groups. This implies that these populations differed in their long-term, but possibly not their short-term, responses to kennelling. Dogs with rising C/C were more active on average than those with falling C/C, but the opposite trend was detected when making comparisons within-dog. The relationship between C/C and exercise is therefore complex and warrants further investigation before C/C can be considered as a reliable indicator of welfare in this species.
Through a dog's ear: using sound to improve the health and behavior of your canine companion
- J Leeds
- S Wagner
Leeds, J., Wagner, S., 2008. Through a dog's ear: using sound to improve the health
and behavior of your canine companion. Sounds True, Boulder, CO.
Early experience and the development of behaviour
- J Serpell
- J A Jagoe
Serpell, J., Jagoe, J.A., 1995. Early experience and the development of behaviour. In:
Serpell, J.A. (Ed.), The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions
with People. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 79-102.
The Best of The Chronicles of Narnia
- Good Reads
Good Reads, 2015. The Best of The Chronicles of Narnia., Available from: http://
www.goodreads.com/list/show/2236.The Best of the Chronicles of Narnia
(accessed on 18/05/15).
Soothing the savage beast: The effect of auditory enrichment on domestic cats
- G Stephens
- V T Montrose
Stephens, G., Montrose, V.T., 2014. Soothing the savage beast: The effect of
auditory enrichment on domestic cats. Shape Enrichment 23 (1-2), 9.