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Toxic chemicals contained in plastic resin pellets in the marine environment-spatial difference in pollutant concentrations and the effects of resin type
... This happens because pH and dissolved organic matter affect the basic properties of chemicals (contaminants) such as pKa and hydrophilicity. Similarly, small particle size and low density of microplastics promote the sorption of contaminants and vice-versa (Mato et al. 2001(Mato et al. , 2002Teuten et al. 2007;Liu et al. 2018a;Li et al. 2019). ...
... Similarly, the surface polarity of microplastics is another property that has an influence. The strength of interaction of the contaminants with the microplastics can be determined by the surface polarity of the microplastics, such as hydrophobic organic contaminants adhere more to the non-polar surfaces and vice-versa (Mato et al. 2002;Fred-Ahmadu et al. 2020). Further, the high surface area and small size can also enhance the adsorption capacity owing to more availability of active sites for adsorption . ...
... Higher diffusion coefficient results in more sorption and vice-versa. It has been demonstrated in a study that pollutants have low diffusion coefficients in high-density polyethylene while high diffusion coefficient in low-density polyethylene, resulting in higher sorption of contaminants over low-density polyethylene compared to high-density polyethylene (Mato et al. 2001(Mato et al. , 2002Teuten et al. 2007;Karapanagioti & Klontza 2008;Fries & Zarfl 2012;Lee et al. 2018). This is so because high-density polyethylene has minimal branching compared to low-density polyethylene making it more rigid and less permeable leading to low diffusion of contaminants (Saleem et al. 1989). ...
Microplastics are one of the emerging contaminants that have received attention in recent decades due to their adverse effects on human health and the environment. Though microplastics are primarily found in abundance in oceans, freshwater sources and drinking water are not unaffected. Nevertheless, it is not only the microplastics that are harmful; rather their ability to transport contaminants is another serious issue of concern. The contaminant transport ability is affected by various environmental and physico-chemical parameters of microplastics. Lack of effective and targeted water treatment technologies have led intake of microplastics by humans resulting in a variety of health issues. Even though a few regulatory attempts have been made in the direction of curtailing the production and use of microplastics, there is still a long way to go. This paper focuses on various aspects of microplastics’ presence in drinking water, focusing on their contaminant transport ability, human health risks, removal technologies, and the global scenario of concern. HIGHLIGHTS
Global production of plastics has increased from 1.5 million tons in 1950 to 359 million tons in 2018.;
Microplastics act as the carrier of a variety of organic/inorganic contaminants and pathogens in drinking water.;
Contaminant transport ability is influenced by environmental and physico-chemical properties of microplastics.;
Microplastics in drinking water might trigger a variety of adverse health impacts.;
... This indicated that the source of the PCBs was ambient seawater and that adsorption to the pellet surfaces was the mechanism of enrichment. In another adsorption experiment, Mato et al. (2002) subjected polyethylene and polypropylene pellets to seawater for two weeks and found that polyethylene pellets adsorbed four times more PCBs than polypropylene pellets, indicating that polyethylene has higher affinity for hydrophobic compounds. This is consistent with field observation and experimental work described later and literature (e.g. ...
... (b) Additive-derived chemicals Plastics additives have also been measured on marine plastic debris. Nonylphenol, which forms from TNP degradation ( §2), and is also present as an impurity in TNP ( Gilbert et al. 1986), was detected in plastic resin pellets collected from 12 Japanese coasts and 7 Malaysian coasts ( Mato et al. 2002). Nonylphenol concentrations ranged from 18 to 17 000 ng g-1 . ...
... Polypropylene pellets tended to have higher amounts of NP than polyethylene pellets ( Mato et al. 2002), which is consistent with a higher prevalence of additives in polypropylene pellets. ...
Plastics debris in the marine environment, including resin pellets, fragments and microscopic plastic fragments, contain organic contaminants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides (2,2'-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane, hexachlorinated hexanes), polybrominated diphenylethers, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, at concentrations from sub ng g(-1) to microg g(-1). Some of these compounds are added during plastics manufacture, while others adsorb from the surrounding seawater. Concentrations of hydrophobic contaminants adsorbed on plastics showed distinct spatial variations reflecting global pollution patterns. Model calculations and experimental observations consistently show that polyethylene accumulates more organic contaminants than other plastics such as polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride. Both a mathematical model using equilibrium partitioning and experimental data have demonstrated the transfer of contaminants from plastic to organisms. A feeding experiment indicated that PCBs could transfer from contaminated plastics to streaked shearwater chicks. Plasticizers, other plastics additives and constitutional monomers also present potential threats in terrestrial environments because they can leach from waste disposal sites into groundwater and/or surface waters. Leaching and degradation of plasticizers and polymers are complex phenomena dependent on environmental conditions in the landfill and the chemical properties of each additive. Bisphenol A concentrations in leachates from municipal waste disposal sites in tropical Asia ranged from sub microg l(-1) to mg l(-1) and were correlated with the level of economic development.
... Resin pellets in the ocean contain hydrophobic toxicants such as PCBs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and DDTs Gregory, 1978;Kaminuma et al., 2000;Mato et al., 2001Mato et al., , 2002. PCBs were used for industrial purposes (e.g., dielectric fluid in transformers) and DDT was used as an agricultural insecticide mainly in the 1960s. ...
... However, a larger number of locations should be studied in order to reveal the regional variations in contaminant concentrations in resin pellets and their relationship with pollution levels in surrounding environments. Mato et al. (2002) proposed that resin pellets might be useful indica-tors of seawater pollution, if the relationship between contaminant concentrations in marine resin pellets and those in seawater were established. Thus, both to evaluate the ecotoxicological risk of marine resin pellets and to examine the utility of marine resin pellets as monitoring indicators, we studied the regional variability in PCB concentrations in plastic resin pellets stranded on 47 beaches in Japan. ...
... The concentrations of PCBs in the individually analyzed resin pellets were determined according to Mato et al. (2002) with minor modifications as shown below. PE and PP resin pellets were extracted by Soxhlet extraction with dichloromethane (DCM) for 24 h. ...
Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in beached resin pellets were examined to reveal variability between individual particles and differences among beaches. Fifty-five resin pellets from a beach in Tokyo were individually analyzed for PCBs, and showed concentrations ranging from <28 to 2,300 ng/g. This indicates that concentrations are highly variable between particles. Among several characters, discoloration (e.g., yellowing) had a positive relationship with PCB concentration: discolored pellets contained more PCBs than others on most of the beaches sampled. Given the color-selective ingestion of food by some organisms, this may be ecotoxicologically important. Measurements of samples from 47 beaches in Japan showed regional differences in PCB concentrations in resin pellets consistent with those in mussels. Sporadic high concentrations of PCBs were also found in pellets from remote islands, suggesting that resin pellets could be the dominant route of exposure to the contaminants at remote sites. The similarity of PCB concentrations between resin pellets and mussels suggests a potential use of resin pellets to monitor pollution in seawater.
... Concentrations of nonylphenols (NP) and octylphenols (OP) found in PE and PP particles collected from 18 beaches in Japan and Malaysia and four Japanese coasts (Mato et al., 2001(Mato et al., , 2002 varied among the sampling sites. Other studies showed large piece-to-piece variation in the concentrations of residual additives as well. ...
... On the other hand, many potential additives have been detected in polymers where they are not expected to be used, e.g. according to Tables 1a and 1b, raising questions about the extent of sorption, or alternatively a more widespread use of high concentrations of additives than assumed: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) detected in PE and PP (Hirai et al., 2011), are not normally used in products made of these polymers, but are more typical of PUR, PVC and EPS. Similarly, nonylphenols and octylphenols incidentally found in PE and PP particles (Mato et al., 2001(Mato et al., , 2002Hirai et al., 2011), typically occur as unreacted constituents in PVC and PC. Surprisingly, Fries et al. (2013) and Rani et al. (2015) identified several phthalates in PE, PP, PS, PET, PC, and polyamide particles, although they are mainly used as plasticizers in PVC. ...
This review summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding the risk assessment of plastic-associated residual additives, i.e. residual monomers, degradation products and additives, in the marine environment, also considering effects of weathering and bioavailability. Experimental studies have found a number of organic and metal additive compounds in leachates from plastics, and the analysis of weathered plastic particles, such as polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene particles sampled on beaches and shorelines, has identified residual additives, such as flame retardants, plasticizers, UV stabilizers and antioxidants. While the transfer of e.g. PBDEs to organisms upon ingestion has been demonstrated, studies on uptake and bioaccumulation of plastic-associated chemicals are inconclusive. Studies on hazard and risk assessments are few, and focus on monomers and/or a limited number of high concentration additives, such as phthalates and flame retardants. The risk assessment results vary between low, moderate and high risks of specific additives, and are not necessarily consistent for the same compound. Given the large number of chemicals potentially introduced into the marine environment with plastic particles and the challenges associated with the correct quantification of exposure concentrations and toxicity thresholds, the question arises whether new risk assessment concepts may be needed.
... This variability is consistent with previous studies (Frias et al., 2010;Antunes et al., 2013;Zhang et al., 2015;Chen et al., 2018). The large concentration variations may be attributed to several factors: polymer type (Mato et al., 2002), slow sorption time of hydrophobic organic pollutants (Mato et al., 2002), different adjacent environments (Zhang et al., 2015), and different residence times of the nurdles in the environment (Endo et al., 2005). ...
... This variability is consistent with previous studies (Frias et al., 2010;Antunes et al., 2013;Zhang et al., 2015;Chen et al., 2018). The large concentration variations may be attributed to several factors: polymer type (Mato et al., 2002), slow sorption time of hydrophobic organic pollutants (Mato et al., 2002), different adjacent environments (Zhang et al., 2015), and different residence times of the nurdles in the environment (Endo et al., 2005). ...
Nurdles, the pre-production plastic pellets, are a major source of plastic pollution in marine environments due to unregulated spills during production and transportation. We analyzed the types of plastics and associated organic pollutants on nurdles collected along the shoreline of Gulf of Mexico in Texas. Our results showed that the nurdles were made from polyethylene (81.9%) and polypropylene (18.1%). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, 16 US EPA priority) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs, 7 commercial congeners) sorbed to the nurdles were in concentration ranges of 1.6–14,700 ng/ g and 0–642 ng/ g, respectively. Heavily weathered nurdles tended to have higher concentrations of PAHs and PCBs than lightly weathered ones. The bioaccessibility of sorbed contaminants was evaluated using a simulated intestinal fluid. The results showed that the associated PAHs were more bioaccessible in lightly weathered nurdles (13.1 ± 2.3%) than heavily weathered one (5.3 ± 0.1%), and that no PCBs were bioaccessible. These findings are informative for toxicity evaluation and resource management of plastic debris in coastal environments.
... Therefore it could be hard to confirm these effects by field data, but it does not imply that plastics do not have deleterious effects on marine life ( Koelmans et al., 2016). Further studies are thus required because plastic can accumulate HOCs from air or aquatic environments ( Mato et al., 2002) and subsequently transport and transfer them to other compartments. The accumulation of every contaminant depends on the ratio of surface area to volume, the sorption capacity of each material, weathering, the exposure period and its concentration in the surrounding matrix ( Endo et al., 2005). ...
... The accumulation of every contaminant depends on the ratio of surface area to volume, the sorption capacity of each material, weathering, the exposure period and its concentration in the surrounding matrix ( Endo et al., 2005). In fact, HOCs have a higher affinity for polyethylene than PP ( Mato et al., 2002;Karapanagioti and Klontza, 2008), whilst PE, PP and PVC have a greater affinity for these compounds than for natural sediments tested by Teuten et al. (2007). Weathered PE and PP showed higher partition ratios for phenanthrene than unweath- ered polymers (Karapanagioti and Klontza, 2008). ...
