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Field crop production on organic farms in the Midwest
... To the extent possible, the following studies refer only to those thought to be organic studies; low-input studies are summarized previously in this review.) Lockeretz et al. (1978) and later Shearer et al. (1981) sparked the debate over the profitability of organic agriculture. Both studies compared the profitability of organic and conventional farming in the 1970s and found that organic farms were just as profitable as conventional farms when the growing conditions were optimum, but that organic farms were less profitable when the growing conditions were optimum. ...
... The authors argue that the "future trends in commodity prices, input prices, pollution regulation and research can be expected to have mixed effects on conventional and organic farmers, but the net impact will favor organic farmers." Fox et al. (1991) reviewed several studies-for example: Lockeretz et al. 1978;Shearer et al. 1981;Goldstein and Young 1987;Sahs, Helmers, and Langemeier 1986-which evaluated organic performance compared to conventional production systems from 1976 and 1989. (Here organic production systems are loosely defined as any system that does not use synthetic pesticides or fertilizers purchased from sources off the farm.) ...
... ds. The economic cost averaged 29% less per hectare for the conventional wheat production than for the organic wheat producers. However, it was reported that the organic producers were compensated for this by receiving price premiums for their crop. Berardi concluded that more research and a longer sampling period were needed in this area of study. Lockeretz et al. (1978) compared the economic performance of 14 organic farms and 14 conventional farms in the Midwest from 1974 to 1976. The study was initiated shortly after a sharp increase in fertilizer and oil prices when farmers were looking for a way to cut costs. It was reported that the value of crops per acre was 11% less on the organic farms but the ...
... Price premiums were not considered in this study. Lockeretz et al. (1984) again reported on the 14 farms studied previously (Lockeretz, 1978) but added an additional 23 organic farms that were studied from 1977 to 1978. It was reported that gross production per hectare was between 6% and 17% lower for the organic farms. ...
Profitability is a primary economic motivator for a farm to remain in business. As conventional crop farming endures rising fertilizer and chemical costs, small farmers that raise grains must look towards innovative cropping practices that are economically affordable or depart the business. As small farmers evaluate other cropping prospects, organic cropping systems and the availability of organic price premiums should be considered as an alternative in meeting farm profitability goals. This study compared the economic return per acre of converting to an organic cropping system from a conventional system against the conventional crop enterprise of the same crop mix. A simulation model was created using assumed organic yield data, actual organic prices, historical conventional yield data and historical conventional prices to determine the economic return. An initial simulation was run, ignoring the three-year transitional period that farms must undergo with no synthetic inputs to become certified organic, to determine if organic cropping systems using organic price premiums on the 600-acre farm would be competitive with conventional production. The simulation showed that organic production is economically competitive with conventional production. Previous studies and personal interviews indicated that the three-year transitional period could easily cause the farm economic loss, since conventional inputs cannot be used and organic premiums cannot be obtained for crops sold. Therefore, three different conversion schemes were simulated to find which one would cause the farm the least economic damage: converting the entire farm to organic production at once, converting 20% of the farm's tillable acres to organic production annually and converting 10% of the farm's tillable acres to organic production annually. All three of the proposed transition schedules revealed economic loss to the farm at some point during their transition periods. The only scheme that showed no average loss was the existing conventional system. However, after complete transition, the three transition schemes showed higher profitability than the conventional cropping system. The downside was that this took a minimum of 13 years to accomplish. The only scheme that did not cause the farm's cumulative present value to drop into negative numbers was the 10% per year transition rate. Master of Agribusiness Masters Department of Agricultural Economics Hikaru H. Peterson
... Typically, organic farms maintain greater spatial and temporal diversity of crops than conventional counterparts, as green manure and perennial legume crops, in addition to vegetable crops, are often part of the OSP. Longer crop rotations have been shown to improve soil physical properties (Reganold 1988;Lal et al. 1994;Gerhart 1997), decrease erosion (Lockeretz et al. 1978;Reganold et al. 1987;Gantzer et al. 1991), reduce N leaching potential (Poudel et al. 2002;Kramer et al. 2006), improve soil organic matter (Lockeretz et al. 1981;Reganold et al. 1993;Clark et al. 1998;Drinkwater et al. 1998;Liebig and Doran 1999;Pulleman et al. 2000;Pimentel et al. 2005;Marriot and Wander 2006), and provide competitive crop yields (Delate and Cambardella 2004;Drinkwater et al. 1998;Teasdale et al. 2007). The next sections address specific benefits in relation to soil fertility, pest management, and economic considerations. ...
For nearly a decade, there has been an increased awareness toward food quality, health standards, and global environmental issues in our communities. In that context, adoption of organic production practices has been increasing rapidly in vegetable production. Organic farming is grounded in a holistic view of agriculture that aims to reflect a profound interrelationship between on-farm living biota, farm production, and the overall environment. Organic agriculture has emerged as a powerful tool in re-establishing production practices that are self-sufficient, promote biodiversity, and support practices that conserve soil, water, and the environment. Organic production systems utilize practices such as composting, crop rotation, and use of cover crops
, all of which have a positive impact on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. Although these practices are widely used, there is still uncertainty among growers when it comes to the actual process of composting
, compost nutrient concentration and availability, use of compost in transplant mixes, and application rates. Similarly, other areas that need attention are crop rotation
, sequence of crops within a rotation, and integration of cover crops in these rotations. Cover crops have an important role in reducing soil erosion, suppressing weeds, improving soil structure and water holding capacity, and increasing soil organic matter. This chapter will highlight the role of composting, use of compost, crop rotation, and cover crops in organic vegetable production
systems. This chapter will discuss in detail the composting process, raw materials used, composting methods, quality assessment of compost, and potential avenues where compost can be used in organic vegetable production
. The crop rotation portion of this chapter will highlight various crop rotation plans and strategies that growers could utilize to improve soil quality, break pest and disease cycles, and increase yields. The chapter will also provide information on cover crop types, their planting, management, benefits, and challenges in organic vegetable cropping systems. Organic production systems are complex and dynamic. Understanding techniques and practices that directly influence soil is critical in building a production system that is self-sustaining, strong, and resilient. A better understanding of such practices is of paramount importance to build, strengthen, and support organic vegetable production.