Plastic polymers act as passive samplers in air system and concentrate hydrophobic organic contaminants by sorption or specific interactions, which can be transported to other systems such as the marine environment. In this study plastic debris was sampled in the surrounding area of a Mediterranean lagoon in order to determine the concentration of persistent and emerging organic contaminants. More specifically, desorption of 91 regulated and emerging organic contaminants (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, organochlorinated pesticides, current-use pesticides, personal care products, other pesticides and plastic additives) was characterized for the first 24 h from different polymers to seawater and the remaining content of these contaminants was also extracted by ultrasonic extraction with methanol. All samples were analyzed by Stir Bar Sorptive Extraction coupled to GC/MS. A significant fraction of sorbed contaminants in polymers was desorbed in the first 24 h, particularly for triazines and organophosphorus pesticides due to their lower hydrophobicity than other considered analytes. The remaining contaminants contained in plastics can be also transferred to seawater, sediments or biota. Considering 24 h desorbed fraction plus the remaining methanol extracted fraction, the highest transfer levels corresponded to personal care products, plastic additives, current-use pesticides and PAHs. This is the first study to show the relevance of the transport of organic contaminants on plastic debris from littoral areas to the marine environment.
... In microplastics, the adsorption of pollutants has been experimentally demonstrated from virgin plastic pellets in seawater, which implies that plastics constitute both a transport medium and a potential source of toxic chemicals in the marine environment [22,58,59]. The mechanisms of concentration of these chemicals is a complex issue depending of multiple variables including hydrophobicity of the pollutant, type of polymer, age of the plastic, water, temperature, pressure, presence of biofouling on the plastic surface, and salinity. ...
... Teuten et al.[22] tested the sorption uptake and desorption kinetics of HOCs in different polymers in laboratory conditions, showing that glassy polymers such as PVC exhibit larger sorption capacities and slower HOC release rates than rubbery polymers such as high-density polyethylene. Mato et al.[59] showed that polyethylene has higher affinity than polypropylene for HOCs.21 This finding suggests a new non-invasive method, which is to use the PAEs found in plankton as tracers of the exposure/ingestion in cetaceans or other endangered species. ...
Persistent plastics, with an estimated lifetime for degradation of hundreds of years in marine conditions, can break up into micro- and nanoplastics over shorter timescales, thus facilitating their uptake by marine biota throughout the food chain. These polymers may contain chemical additives and contaminants, including some known endocrine disruptors that may be harmful at extremely low concentrations for marine biota, thus posing potential risks to marine ecosystems, biodiversity and food availability. Although there is still need to carry out focused scientific research to fill the knowledge gaps about the impacts of plastic litter in the marine environment (Wagner et al. in Environ Sci Eur 26:9, 2014), the food chain and human health, existing scientific evidence and concerns are already sufficient to support actions by the scientific, industry, policy and civil society communities to curb the ongoing flow of plastics and the toxic chemicals they contain into the marine environment. Without immediate strong preventive measures, the environmental impacts and the economic costs are set only to become worse, even in the short term. Continued increases in plastic production and consumption, combined with wasteful uses, inefficient waste collection infrastructures and insufficient waste management facilities, especially in developing countries, mean that even achieving already established objectives for reductions in marine litter remains a huge challenge, and one unlikely to be met without a fundamental rethink of the ways in which we consume plastics. This document was prepared by a working group of Regional Centres of the Stockholm and Basel Conventions and related colleagues intended to be a background document for discussion in the 2017 Conference of the Parties (COP) of the Basel Convention on hazardous wastes and the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The COP finally approved that the issue of plastic waste could be dealt by its Regional Centres and consistently report their activities on the matter to next COP’s meetings.
... Therefore it could be hard to confirm these effects by field data, but it does not imply that plastics do not have deleterious effects on marine life (Koelmans et al., 2016). Further studies are thus required because plastic can accumulate HOCs from air or aquatic environments (Mato et al., 2002) and subsequently transport and transfer them to other compartments. The accumulation of every contaminant depends on the ratio of surface area to volume, the sorption capacity of each material, weathering, the exposure period and its concentration in the surrounding matrix (Endo et al., 2005). ...
... The accumulation of every contaminant depends on the ratio of surface area to volume, the sorption capacity of each material, weathering, the exposure period and its concentration in the surrounding matrix (Endo et al., 2005). In fact, HOCs have a higher affinity for polyethylene than PP (Mato et al., 2002;Karapanagioti and Klontza, 2008), whilst PE, PP and PVC have a greater affinity for these compounds than for natural sediments tested by Teuten et al. (2007). Weathered PE and PP showed higher partition ratios for phenanthrene than unweathered polymers (Karapanagioti and Klontza, 2008). ...
... The average ranking for each type of plastic across the different studies was then calculated and reported alongside their glass transition temperatures (T g ). In general, rubbery polymers, such as PE and PP, are expected to allow greater diffusion of contaminants into the polymer than glassy polymers such as 17,20,62,160,172,177,180,183,216,217,218 PET and PVC. 17 At room temperature, rubbery polymers exist above their T g , which results in greater flexibility and facilitates contaminant sorption. 17 Indeed, the rubbery polymer PE commonly shows a greater affinity for contaminants than other types of plastics (i.e., in Figure 4b, PE most often receives a score of 1). ...
... 17 Indeed, the rubbery polymer PE commonly shows a greater affinity for contaminants than other types of plastics (i.e., in Figure 4b, PE most often receives a score of 1). 4,17,20,177,183 Conversely, PET and PVC generally exhibit lower sorption capacities (i.e., they receive higher scores of 4 or 5). 20,63 However, this generalization does not hold for all types of plastics (Figure 4b). ...
Plastic litter is widely acknowledged as a global environmental threat and poor management and disposal lead to increasing levels in the environment. Of recent concern is the degradation of plastics from macro- to micro- and even to nanosized particles smaller than 100 nm in size. At the nanoscale, plastics are difficult to detect and can be transported in air, soil and water compartments. While the impact of plastic debris on marine and fresh waters and organisms has been studied, the loads, transformations, transport, and fate of plastics in terrestrial and subsurface environments are largely overlooked. In this review, we first present estimated loads of plastics in different environmental compartments. We also provide a critical review of the current knowledge vis-à-vis nanoplastic (NP) and microplastic (MP) aggregation, deposition, and contaminant co-transport in the environment. Important factors that affect aggregation and deposition in natural subsurface environments are identified and critically analyzed. Factors affecting contaminant sorption onto plastic debris are discussed, and we show how polyethylene generally exhibits a greater sorption capacity than other plastic types. Finally, we highlight key knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to improve our ability to predict the risks associated with these ubiquitous contaminants in the environment by understanding their mobility, aggregation behavior and their potential to enhance the transport of other pollutants.