... Typically, organic farms maintain greater spatial and temporal diversity of crops than conventional counterparts, as green manure and perennial legume crops, in addition to vegetable crops, are often part of the OSP. Longer crop rotations have been shown to improve soil physical properties (Reganold 1988;Lal et al. 1994;Gerhart 1997), decrease erosion (Lockeretz et al. 1978;Reganold et al. 1987;Gantzer et al. 1991), reduce N leaching potential (Poudel et al. 2002;Kramer et al. 2006), improve soil organic matter (Lockeretz et al. 1981;Reganold et al. 1993;Clark et al. 1998;Drinkwater et al. 1998;Liebig and Doran 1999;Pulleman et al. 2000;Pimentel et al. 2005;Marriot and Wander 2006), and provide competitive crop yields (Delate and Cambardella 2004;Drinkwater et al. 1998;Teasdale et al. 2007). The next sections address specific benefits in relation to soil fertility, pest management, and economic considerations. ...
Our production systems are at a pivotal stage in terms of meeting consumer demand for affordable food while improving sustainability. Current intensive crop production practices designed to maximize yield have created an unstable, fragile, and non-sustainable production system. Such systems are prone to reduced soil quality, frequent insect and disease resurgence, emergence of resistant weed species, reduced food quality, and detrimental effects on the health and well-being of our communities. With increasing awareness among consumers of produce quality, nutritional value, methods of crop production and effects of production techniques on the environment, there has been a strong move to improve the quality of our production systems. Grower response to this change has been supportive. Growers have shown interest in developing resilient and stable production systems through the adoption of production practices that enhance soil health, crop productivity, and improve long-term farm sustainability and profitability. This chapter will highlight various production techniques, practices, and tools employed by vegetable growers to improve sustainability of their production systems. Such practices emphasize the use of natural processes within farming systems, often called ‘ecologically sound’ practices which build resilience through synergies and complementarities within the field, the farm, and across our landscape and communities. Some of the key practices include conservation (or reduced) tillage systems, cover cropping, crop diversity including crop rotations and intercropping, use of suitable crop cultivars, efficient water use, sound nutrient management plans, and integrated pest management. Sustainable production systems are complex and dynamic and can involve diverse number of production practices. This chapter will also illustrate inherent challenges and trade-offs that growers could face while adopting such practices.
... Diverse crop rotations which include soil-building crops such as perennial forages are commonly employed. Long rotations that include forage legumes and green manures improve soil physical properties (Reganold, 1988;Karlen et al., 1990;Lal et al., 1994;Gerhardt, 1997), decrease erosion (Lockeretz et al., 1978;Reganold et al., 1987;Gantzer et al., 1991), decrease N leaching potential (Poudel et al., 2002;Kramer et al., 2006), and increase SOM (Lockeretz et al., 1981;Reganold et al., 1993;Drinkwater et al., 1998;Clark et al., 1998;Liebig and Doran, 1999;Pulleman et al., 2000;Pimentel et al., 2005). Enhanced rotations may decrease the need for external inputs by as much as 85% (Davis et al., 2012). ...
That the health of soils, plants, animals, and people are linked is an ancient idea that still resonates. Growing evidence links farm management, soil health, and plant health but relationships among soil health, food crop nutritional quality, and human health are less understood. Numerous studies compare organic with conventional farming in order to shed light on these links. Organic farming systems utilize carbon-based amendments, diverse crop rotations, and cover crops to build soil fertility. These practices increase biologically available soil organic matter and beneficial soil microbe and invertebrate activities, improve soil physical properties, reduce disease potential, and increase plant health. To date, comparisons of nutrient content between organic and conventional foods have been inconsistent. Recent evidence suggests that organically grown fruits and vegetables contain higher levels of health promoting phytochemicals, possibly linked to greater plant stress, rhizosphere microbial communities, and/or lower available nitrogen. But the overlap in management practices among farming systems make broad generalizations difficult. Moreover, environmental and crop species and/or cultivar interactions may exert stronger effects than management. Here we summarize the known factors influencing soil and plant health and link these with food-crop quality and human health. Though this paper draws primarily from research on organic farming, management practices that enhance soil, plant, and human health remain an important goal for all sustainable food production systems.
... Η παραγωγή προϊόντων χωρίς τη χρήση συνθετικών λιπασμάτων, εντομοκτόνων και οργανικών ρυθμιστών της ανάπτυξης των φυτών συγκεντρώνει τα τελευταία χρόνια το αυξανόμενο ενδιαφέρον τόσο των παραγωγών και των καταναλωτών γεωργικών προϊόντων όσο και του συνόλου σχεδόν της κοινωνίας, για λόγους προστασίας της υγείας, του περιβάλλοντος, αλλά και οικονομικούς. Ενώ οι οικονομικές επιπτώσεις της βιολογικής γεωργίας έχουν μελετηθεί εκτεταμένα (Klepper et al. 1977;Lockeretz et al. 1978;Lockeretz et al. 1980;USDA 1980) ελάχιστες πληροφορίες είναι διαθέσιμες σχετικά με την ποιότητα των βιολογικών προϊόντων, την ωρίμανσή τους και την αντιοξειδωτική τους δράση σε σύγκριση πάντα με τα προϊόντα της συμβατικής γεωργίας. ...
... Comparing separate surveys of 960 conventional farmers and 58 certifi ed organic farmers in Ohio for the 1990 crop-year indicated that the organic farm yields as a percentage of their conventional counterparts were 76% for corn, 76% for soybean, 70% for wheat, and 68% for hay (Batte et al., 1993). On the other hand, a few studies indicated that organic yields were nearly equivalent to yields on conventional farms (Lockeretz et al., 1978;Lockeretz et al., 1981;Cacek and Langner, 1986). ...
During the last half-century, agriculture in the upper U.S. Midwest has changed from limited-input, integrated grain-livestock systems to primarily high-input specialized livestock or grain systems. Th is trend has spawned a debate regarding which cropping systems are more sustainable and led to the question: can diverse, low-input cropping systems (organic systems) be as productive as conventional systems? To answer this question, we compared six cropping systems ranging from diverse, organic systems to less diverse conventional systems conducted at two sites in southern Wisconsin. Th e results of 13 yr at one location and 8 yr at the other showed that: (i) organic forage crops can yield both as much dry matter as their conventional counterparts and with qual- ity suffi cient to produce as much milk; and (ii) organic corn (Zea mays L.), soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) can produce 90% as well as their conventionally managed counterparts. Th e average yields for corn and soybean, however, masked a dichotomy in productivity. Combining Wisconsin Integrated Cropping Systems Trial (WICST) data with other published reports revealed that in 34% of the site-years, weed control was such a problem, mostly due to wet spring weather reducing the eff ectiveness of mechanical weed control techniques, that the relative yields of low-input corn and soybean were only 74% of conventional systems. However, in the other 66% of the cases, where mechanical weed control was eff ective, the relative yield of the low-input crops was 99% of conventional systems. Our fi ndings indicate that diverse, low-input cropping systems can be as productive per unit of land as conventional systems.
... Comparing separate surveys of 960 conventional farmers and 58 certifi ed organic farmers in Ohio for the 1990 crop-year indicated that the organic farm yields as a percentage of their conventional counterparts were 76% for corn, 76% for soybean, 70% for wheat, and 68% for hay ( Batte et al., 1993). On the other hand, a few studies indicated that organic yields were nearly equivalent to yields on conventional farms ( Lockeretz et al., 1978;Lockeretz et al., 1981;Cacek and Langner, 1986). ...
Two large-scale (25 ha) trials were initiated in 1989 in Wisconsin to compare six alternative production systems regarding productivity, profitability, and environmental impact. The project was designed and is managed by a coalition of farmers, extension agents and research personnel. Deliberations between production-oriented and ecologically oriented team members resulted in a factorial design, with two enterprise types (cash grain and forage-livestock) and three levels of biological complexity. Statistical methods have been used to identify the most efficient plot size, plot shape, and block shape, and the optimal procedures for sampling soil characteristics. A uniformity year was allowed before initiation of the trial, and the start was staggered. We defined treatments as production strategies rather than a specific set of inputs, which led to a more flexible plot management program.
... By the mid-90's, this argument was being used by some (Avery and Avery, 1996) to justify that the agricultural research focus must be kept on high input agriculture, as shifting to organic agriculture would result in both a massive expansion of area cropped, and food shortfalls in the future. Some studies were available however, indicating that organic yields were nearly equivalent to conventional yields (Lockeretz et al, 1978;Lockeretz et al., 1981;Cacek and Langner, 1986). ...
In 1990, a large scale, and long-term study entitled the Wisconsin Integrated Cropping Systems Trial (WICST) was initiated at two locations in southern Wisconsin. The purpose of the project was to compare alternative grain and forage-based systems using three performance criteria: 1) productivity; 2) profitability; and, 3) environmental impact. An obvious initial criterion in comparing alternative agricultural systems is crop productivity. Three fundamental research questions were asked: 1) do the low input, organically managed production systems have lower yields than the high input production systems; 2) do the low input, biologically diverse systems have greater annual yield variability than the high input systems; and 3) do the biologically diverse systems gradually increase in productivity over time.
... In the long run, organic farming offers more advantages compared to conventional farming, because it not only promises higher yields but also ensures higher yield security and reduces dependence on external inputs, thus making poor households less crisis-prone. These are weighty arguments, especially in the marginal locations (Julia et al., 2008) Lockeretz et al. (1978 have compared the economic performance of 14 organic crop/livestock farms in the Midwest with that of 14 conventional farms. The farms under study were paired based on the physical characteristics and types of farm enterprises. ...
This review paper attempts to bring together different issues in the light of recent developments in organic farming. The after effects of green revolution have encouraged the farmers to take up organic farming. This paper has reviewed the global and Indian scenario with reference to organic farming. In India, the cultivated land under certification is 2.8 Mha only. The key issues emerging in organic farming include yield reduction in conversion to organic farm, soil fertility enhancement, integration of livestock, certification constraints, ecology, marketing and policy support. The potential for organic farming, especially in the dryland regions has been discussed. It has been argued that organic farming is productive and sustainable, but there is a need for strong support to it in the form of subsidies, agricultural extension services and research.