... The toxicity caused by the pellets found in the coastal environment, in turn, could be related to the hydrophobic pollutants sorbed on them, and to their bioavailability (capacity of desorption and assimilation by the organisms). In intensely urbanized and industrialized areas, the many sources of pollutants facilitate their presence in the water column (Karapanagioti et al., 2011;Mato et al., 2002), and the non-polarity of plastic pellets makes them efficient carriers of these substances . In fact, high concentrations of organic pollutants have been recorded in pellets collected on beaches (e.g., Mato et al., 2002;Endo et al., 2005;Fisner et al., 2013a,b) and evidence shows that some of these pollutants are preferentially sorbed onto plastic fragments rather than onto sediment (Teuten et al., 2007). ...
... In intensely urbanized and industrialized areas, the many sources of pollutants facilitate their presence in the water column (Karapanagioti et al., 2011;Mato et al., 2002), and the non-polarity of plastic pellets makes them efficient carriers of these substances . In fact, high concentrations of organic pollutants have been recorded in pellets collected on beaches (e.g., Mato et al., 2002;Endo et al., 2005;Fisner et al., 2013a,b) and evidence shows that some of these pollutants are preferentially sorbed onto plastic fragments rather than onto sediment (Teuten et al., 2007). However, the distribution of organic compounds within (Karapanagioti and Klontza, 2008) and among (Endo et al., 2005;Fisner et al., 2013a,b) pellets is not well clarified, and this distribution could be related to the significant differences found between the assays. ...
... There is also an increased concern regarding persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic chemicals (PBTC), such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and pesticides adsorbed onto plastics which then become vectors for these highly toxic pollutants (Mato et al., 2002;Endo et al., 2005;Rios et al., 2007;Hirai et al., 2011), and therefore bioaccumulation in fatty tissues may occur (Ritter and Solomon, 1995), posing a long term risk to the environment. ...
... Contamination of resin pellets collected from Japanese coasts was already reported by Mato et al. (2002) and Takada et al., 2005, an assessment which was later extended to several places in the world to become a global project e the International Pellet Watch (IPW) (Ogata et al., 2009). ...
... For example, in an in situ adsorption experiment, PE was found to have a higher affinity for PCBs than PP. 130 All MPs identied in the present study, with the exception of one polyamide/nylon piece, were less dense than sea water and were able to oat on the water surface and transported over long distances. Thus, they can be exposed to POPs from other areas before they reach the studied beaches and therefore they can reect the pollution along the entire transport path. ...
Microplastics (MPs) are emerging pollutants of global concern due to their pervasiveness, high sorption ability for persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and direct and indirect toxicity to marine organisms, ecosystems, as well as humans. As one of the major coastal interfaces, beaches are considered among the most affected ecosystems by MPs pollution. The morphological characteristics of MPs (pellets and fragments) collected from four beaches along the Tunisian coast and sorbed POPs, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), were investigated in this study. The results showed that the MPs varied greatly in color, polymer composition and degradation degree. The color varied from colored to transparent and the most prevalent polymer identified using Raman Spectroscopy was polyethylene. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images exhibited various surface degradation features including cavities, cracks, attached diatom remains, etc. The concentrations of Σ12PCBs over all beaches ranged from 14 to 632 ng g-1 and 26 to 112 ng g-1 in the pellets and fragments, respectively, with notable presence and dominance of highly-chlorinated PCBs such as CB-153 and -138. Among the OCPs, γ-HCH is the only compound detected with concentrations ranged from 0.4 to 9.7 ng g-1 and 0.7 to 4.2 ng g-1 in the pellets and fragments, respectively. Our findings indicate that MPs found on Tunisian coast may pose a chemical risk to marine organisms as the concentrations of PCBs and γ-HCH in most of the analysed samples exceeded the sediment-quality guidelines (SQG), especially the effects range medium (ERM) and the probable effects level (PEL). As the first report of its kind, the information gathered in this study can serve as the baseline and starting point for future monitoring work for Tunisia and neighbouring countries, as well as for stakeholders and coastal managers in decision-making processes.
... POPs are well known compounds that are toxic to humans and wildlife, present low degradation rates, are lipophilic, biomagnify through the food chain, and are able to travel long distances far from releasing and/or use source. POPs could equilibrate their concentration between plastic fragments and surrounding waters by means of adsorption processes which is highly dependent on exposure time and plastic surface composition (Mato et al., 2002;Hirai et al., 2011;Le et al., 2016;Pozo et al., 2020;Gómez et al., 2015Gómez et al., , 2020. The occurrence of hazardous chemicals, such as POPs like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and marine plastic resin pellets have been documented since the 1970's (Carpenter et al., 1972). ...
We report the occurrence of plastics and associated persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in surface waters from Northern Chilean Patagonia. A total of 200 particles were found during the conducted survey. The highest number of particles found was 0.6 item m − 3. We found that 53 % of the collected particles corresponded to plastic, with an average of 0.19 ± 0.18 item m − 3. Microplastics (68 %) were the dominant size found in the area, followed by macroplastics (18 %) and mesoplastics (14 %). Most plastic particles were white (55 %) while others were <10 % each. Black and light blue represented 9 %; red, dark blue, and other colors 7 %; and green 6 %. Fragments were the most frequent shape of plastic debris (38 %), followed by Styrofoam (30 %) and fiber (27 %). Higher PBDE levels were found in the central zone, and those were higher than DDT, PeCB, HCB, and PCB levels. This study is the first report on POP occurrence in marine plastic debris from Chiloé Sea in the Northern Chilean Patagonia.
... These time scales agree to earlier findings, [84][85][86] and also illustrate that the short equilibration times in earlier gut fluid studies may have been too short, leading to overestimation of desorption rate constants. ...
... However, their residues in soil, sediments and now also those found in MPs, continue to be a risk to ecosystems due to their high persistence in the environment. In addition, it has been found that PE can adsorb four times more PCBs than PP [72], and that both PE and PP adsorb more PCBs compared to polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and PVC [73]. Examples of the amount and distribution of PCBs found in MPs can be found in Fig. 1, which represents the distribution of different types of PCBs in plastic pellets found in a study on the Portuguese coast (both in remote and urban areas), showing variations in the proportions of PCBs depending on the location. ...