... This could be due to the highly intensive and excessive energy use during soil breaking by tillage implements and weeding was mostly repeated manually since fewer chemicals were used by the farmers in controlling weeds. This findings is in agreement with the result reported by Nuray, (2009);Umar, (2003);Leach, (1975) and Lockeretz et al., (1978). Group I farmers consumed 20% of the energy used on weeding operation, 19% on harvesting and threshing activities with 5% energy used on land clearing. ...
... This is similar to the situation found in alternative agriCUltural production studies done in the U.S. (see Fox et al. (1991), Klepper et al. (1977), Lockeretz et al. (1978)). These studies show that "the most profitable pest control strategies were generally flexible management strategies that involved a combination of control measures." ...
This study from Vietnam shows that a switch from conventional to organic tea productions would bring real environmental, health and economic benefits for the country's farmers and its society as a whole. In particular, the amount of agrochemical residue and waste produced by tea production would be reduced. Farmers would also be able to enjoy a better livelihood as they could command a premium price for their organic tea products. The study therefore recommends that organic tea production is the best method for farmers to adopt. The study finds that there are a number of technical and economic challenges that confront farmers making the switch to organic production. It therefore highlights the fact that clean tea production (which has a less strict environmental management regime) can offer an interim approach that still brings higher quality standards and profitability for tea growers. There are a number of ways in which the government can promote clean tea and organic tea production. Support from governmental agencies and NGOs in the form of technical training and on-farm monitoring is vital. The government can also create a market mechanism to guarantee a premium price for organic tea products.
... Cacek and Langner (1986), in examining studies that compared the actual economic performances of organic farms and conventional high chemical-input farms, found that actual net income was not that different. In comparing the net returns to farms that were matched with similar nonorganic farms, the organic farms had equal or greater net returns despite their disadvantaged tax situation (Lockeretz et al., 1978;Roberts et al., 1979). The disposable income of farm families would not necessarily fall if they were to use sustainable agricultural practices, particularly if the policy environment were to become more favorable (see Chapter 13). ...
Considers alternatives and options in the use of agricultural technology, offering an in-depth review of current thinking on the future of agriculture. The focus throughout the book is on research supporting the hypothesis that agriculture can be made more productive, environmentally sound, and resource efficient, by an integrated approach incorporating state-of-the-art biotechnology, engineering, systems studies, and other relevant scientific applications. The topics covered include: hybrids; sustainable pest and weed management; sustainable soil fertility practices; legumes and crop rotation; management and soil biology; and pasture management. Three of the sixteen papers are abstracted separately. -P.Hardiman
During the last half‐century, agriculture in the upper U.S. Midwest has changed from limited‐input, integrated grain–livestock systems to primarily high‐input specialized livestock or grain systems. This trend has spawned a debate regarding which cropping systems are more sustainable and led to the question: can diverse, low‐input cropping systems (organic systems) be as productive as conventional systems? To answer this question, we compared six cropping systems ranging from diverse, organic systems to less diverse conventional systems conducted at two sites in southern Wisconsin. The results of 13 yr at one location and 8 yr at the other showed that: (i) organic forage crops can yield both as much dry matter as their conventional counterparts and with quality sufficient to produce as much milk; and (ii) organic corn ( Zea mays L.), soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.], and winter wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) can produce 90% as well as their conventionally managed counterparts. The average yields for corn and soybean, however, masked a dichotomy in productivity. Combining Wisconsin Integrated Cropping Systems Trial (WICST) data with other published reports revealed that in 34% of the site‐years, weed control was such a problem, mostly due to wet spring weather reducing the effectiveness of mechanical weed control techniques, that the relative yields of low‐input corn and soybean were only 74% of conventional systems. However, in the other 66% of the cases, where mechanical weed control was effective, the relative yield of the low‐input crops was 99% of conventional systems. Our findings indicate that diverse, low‐input cropping systems can be as productive per unit of land as conventional systems.
India produces a large variety of food crops including cereals, pulses, and oilseeds. In the name of increased productivity, indiscriminate application of an enormous quantity of chemical fertilizers is being followed keeping the health factor at bay. Hence an alternative method of farming is of urgent need which could satisfy the needs of increased food production as well as providing security against any potential health problem. Organic farming has been proved as a solution to both of these problems. Also since the need for the prerequisites for organic farming is less as compared to chemical farming, therefore, in a country like India where the agriculture is highly influenced by the vagaries of various biotic and abiotic factors, organic farming is capable enough to provide economic security to the mediocre farmers as well. However, with the policies implemented by the government of India to encourage organic farming regarding the commencement, implementation and the marketing of organic food products as well as the increasing demand of the organic products in the domestic as well as international market, there is ample scope for organic food industries to expand and generate revenue for strengthening the Indian economy.
A detailed analysis v/as made of the fossil fuel consumed in field crop production (maize, soybeans, small grains, forages) on 14 organic and 14 conventional farms in the U.S.A. Corn Belt during 1974–76. The analysis included direct consumption for machinery and grain drying, and indirect consumption in the form of fertilizers and pesticides. The organic group required 60% less energy to produce vs. 4.3 for the conventional group). In order of descending importance, the factors contributing to this difference are: higher energy input per hectare of maize on the conventional farms; higher proportion of cropland in maize on the conventional farms; higher energy input per hectare of other crops on the conventional farms. The results suggest that conventional farmers who wish to capture the energy-conservation benefit of organic methods without adopting organic methods completely can do so to a considerable degree through partial changes in their methods.
This thesis tests if certain technology choices are associated with a reduction in the proportion of farming activities in the agro-food system in Maine. Goodman, Sorj, and Wilkinson define appropriationism as the replacement of farming sector activities by industrial inputs. Based on the concept of appropriationism, industrial fanning systems using large amounts of synthetic inputs contribute less to fanning than more agrarian systems, like organic fanning. Thus, returns to the farming sector should be greater for organic compared with conventional potato fanning in Maine since organic farming uses fewer industrial inputs. Goodman et. al. define substitutionism as the displacement of farming sector commodities and activities by industrial processes in the marketing sector. Based on the concept of substitutionism, returns to the farming sector should be greater for Lay's Classic®™ potato chips made from natural potatoes compared with Baked Lay's®™ potato crisps manufactured from processed dehydrated potatoes. Returns to the farming sector are defined as returns to the farmer or farm family from farming activities, returns to farm labor, and returns to farmers and farm labor producing inputs used on the farm. Results show absolute returns to the farming sector are less for organic compared to conventional tablestock potato farms in Maine. However as a proportion of farm revenues, large organic farms that market at least 25% of their produce to retail stores or directly to consumers do as well as conventional farms. When comparing returns as a proportion of consumer expenditures, these organic farms do better than conventional farms. Returns to the farming sector are less for organic because of yield penalties, cost of marketing services, and diseconomies of size for organic tablestock potato farms. Expanding acreage and reintegrating livestock with cropping systems may increase returns to the fanning sector. Organic farming demonstrates difficulties in providing marketing services at the farm level. Providing marketing services limits the ability to expand production to capture economies of size. Maine organic potato farmers emphasize non-monetary values such as supporting sustainable agriculture, self-sufficiency, the intrinsic value of work, and close community and family connections. Returns to the farming sector as a proportion of consumer expenditures are about three times greater for Lay's Classic®™ potato chips than for Baked Lay's®™ potato crisps, since the value that farmers receive for potatoes used to produce dehydrated potato flakes in one pound of crisps is about half of the value that farmers receive for potatoes used to make one pound of chips. However, this assumes farmers assign a cost to producing low-grade potatoes for dehydration proportionate to their value. Premium potatoes are used to produce potato chips. Low-grade potatoes are used to produce the dehydrated potato flakes used to make potato crisps. Returns to the farming sector are slightly greater for potato crisps if no costs are allocated to producing low-grade potatoes for dehydration. A shift in consumer preferences from potato chips to crisps may result in a geographical shift of potato production from Maine to the Pacific Northwest assuming no food-grade dehydration facilities are built in Maine.
If we were to play a word association game and someone said “sustainable agriculture,” the reply would more than likely be “organic farming.” This point raises some interesting questions. Are they associated practices? Are they equivalent? To answer this question, we must turn to working definitions.
Understanding and dealing with the problem of climate’s impact on food production and distribution is a crucial endeavor if world food needs are to be met by the year 2000 and beyond.
This chapter discusses twofold: to consider the impacts of nitrogen (N) in the environment, and to examine various management systems for conservation of N in agro-ecosystems. A number of potentially adverse impacts of N on health and the environment can be identified. Nitrite is absorbed into the blood where it oxidizes the Fe of hemoglobin to the ferric state, forming methemoglobin which cannot function in oxygen transport. The long-term evolution of N use in agriculture likely will involve increased reliance on biological N fixation and better management of wastes. Lowered rates of irrigation is one management practice that would seem desirable from at least two standpoints; less total N leached and less denitrification from the drier soil. In general, adverse impacts of N occur when N inputs greatly exceed amounts which can be efficiently used by crops. Loss of N through leaching or denitrification before this period can result in environmental pollution and reduced yields. © 1982 American Society of Agronomy, Inc. Crop Science Society of America, Inc. Soil Science Society of America Inc.
A field experiment was conducted at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana during 2004-07 to compare organic, integrated and chemical farming systems in basmati rice (Oryza sativa L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L. emend Fiori & Paol.)-green manure, turmeric (Curcuma longa L.)-onion (Allium cepa L.), summer groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.)-garlic (Allium sativum L.), maize (Zea mays L.)-wheat (Triticum durum)-cowpea fodder (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) and rice (Oryza sativa L.)-garlic+mentha (Mentha arvensis L.) cropping systems. The economic yields of basmati rice, rice, maize, groundnut, wheat and onion were statistically at par under organic, integrated and chemical forming whereas turmeric, garlic, mentha and cowpea yields were significantly higher under organic farming when 20% price premium on organic produce was considered. Productivity in terms of rice equivalent yield (REY) was highest under organic farming followed by integrated and chemical fanning, turmeric and garlic+mentha gave highest REY in kharif and rabi season, respectively. The system REY was highest in rice-garlic+mentha followed by turmeric-onion. Total system productivity was 36.8 and 18.7% higher under organic farming than chemical and integrated forming, respectively. Total system productivity (37.9 t ha -1), per day productivity (98.5 kg ha-1 day-1) and land use efficiency (98.6%) were highest in rice-garlic+mentha cropping system.
Over the past decade, organic products have become the fastest growing sector of agriculture, with an annual increase of at least 20 percent. This book explains why organic production and consumption have seen such phenomenal growth in recent years-and, even more important, why they should. A clear-eyed, close-up look at the compelling reasons for organic farming and the methods that make it work, Good Growing begins with a frank account of the problems with conventional industrial agriculture-the pesticide use, pollution, and corporate control that have undermined public health and devastated rural towns and family farms. In-depth interviews with working organic farmers from across the country bring to life the facts and figures that Leslie Duram sets out in her extensive overview of the realities of organic farming today. Farmers with very different operations in California, Colorado, Illinois, Florida, and upstate New York give us an intimate understanding of the ecological, social, economic, and personal factors that shape their farming experiences. We also learn firsthand about the attractions and pleasures as well as the problems and concerns that accompany organic farming. With its comprehensive view of the status of farming and its compelling portraits of organic farmers, Good Growing is, finally, a work of scientific advocacy describing a course of action, based on the best research available, to improve the health of agriculture in our day.