Nowadays, one of the greatest concerns regarding environmental pollution is the presence of plastics in every environmental compartment (water, soil and air), in particular, microplastics (sizes between 1 μm and 5 mm -the most accepted definition-). Their persistence, wide distribution and constant accumulation in the environment are the main causes of their current classification as contaminants. Apart from the known effects that they may have on organisms (which clearly depend on their size) and their tendency to leach some of their components, especially additives, an important concern has also arisen in the last years as a result of their capability of retaining onto their surface organic contaminants of a wide nature. In this regard, it is worth highlighting the adsorption of persistent organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, or organochlorine pesticides, among others. This review article pretends to provide a critical, updated, and general vision of the current analytical methods that have been developed so far (period covered between 2001 and 2020) for the analysis of organic contaminants present in microplastics found in the environment, including their occurrence. The analysis of the published literature clearly indicates that most of the methods applied up to now are relatively complex and that their analysis is also nowadays a challenge, as a result of the wide variability in the composition, sizes, and shapes of microplastics.
... This process strongly depends on the hydrophobic properties of the sorbate chemical, the properties of the solid phase and the surface to volume ratio of the solid (Endo and Koelmans, 2016). Surface polarity of microplastics determine how strongly an organic contaminant interacts; hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs) preferably adhere to non-polar surfaces (Mato et al., 2002). Usually, the resulting partition coefficient (K pw ) between water and plastic is related to the octanol-water partition ratios (K ow ) (O' Connor et al., 2016). ...
Scientific evidences abound of the occurrence of plastic pollution, from mega- to nano-sized plastics, in virtually all matrixes of the environment. Apart from the direct effects of plastics and microplastics pollution such as entanglement, inflammation of cells and gut blockage due to ingestion, plastics are also able to act as vectors of various chemical contaminants in the aquatic environment. This paper provides a review of the association of plastic additives with environmental microplastics, how the structure and composition of polymers influence sorption capacities and highlights some of the models that have been employed to interpret experimental data from recent sorption studies. The factors that influence the sorption of chemical contaminants such as the degree of crystallinity, surface weathering, and chemical properties of contaminants. and the implications of chemical sorption by plastics for the marine food web and human health are also discussed. It was however observed that most studies relied on pristine or artificially aged plastics rather than field plastic samples for studies on chemical sorption by plastics.
... Σ13 PCBs (Fig. 2a) and lower PBDEs (Fig. 2b) had similar distributions, with the tendency of PE-LMP to exhibit higher concentrations than PP-LMP. This pattern is consistent with previous literatures (Endo et al., 2005;Karapanagioti and Klontza, 2008;Mato et al., 2002;Teuten et al., 2007). Since PCBs and lower PBDEs present in surrounding seawater are sorbed into the microplastics, the differences in concentrations between PE and PP can be explained by the differences in sorption capacities as follow. ...
PCBs and PBDEs in microplastics and zooplankton collected in surface water at 27 locations in the Pacific Ocean and around the coast of Japan were investigated. Both PCBs and PBDEs were observed in buoyant microplastics, even in smaller particles of 0.315-1 mm. Concentrations of Σ13 PCBs were 0.04-124 ng/g, and were higher in urban bay areas such as Tokyo Bay. Sporadic moderate to high concentrations of PBDEs were observed in both urban-offshore and rural-offshore locations, consisting mostly of higher-brominated congeners. From the latter, BDE 209 ranged from not detected to 2158 ng/g. The microplastic-to-zooplankton abundance ratio threshold was 0.6 for PCBs and 0.08 for PBDEs, above which exposure would be greater from microplastics than from zooplankton.
... variegatus and Nitocra sp.), the differences in the toxicity observed were dependent on the pellets' collection site. According to Mato et al. (2002) and Endo et al. (2005), pellets can be used as indicators of local marine pollution; thus, we expected to find higher toxicity among pellets collected on the beaches inside and close to the Santos Bay. This pattern was obtained in the tests with Nitocra sp., but not in the assay with L. variegatus embryos. ...
We evaluated the densities of plastic pellets on beaches along the coast of São Paulo State in Brazil in order to establish a relationship between their spatial distribution and their distance from the main source of pellets. We hypothesized that pellets would be concentrated close to their main source (in this case, the Port of Santos). We also tested whether beached pellets could induce toxicity in water and sediment samples, as well as whether pellet color, sample site (beach), and pellet density were correlated with toxicity. We observed a decreasing gradient of pellet density along the São Paulo coast, with higher densities detected within Santos Bay, which is close to the Port of Santos. Beached pellets induced water-based toxicity in the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus and the copepod Nitocra sp. at high densities but were not capable of producing toxicity at environmentally realistic densities.
... The most commonly used plastic types are polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and, as a consequence, they are the most abundant ones in marine litter (Iñiguez et al., 2017). However, their behaviour/fate is not the same because HOCs have higher affinity for PE than for PP (Mato et al., 2002;Karapanagioti and Klontza, 2008), and they are more prone to deposit on PE, PP and PVC than on natural sediments, as tested by Teuten et al. (2007). The accumulation of each contaminant on each plastic type depends on the surface-to-volume ratio, the sorption capacity of each material, the weathering of the MPs (e.g., weathered PE and PP showed higher partition ratios for phenanthrene than unweathered polymers, Karapanagioti and Klontza, 2008), the exposure period and the concentration of pollutant in the environmental compartment (Endo et al., 2005). ...
In this study the role of plastic debris as a pollution vector has been evaluated by determining the concentrations
of hydrophobic organic contaminants in polymers from three Western Mediterranean coastal areas as well as
their potential transfer to seawater. Plastic debris was sampled at three Iberian Peninsula Southeastern beaches,
each affected by different predominant anthropogenic activities (tourism, agriculture, urban activities, transport
and industry). Plastic debris was characterized by attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry.
The organic contaminants were extracted from plastics by ultrasonic extraction with methanol and
quantified by stir bar sorptive extraction coupled to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). In two
areas, the desorption of these contaminants from plastic debris to seawater during 24 h was also evaluated.
The contaminant groups considered in this study (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), personal care products
(PCPs), current use pesticides (CUPs), organochlorinated compounds (OCPs, including polychlorinated biphenyls
and organochlorinated pesticides) and plastic additives were found in polymers from the three areas.
The most abundant contaminants were plastic additives and PCPs, underlining the relevance of the leaching of
plastic components, and urban and tourism activities as typical pollution sources in the coastal areas. In general,
large piece-to-piece variability was found for all polymers and areas mainly as a consequence of their different origin, exposition time, use and surface-to-volume ratio. This fact difficulted the visualization of significant differences
between polymers or areas, but for CUPs, whose concentrations were significantly higher in Cape Cope
than in the other areas due to the influence of close agricultural activities. PCPs and CUPs were desorbed partially
in seawater for 24 h, particularly the most hydrophilic compounds such as triazines and other CUPs. However, a
significant fraction of other contaminants (mainly PAHs) was retained, which suggests they can be transported
far away from their origin.
... Apart from weathering, the polymer structure of microplastic is of particular importance because different polymer types may have different sorption rates towards HOCs. Mato et al. (2002) found that polyethylene (PE) may absorb four times more PCBs than polypropylene (PP) in a controlled laboratory experiment. Rochman et al. (2013) deployed five types of plastic pellets in the field at five locations in San Diego Bay and concluded that PE and PP consistently sorbed more PCBs and PAHs compared to PET and PVC. ...
The spatial distribution, composition and source of hydrophobic organic compounds (HOCs) including polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorinated pesticides (OCPs) of the sedimentary microplastics (0.25–5 mm) in Hong Kong were investigated. The concentration of ΣPAHs ranged between 70.8 and 1509 ng g⁻¹ with inter-site differences although the regional difference was insignificant, indicating localised pyrolytic and petrogenic input of PAHs. The concentration of ΣPCBs (13–1083 ng g⁻¹) varied with both study sites and regions with higher concentrations obtained in the western waters, possibly due to the input from Pearl River. Significantly higher concentrations of OCPs on eastern shores highlighted fishing and aquaculture activities in South China Sea a potential major source of OCPs. DDT and its metabolites (DDX, ranged from 1.96 to 626 ng g⁻¹) were the dominant forms of OCPs (45%–80%). Since most of the DDX existed as DDT, this suggested that there was a fresh input of DDT into the microplastics. As microplastics and HOCs cannot be removed effectively from the environment, reduction of potential ecotoxicological risks should rely on minimizing the use of plastics and HOCs.
... Since plastic materials can adsorb pollutants from seawater, thus functioning as artificial reservoirs of heavy metals that can be ingested by marine fauna (Ashton et al., 2010), polyethylene -the most prevalent polymer observed in our study-can adsorb and accumulate up to four times more pollutants (e.g., PCBs) than other polymers (Mato et al., 2002;Teuten et al., 2009). Also, polyethylene plastics in seawater undergo adsorption and desorption processes that can release hazardous molecules (e.g., endocrine disruptor compounds) (Kedzierski et al., 2018), which may alters gene expression and disrupt endocrine system function of marine fauna (Rochman et al., 2014). ...
Marine debris is widespread in oceans worldwide, including the most remote locations. Here, for the first time, we report macro-debris accumulation on beaches of Trindade Island, a remote island 1160 km from mainland Brazil. High debris density was recorded on windward, east-coast beaches, which are exposed to wind-driven currents. Small-sized plastic fragments were the most abundant debris. Polyethylene (67%), polypropylene (30%) and polyamide (3%) were the most prevalent polymeric materials identified by ATR-FTIR. Identified debris show that interaction with Trindade fauna, mainly with seabirds and endangered terrestrial crabs, exists and already has some impact. This study provides baseline information on Trindade macro-debris demonstrating that the island, located on the edge of the South Atlantic Gyre, acts as a sink for gyre debris, exposing the island fauna to the threats related to plastic contamination.
... The Santos bay, São Paulo, was the region that had more data due to the different studies being worked by even authors (Table 4). The level of industrialization in the region studied is related to the levels of chemicals adhered to the pellets (Endo et al., 2005;Heskett et al., 2012;Hirai et al., 2011;Hosoda et al., 2014;Karapanagioti et al., 2011;Mato et al., 2001Mato et al., , 2002Mizukawa et al., 2013;Yeo et al., 2015). The behavior of adsorption of chemicals to microplastics is related to the types of plastics, color and other physical and chemical properties (Endo et al., 2005). ...
... Polypropylene (microfibre) adsorbs PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), nonylphenols and DDE (Mato et al. 2001). Further, the polyethylene adsorbs four times more PCBs than polypropylene (Mato et al. 2002) in the sea water. Based on the environment, the sorption capacity differs, for example, sorption capacity of Phe (phenanthrene) for plastics is higher than for sediments, while desorption rates of Phe in seawater are lower, whereas sorption capacity for DDT was significantly higher in freshwater (Bakir et al. 2014). ...
Global studies of microplastic (MP) pollution confirm wastewater treatment plants serve as pathways for microplastics entering terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The behaviour, transport and fate of microplastics in wastewater effluents remain mostly unknown, rendering wastewater-derived microplastics as a contaminant of significant concern. We critically examine the literature to understand the sources and fate of microplastics in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and the implications of treated effluents admitted to soil and aquatic systems. The transport of chemical and biological contaminants is also discussed in detail, using fundamental principles of vector relationships. For the removal and reduction of microplastics, profound knowledge is required from source to solution. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the significance of microplastics as a vector of water-borne contaminants in WWTPs.
... Polyethylene, a type of polyolefin fibre whose chemical composition in part is the basis of some polyester fibres (e.g. polyethylene terephthalate), has been found to adsorb four times more PCBs than polypropylene 44 . Polypropylene has also been found to adsorb a range of metals in a marine environment; the concentrations of most of these metals did not saturate over a year period suggesting plastics in the oceans for long time periods accumulate greater concentrations of metals 9 . ...
Plastic waste is a distinctive indicator of the world-wide impact of anthropogenic activities. Both macro- and micro-plastics are found in the ocean, but as yet little is known about their ultimate fate and their impact on marine ecosystems. In this study we present the first evidence that microplastics are already becoming integrated into deep-water organisms. By examining organisms that live on the deep-sea floor we show that plastic microfibres are ingested and internalised by members of at least three major phyla with different feeding mechanisms. These results demonstrate that, despite its remote location, the deep sea and its fragile habitats are already being exposed to human waste to the extent that diverse organisms are ingesting microplastics.