World population growth rate has slowed since the early 1970s, but growth in world grain production has slowed further. As a result, per capita grain production has declined since 1983. Conventional farming practices that use heavy chemical applications and high‐yielding varieties have resulted in soil erosion, depletion of natural resources, contamination of the environment, and reduced biodiversity; and threaten to diminish the world's ability to sustain life of all kinds. If these trends persist, the earth may not sustain an adequate level of food production. Transition to sustainable agricultural practices could presumably prevent most of this degradation but may not produce adequate supplies of food to meet the growing demand. Although yields from sustainable agricultural farms can be as high as those from conventional farms, food production per acre of rotation generally declines because sustainable farms need to incorporate green manure crops and forage legumes into their rotations. Therefore, food production must be increased, which can be done in two ways: either bring more land into cultivation or increase yields. Although there are large tracts of land still available, their fragile ecosystems make it costly to bring them into production. Future grain production must come from higher yields. However, several studies indicate that the growth of major crop yields is leveling off, and that it has become increasingly difficult to increase crop yields. Therefore, to meet future world food demand, we need to continue to invest in research to develop new technologies that are directed toward sustainable agriculture. Adoption of new technologies could break through the yield ceiling characterized by previous technologies and enable the yield growth rate to outpace the population growth rate.
A “Conventional” and an “Alternative” farm located on the western edge of the Corn Belt were compared for relative productivity and profitability over the 8-year time period from 1985 through 1992. Although earnings on both farms were respectable for the area, the Conventional farm was more profitable, on average, than the Alternative farm when organic premiums for the Alternative farm were excluded. This was due in part to higher soybean and com yields and a greater proportion of acreage in corn and soybeans on the Conventional farm. Federal farm program support payments were higher for the Conventional farm in the first 5 years, but not in the last 3 years.
A two year study was undertaken to compare organic peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch) production with conventional production. Peach trees treated with nitrogen containing fertilizers (dairy manure and NH4NO3) were more vigorous, productive, and cold hardy than trees treated with an organic seaweed product or the nontreated controls. Organic production inputs were more costly than conventional inputs, however, these greater costs were more than compensated for by high market prices which lead to higher net returns for organically produced peaches. A taste test found no significant preference for either organic or conventional peaches.
In adopting any technology it is important to consider the waste utilisation aspect so that better returns are obtained and the pollution of the environment by waste is minimised. In sericulture industry the waste from rearing trays, i.e. the silkworm litter, is available in large quantities. The present study has shown that silkworm litter could be used as a nitrogen source in replacing chemical fertilisers for vegetable crop production and as a substrate for mushroom cultivation.
This thesis tests if certain technology choices are associated with a reduction in the proportion of farming activities in the agro-food system in Maine. Goodman, Sorj, and Wilkinson define appropriationism as the replacement of farming sector activities by industrial inputs. Based on the concept of appropriationism, industrial farming systems using large amounts of synthetic inputs contribute less to farming than more agrarian systems, like organic farming. Thus, returns to the farming sector should be greater for organic compared with conventional potato farming in Maine since organic farming uses fewer industrial inputs. Goodman et. al. define substitutionism as the displacement of farming sector commodities and activities by industrial processes in the marketing sector. Based on the concept of substitutionism, returns to the farming sector should be greater for Lay’s Classicâä potato chips made from natural potatoes compared with Baked Lay’sâä potato crisps manufactured from processed dehydrated potatoes. Returns to the farming sector are defined as returns to the farmer or farm family from farming activities, returns to farm labor, and returns to farmers and farm labor producing inputs used on the farm.
Results show absolute returns to the farming sector are less for organic compared to conventional tablestock potato farms in Maine. However as a proportion of farm revenues, large organic farms that market at least 25% of their produce to retail stores or directly to consumers do as well as conventional farms. When comparing returns as a proportion of consumer expenditures, these organic farms do better than conventional farms. Returns to the farming sector are less for organic because of yield penalties, cost of marketing services, and diseconomies of size for organic tablestock potato farms. Expanding acreage and reintegrating livestock with cropping systems may increase returns to the farming sector. Organic farming demonstrates difficulties in providing marketing services at the farm level. Providing marketing services limits the ability to expand production to capture economies of size. Maine organic potato farmers emphasize non-monetary values such as supporting sustainable agriculture, self-sufficiency, the intrinsic value of work, and close community and family connections.
Returns to the farming sector as a proportion of consumer expenditures are about three times greater for Lay’s Classic (R)TM potato chips than for Baked Lay’s (R)TM potato crisps, since the value that farmers receive for potatoes used to produce dehydrated potato flakes in one pound of crisps is about half of the value that farmers receive for potatoes used to make one pound of chips. However, this assumes farmers assign a cost to producing low-grade potatoes for dehydration proportionate to their value. Premium potatoes are used to produce potato chips. Low-grade potatoes are used to produce the dehydrated potato flakes used to make potato crisps. Returns to the farming sector are slightly greater for potato crisps if no costs are allocated to producing low-grade potatoes for dehydration. A shift in consumer preferences from potato chips to crisps may result in a geographical shift of potato production from Maine to the Pacific Northwest assuming no food-grade dehydration facilities are built in Maine.