... Plastics also called polymers are produced by the conversion of natural products or by the synthesis from primary chemicals generally coming from oil, natural gas, or coal [1]. The bioavailable fraction of plastic contaminant is its pool that might be absorbed by plants or soil organisms [2]. Plastic components are present in soil in various forms with different solubility and availability. ...
... Secondly, while an increase in the surface area due to fine cracks could enhance sorption, an increasing polarity by the reaction with oxygen could decrease affinity for hydrophobic compounds (Endo et al., 2005). Besides, weathered plastic debris can be thought to have had a long residence time in the marine environment and thus might have sorbed larger amounts, for the reach equilibrium time is expected to require months to years (Mato et al., 2002;Lohmann, 2011). Last but not least are the foulants attached to the plastic debris, including diatoms, hydroids, filamentous algae and tarry residues (Endo et al., 2005), due to additional sorbents for hydrophobic contaminants. ...
... As a result, the reactivity of the surface of aged styrofoam is enhanced. A similar effect (high concentration of contaminants) has been observed for aged, polyethylene pellets (Holmes et al. 2012;Mato et al. 2002;Karapanagioti and Klontza 2008). ...
The present paper falls within the trend of research into interactions between various pollutants emitted anthropogenically into the environment and focuses on mercury and styrofoam debris. The study covers part of the Southern Baltic's drainage area. Apart from styrofoam and beach sand, the research involved mosses, which are bioindicators of atmospheric metal pollution. The research has shown that mercury present in the environment becomes associated with styrofoam debris. The median for mercury concentrations in virgin styrofoam samples (0.23 ng g(-1) dry weight (d.w.)) and in beach sand samples (0.69 ng g(-1) d.w.) was an order of magnitude lower than in the styrofoam debris (5.20 ng g(-1) d.w.). The highest mercury content observed in styrofoam debris (3,863 ng g(-1) d.w.) exceeded the standards for bottom sediment and soil. The binding of mercury to styrofoam debris takes place in water, and presumably also through contact with the ground. A significant role in this process was played by biotic factors, such as the presence of biofilm and abiotic ones, such as solar radiation and the transformations of mercury forms related to it. As a result, mercury content in styrofoam debris underwent seasonal changes, peaking in summertime. Furthermore, the regional changes of mercury content in the studied debris seem to reflect the pollution levels of the environment.
... Among samples collected from a Japanese beach, PE pellets had higher concentrations of PCBs than PP pellets ( Endo et al., 2005), on account of the more hydrophobic nature of PE than PP. An in situ adsorption experiment demonstrated greater sorption of PCBs to PE pellets than PP pellets ( Mato et al., 2002). Laboratory adsorption experiments showed higher distribution coefficients of PAHs for PE than for PP ( Klontza, 2007, 2008;Teuten et al., 2007;Karapanagioti et al., 2010). ...
To understand the spatial variation in concentrations and compositions of organic micropollutants in marine plastic debris and their sources, we analyzed plastic fragments (∼10 mm) from the open ocean and from remote and urban beaches. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), alkylphenols and bisphenol A were detected in the fragments at concentrations from 1 to 10,000 ng/g. Concentrations showed large piece-to-piece variability. Hydrophobic organic compounds such as PCBs and PAHs were sorbed from seawater to the plastic fragments. PCBs are most probably derived from legacy pollution. PAHs showed a petrogenic signature, suggesting the sorption of PAHs from oil slicks. Nonylphenol, bisphenol A, and PBDEs came mainly from additives and were detected at high concentrations in some fragments both from remote and urban beaches and the open ocean.
... There is some variability in sorption among polymers, for example polyethylene (PE) pellets have higher affinity for PCBs than polypropylene (PP) (Endo et al., 2005). This is consistent with in situ and laboratory experiments (Mato et al., 2002;Karapanagioti and Klontza, 2008;Teuten et al., 2007). Also Endo et al. (2005) showed that yellowing pellets tended to have higher concentrations of PCBs. ...
Samples of polyethylene pellets were collected at 30 beaches from 17 countries and analyzed for organochlorine compounds. PCB concentrations in the pellets were highest on US coasts, followed by western Europe and Japan, and were lower in tropical Asia, southern Africa and Australia. This spatial pattern reflected regional differences in the usage of PCBs and was positively correlated with data from Mussel Watch, another monitoring approach. DDTs showed high concentrations on the US west coast and in Vietnam. In Vietnam, DDT was predominant over its metabolites (DDE and DDD), suggesting the principal source may be current usage of the pesticide for malaria control. High concentrations of pesticide HCHs were detected in the pellets from southern Africa, suggesting current usage of the pesticides in southern Africa. This study demonstrates the utility and feasibility of the International Pellet Watch approach to monitor POPs at a global scale.
... However, there are other factors, such as the absorption of pollutants through the ingestion of plastics which act as accumulators of organic pollutants in the marine environment (Mato et al., 2001;Bourne and Imber, 1982). Pollutants, such PCBs and DDE have an affinity to organic and plastic particles, in which they tend to be adsorbed (Mato et al., 2002;Endo et al., 2005;Rios et al., 2007). Studies on the transference of organic pollutants through the ingestion of plastics in seabirds are important to the understanding of this process. ...
The Procellariiformes are the birds most affected by plastic pollution. Plastic fragments and pellets were the most frequent items found in the digestive tract of eight species of Procellariiformes incidentally caught by longline fisheries as well as beached birds in Southern Brazil. Plastic objects were found in 62% of the petrels and 12% of the albatrosses. The Great shearwater, Manx shearwater, Cory's shearwater and Antarctic fulmar were found to have greater quantities and frequencies of occurrence of plastic. There was no significant difference in the number of plastics between the birds from longline fisheries and beached birds. No correlation was found between the number of prey and number of plastics in the digestive tract of the birds analyzed, but this does not discard the hypothesis that, in some cases, the presence of plastic in the digestive tract has a negative effect on the feeding efficiency of these birds.