A survey involving a written questionnaire to 120 organic farmers and direct interviews with selected farmers was conducted to provide a preliminary assessment of the state of organic farming in California. A case study was made of apple production systems where some of the organic systems appeared to be economically viable. The lower yields of organic apples were offset by reduced input costs. It is concluded that expansion of organic agriculture in California is limited mainly by socio-economic factors.
Many investigators have surmised that reduced-chemical and organic crop production require the input of a higher level of human capital than does conventional production. But no previous study has measured and compared whether the amounts of human capital growers use in managing their production systems differ across those systems. To provide the first measure of the time investment made in human capital by conventional and reduced-chemical farmers, we conducted a survey of 1000 Illinois households to obtain estimates of the amount of time spent by these different types of farmers to accumulate the human capital needed in their management practices. Conventional farmers reported spending just over 3 h week–1 ’keeping up‘ with information about their production practices, while reduced-chemical and organic farmers reported a time investment of nearly 4 h week–1. This difference was found to be statistically significant, suggesting that chemical inputs and human capital may be economic substitutes. Farmers who adopted reduced-chemical practices reported a transition period of 1–2 years; during this period, they spent around 3 h week–1 learning about reduced-chemical technology. Adopters of organic practices also reported a transition period of 1–2 years; during this period, they invested 5 h week–1 learning about organic technology. The quantitative results of this study will be useful for future empirical work that investigates the potential costs and benefits of using subsidies to induce conventional farmers to switch to alternative production practices.
A mailed survey was sent to 174 Midwestern organic farmers originally studied in 1977. We obtained information on 133 of this group, 96 of whom are still farming at the same location, although 12 no longer use organic methods. Fifty-eight currently active farmers returned a detailed questionnaire that covered their perceptions of the advantages and disadvantages of organic farming, some of their practices, and their financial status. Most farmers who employed organic farming methods stated they did so out of concern for the health of themselves, their families, and their livestock. Compared to ten years ago, philosophical or religious considerations were less frequently mentioned as an advantage of organic farming. In contrast, some agronomic and management disadvantages of organic f arming were mentioned more often. The farmers now are more tolerant, in principle, of some chemicals not generally accepted in organic farming, but regular use of soluble fertilizers and synthetic pesticides has not increased appreciably. The farmers reported little change in the institutional and social environment for organic agriculture, including available markets, information sources, and the attitudes of their neighbors.
New crop production technologies developed in response to growing concern over environmental contamination from agriculture may be neither more profitable nor higher yielding than the systems they replace, but they often reduce environmental contamination or improve soil and water quality. Systems designed with environmental objectives cannot be evaluated fairly just by productivity, which is what often is done in economic studies of alternative systems. We review 58 recent studies comparing alternative crop production systems to identify the key criteria for system comparisons, the system characteristics important in designing the analysis, and the methods most suited for comparing alternative systems.
The four key criteria we looked for in system comparisons are expected profit, stability of profits, expected environmental impacts, and stability of environmental impacts. Most economic studies of crop production focus exclusively on profitability, and incorporate neither environmental criteria nor the dynamic characteristics inherent in alternative systems. We identify promising new approaches that take account of specific environmental characteristics and attempt to balance the objectives of profitability and environmental risk management. Balanced environmental-economic analysis is most likely to be achieved by integrating biophysical simulation models with economic optimization methods to model the trade-offs among profitability, environmental impact, and system stability (both financial and environmental).
This research promotes our understanding of organic farmers' decisionmaking through individual farmers' experiences. A twofold survey was conducted to investigate characteristics of certified organic farmers in Colorado. Data from a mail survey (26 responses to 49 surveys sent) reveal patterns of farm operations and attitudes among this group of farmers. These questionnaires focused on land use, land tenure, operational change, and personal characteristics. In-depth interviews of five case study farmers provide additional insight into farmers' agricultural decisionmaking. These interviews were conversations that the farmers guided toward topics of relevance to them. Taken together, the mail and interview surveys provided information about on-farm operational factors and personal characteristics. Quantitative analysis and qualitative data reduction techniques were used to identify factors in organic farmer decisionmaking. The following eight factors help us understand organic agriculture in this region: diversity, challenge, change, businesslike approach, no formal agricultural education, love of the land, anti-”radical environmentalist,” and obstacles.
The scale of operation and economic performance of organic and conventional dairy farms were compared in Ontario in 1992. Eight certified organic (ORG) farms, comprising 40% of all organic dairy farms, were contrasted with a sample of 120 conventional farms (1.5% of the provincial total) identified under the auspices of the Ontario Dairy Farm Accounting Project (ODFAP). The ODFAP sample was stratified by geographic region in Ontario, then randomly selected within each region. Neither ORG nor ODFAP farm samples contained any hobby or part-time farmers. Scale of operation was comparable on the two types of dairies, with the ratio of ORG to ODFAP being 122% for tillable landbase (ns) and 107% for herd size (ns). Similarly, milk production was comparable from ORG and ODFAP dairies (5,882 and 5,865 liters/cow, respectively; ns). Data on farmer personal characteristics such as age, education level, and management skills were not collected. It was presumed that managerial capabilities were equal between ORG and ODFAP farm samples.
It was hypothesized that total revenue and total cost of production would be greater on ODFAP farms, while net farm income would be higher on ORG than on ODFAP farms. Although the ratio for ORG to ODFAP performance was 93% for total revenue and 77% for total cost of production, neither of these differences was statistically significant. However, ORG dairies yielded 60% more net farm income than ODFAP dairies (37,557; significant at the 5% level). Within the constraints of the supply management marketing system operating in a northern temperate region, ORG approaches to dairy production were shown to be as productive and at least as profitable as those on ODFAP farms, despite reliance on lesser yielding crops and more holistic (less resource-intensive) production methods.
The United States Department of Agriculture's Report and Recommendations on Organic Farming (1980) is destined to be a milestone in the evolution of agriculture's scientific paradigm. Such recognition, however, will come several years in the future and will require a key scientific breakthrough for full assessment of the “new world” its authors brought forward to the mainstream scientific community.
Many farmers are turning to organic or “low input” farming as a strategy for economic survival. Several comparisons of actual grain farms in the central and northern states showed that organic farming equals or exceeds conventional farming in economic performance. These findings are supported by studies that used yield data from research plots as inputs to economic models. However, models that relied more heavily on hypothetical data showed an economic disadvantage for organic farming. This may have been a result of the failure of the hypothetical models to incorporate valid assumptions on conservation and efficient utilization of water, nutrients, fuel, labor, and capital. Established organic farmers are less vulnerable to natural and economic risks than conventional farmers because their systems are more diversified. They also are less able, however, to take advantage of income tax deductions. Future trends in commodity prices, input prices, pollution regulation, and research can be expected to have mixed effects on conventional and organic farmers, but the net impact will probably favor organic farmers. On a macroeconomic (i.e. national) scale, conversion to organic farming would have many benefits. It would reduce federal costs for supporting commodity prices, reduce depletion of fossil fuels, reduce the social costs associated with erosion, improve fish and wildlife habitats, and insure the productivity of the land for future generations. However, widespread conversion to organic farming would have an undesirable impact on the balance of trade. Future research on the economics of organic farming at the farm or microeconomics level should be directed at horticultural crops, southern latitudes, marketing, and the process of conversion from conventional to organic farming. Future macroeconomic research should quantify the social benefits described above, enabling decision makers to compare organic farming with other policy options.
A total of 69 Saskatchewan organic producers were surveyed in the spring of 1991. Although Saskatchewan organic farming represents a move toward an alternative conventional system of agriculture it is not a complete reversal from conventional practices. Saskatchewan organic farmers are experimenting with highly integrated systems which incorporate green manure crops and soil testing and require high management and marketing skills. In a study of then-goals and objectives using fuzzy sets, environment and healthy food were ranked above farm survival. This leads to the conclusion that most organic farmers do not adopt organic practices based on purely economic criteria but on higher goals within their own hierarchy.
Health, ecological and social aspects of agricultural policy are beginning to supplement traditional concerns of productivity and profitability, and underline the interdependence of agricultural and other areas of social and economic policy. This article reviews public health problems arising out of agricultural practices, and discusses some ecologically inspired initiatives which suggest a growing dissatisfaction with current trends.
There seems to be a disagreement among the general public and especially among agricultural professionals regarding the usefulness of agricultural technology. Among agricultural professionals, there exists differences of opinion on the imbalances of technology adoption between small- and large-scale farms. This paper analyzes the advantages of technological change in the farm sector and its impact on rural agricultural communities. Also, it presents an expository but utterly theoretical argument with respect to biases in technology adoption between large and small farms. Agricultural technology is shown to be either physical or nonphysical. Both physical and nonphysical technologies are also shown to be variable and fixed. While variable/physical technology is shown to be scale and size neutral, fixed physical and nonphysical technologies are shown to be scale neutral but not size neutral.
The agricultural policy agenda in the United States, Canada, and in Western Europe has been increas- ingly influenced by concerns for the sustainability of agricultural production systems. National, state, and provincial governments in North America are becoming increasingly sensitive to the environ- mental and human-health risks associated with cur- rent modes of agricultural production and policy actions, including restrictions on the use of certain agricultural chemicals and inducements to encour- age the use of alternative production practices. Many restrictions and inducements have been undertaken or are currently under consideration in many juris- dictions. Unfortunately, many policy actions have been animated by high levels of political concern and supported by an inadequate economic database. While it is often recognized that more stringent regtdation of production practices and of the use of certain inputs may have an impact on the prof- itability of farm businesses and on the competi- tiveness of the regional agricultural sector affected, conflicting views have been expressed as to the nature of those impacts. A rigorous assessment of the comparative profitability of different modes of production is required. This assessment should in- clude an evaluation of comparative income risk as well as expected profit levels since farmers, Iike others, are risk averse and may be willing to trade expected income for lower levels of uncertain y. Also of concern in the development of policy is the lack of information about the economic costs of environmental and other types of externalities
Mathematical programming results revealed that moving toward more flexible agricultural policies would generate substantial economic and environmental gains in a North Carolina diversified cropping region. But in a Washington-Idaho dryland grains region, only the use of relatively new and sometimes problematic alternative cropping systems permitted environmental and economic gains under policy reform. In both regions, a recoupling policy, which links government payments to resource-conserving farming practices, was needed to protect environmental quality when market prices for program crops were high.
When all strategies received conventional market prices, 4-year cropping sequences had greater net returns than 2-year sequences, and the organic input, 4-year strategy had the highest net return. Adding 50% of the estimated organic premium, the 4-year, organic strategy dominated all low- and high-purchased input strategies.
Eight input combinations of commercial fertilizer, insecticides, and herbicides on a corn-soybean crop rotation in the Brazos River Bottom of Texas are evaluated. Input combinations which do not fully utilize all three inputs are consistently ranked higher by all criteria as the preferred input strategy for the corn-soybean rotation system. These results, which indicated limited input crop rotations that fall somewhere between the extremes of conventional agricultural production and organic agriculture, deserve further attention as a possible production alternative.
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