Plastic pellets are granules of different polymers used in the manufacture of various plastic products. Plastic pellets can reach the environment due to losses after their manufacturing process, especially the transportation. Loading in harbour areas and transport by ships are the main sources of plastic pellets to the ocean and coastal areas. After pellets reach the environment, they may adsorb and concentrate chemicals contaminants from different sources. Moreover, the weathering of plastic pellets may result in color changes, from white to brownish. This study aimed to analyse the color pattern of pellets collected on beaches of the central coast of São Paulo, Brazil, as an indicator of weathering and ageing processes. Plastic pellets were collected in four sampling surveys conducted between April 2012 and September 2015, and then separated in five color groups: white, yellowish, orange, brown, and pigmented. All sampled beaches had a consistent pattern of light-toned pellets (white and yellowish). This pattern was also found over time, suggesting a constant supply of plastic pellets to the beaches, coming from the harbour area. We also recommend the use of the color pattern of plastic pellets in citizen science monitoring programs.
Increases in plastic-related pollution and their weathering can be a serious threat to environmental sustainability and human health, especially during the present COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus) pandemic. Planetary risks of plastic waste disposed from diverse sources are exacerbated by the weathering-driven alterations in their physical-chemical attributes and presence of hazardous pollutants mediated through adsorption. Accordingly, plastic polymers act as vectors of toxic chemical contaminants and pathogenic microbes through sorption onto the ‘plastisphere’ (i.e., plastic-microbe/biofilm-environment interface). In this review, the effects of weathering-driven alterations on the plastisphere are addressed in relation to the fate/cycling of environmental contaminants along with the sorption/desorption dynamics of micro-/nano-scale plastic (MPs/NPs) polymers for emerging contaminants (e.g., endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), and certain heavy metals) based on several kinetic and isotherm studies. The weathering processes, pathways, and mechanisms governing the adsorption of specific environmental pollutants on MPs/NPs surface are thus evaluated in relation to the physicochemical alterations. Consequently, the detailed evaluation on the role of the complex associations between weathering and physocochemical properties of plastics should provide valuable insights into the transport, behavior, fate, and toxicological chemistry of plastics and their sustainable remediation.
The role of plastic as a vector for bioaccumulation of toxic chemicals is central to the risk assessment of microplastic for human health and the environment. However, transfer kinetics of sorbed contaminants from ingested microplastics are poorly understood. We develop and parameterise a chemical exchange model on microplastics in a gut fluid mimic of aquatic biota, and also included food to provide a better representation of contaminant dynamics when plastic and food are ingested, as would occur in nature. The transfer kinetics of 14 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in gut fluid mimic systems under three environmentally relevant exposure scenarios of plastic ingestion by organisms, for low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and were evaluated with the model. Chemical transfer was demonstrated to be biphasic and fully reversible, with fast exchange within hours followed by a slow transfer lasting for weeks to months. In clean gut systems, the bioavailability of plastic-associated PCBs for lugworms and cod ranged from 14-42% and 45-83% respectively. However, in contaminated gut systems, clean microplastic was capable of rapidly extracting (‘cleaning’) PCBs from food inside the gut, thus demonstrating that the effect of microplastic is context dependent. Therefore, chemical contamination and cleaning are likely to occur simultaneously due to the ingestion of microplastic.
Plastic waste is ubiquitous and is reported from the Arctic to the Antarctic, from the surface to the sediment. This presentation PPT is based on the latest peer-reviewed journal papers and other technical reports. The presentation provides an account of i) global consumption of plastic; ii) classification of plastics; iii) global plastic pollution; iv) plastic pollution sources; v) impacts of plastic pollution on global biodiversity, vi) effects of plastic additives; vii) global marine plastic pollution “hot spots” viii) adsorption of organic and inorganic chemicals by different types of plastic; viii) factors related to the adsorption of contaminants by plastics; and ix) innovative solutions to mitigate plastic pollution across the globe.
Occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in the environment has attracted great attention as it has become a global concern. This review aims to systematically demonstrate the role of marine microplastic as a novel medium for environmental partitioning of chemicals in the ocean, which can cause toxic effects in the ecological environment. This review assimilated and analyzed available data published between 1972 and 2017 on the interaction between MPs and selected chemicals. Firstly, the review analyzes the occurrence of chemicals in MPs and outlines their distribution patterns. Then possible mechanisms of the interaction between MPs and organic chemicals and potential controlling factors were critically studied. Finally, the hazards of MPs and affiliated organic chemicals to marine organisms were shortly summarized.
This chapter presents the environmental, social, economical, and health effects of marine plastic debris (MPD) causing direct or indirect damage to marine ecosystems and human activities such as fishing and aquaculture, shipping, recreational activities, and tourism. The environmental impacts of MPD on sea life refer to increased levels of mortality or sublethal effects on biodiversity caused by (1) entanglement of marine animals in various types of plastic debris such as derelict fishing nets (also referred to as “ghost” nets) and plastic fragments; (2) ingestion of small pieces of MPD by marine (micro)organisms; (3) dispersal via rafting of many invasive species to distant places; (4) creation of new habitats of marine species; and (5) effect on existing habitats. The social impacts of MPD include deterioration in the quality of human life, reduced recreational opportunities, loss of aesthetic value, and loss of nonuse or vicarious value. The economic impacts relate to the reduction of opportunities to exploit the marine environment, for pleasure or profit.
IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP/UNDP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection GESAMP. Rep. Stud. GESAMP No. 90, 96 p.
Marine debris, especially plastic debris, is widely recognized as global environmental problem. There has been substantial research on the impacts of plastic marine debris, such as entanglement and ingestion. These impacts are largely due to the physical presence of plastic debris. In recent years there has been an increasing focus on the impacts of toxic chemicals as they relate to plastic debris. Some plastic debris acts as a source of toxic chemicals: substances that were added to the plastic during manufacturing leach from plastic debris. Plastic debris also acts as a sink for toxic chemicals. Plastic sorbs persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic substances (PBTs), such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins, from the water or sediment. These PBTs may desorb when the plastic is ingested by any of a variety of marine species. This broad look at the current research suggests that while there is significant uncertainty and complexity in the kinetics and thermodynamics of the interaction, plastic debris appears to act as a vector transferring PBTs from the water to the food web, increasing risk throughout the marine food web, including humans. Because of the extremely long lifetime of plastic and PBTs in the ocean, prevention strategies are vital to minimizing these risks.
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