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Medicinal uses of Melipona Bee Honey in Mayan Communities of Yucatán
Abstract
In the Yucatan Peninsula, stingless bee culture dates from pre-Hispanic times. At the height of the Mayan civilization, cultivation of stingless bees reached a level of sophistication comparable to the cultivation of Apis mellifera in Europe at the same time. Honey extracted from hives was used in religious ceremonies, as food and medicine. Many of the healing properties attributed to honey are the basis for some treatments of traditional medicine around the world, reaching used in the treatment of open wounds, in the treatment of ulcers and sores on the skin also the ancient Maya used Melipona beecheii honey to accelerate the healing of wounds and burns. Other traditional uses given to M. beecheii honey are reducing and curing cataracts, pterygium eye, and conjunctivitis. Today Mayan communities use M. beecheii honey for the treatment of diseases like as laryngitis, sinusitis, typhoid, bronchitis, cough and bacterial infections. Even there are reports where the use of honey has been successful against some type of cancers. This chapter compilates some actual medicinal uses of honey from Melipona beecheii in Mayan communities of Yucatan. Contrasting traditional uses with strong scientific evidence about the therapeutic uses and effects of honey.
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Pharmaceutical and scientific communities have recently received the attention of the medicinal plants and various publications have documented the therapeutic worth of natural compounds to validate the claims of their biological activity. Profuse use of commercial antibiotic and synthetic pesticides for human and crop protection is harmful to human health, ecosystem and environment. Attention has also been drawn to the antimicrobial properties of plants and their metabolites due to the growing incidences of drug-resistant pathogens of both clinical and agricultural importance. Medicinal plants have their intrinsic ability to resist pathogenic microorganisms and this has led the researchers to investigate their mechanisms of action and isolation of active compounds. This has enabled exploitation of medicinal plants for the treatment of microbial infections of both plants and humans by developing new antimicrobial agents. This novel search entails extensive research and it is therefore imperative to follow standard methods to authenticate claims of antimicrobial action. This paper reviewed the methods being employed earlier and recently in use related to investigations of the antimicrobial efficacy of medicinal plant extracts. Standard protocols of the various techniques used by different authors are also mentioned.
Información general sobre abejas y su importancia como polinizadores en México
The flowering characteristics, contribution of self versus cross pollination and bee visitation were studied in 'criollo' avocado cultivars in Yucatan, Mexico. The pattern of pistillate and staminate stages (I and II, respectively), stigma receptiveness and the production of fruit in bagged and open panicles was followed in two commercial orchards. The number of bee visits across the day and the number of pollen grains on the body of workers of honey bees and two native stingless bee species were compared. Environmental variables were also recorded to determine their influence on bee visit rates. Few stigmas were morphologically receptive during the second day of opening of individual flowers (stage II). There was no overlapping between stages I and II. Open panicles produced significantly more fruit (60% on average) than bagged ones. Bee visits to flowers of both type A and B cultivars were significantly more frequent during the pistillate stage than during the staminate stage. Apis mellifera had an overall higher frequency of visits compared with the other two species. The number of pollen grains on the bees was not statistically different between A. mellifera (1644 ± 90.1 [s.d.]) and Trigona nigra (1356 ± 71.3) but it was significantly less in Nannotrigona perilampoides (781 ± 16.1). Environmental humidity had an influence on the visits of A. mellifera (r = -0.88) and N. perilampoides (r = 0.92) but not on T. nigra. It is concluded that self pollination is of limited influence in fruit production in avocado cultivars in subtropical Mexico and that both native stingless bees and honey bees potentially are efficient pollinators of this crop.
The aim of this work was to evaluate the total phenolic and flavonoid contents and the antioxidant activity of Meliponinae stingless honey samples collected in Amazon state, in Brazil, in comparison to monofloral Apis mellifera bee honey. Stingless bee honey samples were purchased directly from beekeepers during 2000 and 2005, while the Apis bee honey samples (eucalyptus and orange) were purchased from beekeepers in São Paulo, Brazil. Phenolic compounds were isolated from the honey matrix and total phenolic content was measured with the Folin Ciocalteau reagent, while flavonoid content was determined after complex formation with AlCl3. Antioxidant activity was measured by the DPPH (1,1-diphenylphycrasyl) methodology. Apis bee honey (eucalyptus) had higher phenolic and flavonoid contents (5.7 and 1.7 mg/100g of honey respectively) than all the others stinglesss bee honey samples analyzed. Honey from Melipona subnitida, harvested in 2004, showed the highest DPPH scavenging activity among all the analyzed samples (IC50 = 5.9 μg/mL), despite the lowest total phenolic content (0.6 mg/100 g). The results show that stingless bee honey form Amazon has good antioxidant activity besides its nutritional value.
The knowledge regarding the physicochemical characteristics of the honey produced by stingless bees is still limited, mainly due to the high diversity of the floral resources and the low production that is inherent to these species. This manuscript describes the physicochemical characterization of 27 honey samples produced by Melipona beecheii, from the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. The objective of this study was to contribute to the establishment of standards for quality control. The following parameters were evaluated in the honey samples: reducing sugars, moisture content, acidity, pH, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), ash, soluble solids, formol index, proline and color. Most of physico-chemical parameters fulfilled the quality criteria established by the International Legislation for Apis honey, with the exception of moisture content, which presented higher values; for that, the results indicate that the international standard procedures are not completing adequate for all the parameters analyzed on Apis mellifera honey and therefore is need establish a suitable standard of quality control for honey from Melipona.
Stingless bees (Apinae: Meliponini) are highly eusocial apine bees commonly encountered in tropical and subtropical areas of the world but are more diverse in the Western Hemisphere. In Mexico, stingless bees represent a relatively small fraction (2.6%) of the large bee fauna of the country, but the economic, social, and cultural impacts they have are like no other in the world. When compared to other countries with more diverse stingless bee faunas, a large percentage (41.3%) of the total number of Mexican stingless bees are exploited by indigenous people in the country at least since pre-Colombian times and possibly well before. Stingless bees played a significant role in Mayan religious views and today they are directly or indirectly used for diverse purposes, including managed pollination, medicine, crafts, and folk art; while honey, wax, and pollen are regularly extracted and sold, thus providing an important source of income for indigenous and non-indigenous populations. Herein, we summarize the diversity, distribution, origin, and traditional uses of the stingless bees in Mexico. We also discuss the challenges and future directions for the study and conservation of this important lineage of bees.
Sensory analysis uses the five human senses to evaluate products like stingless bee pot honey. The sensory characteristics of pot honey are presented and discussed, and comparisons between honeys produced by the bees in combs or in pots are considered, as well as the sensory evaluation of fermented honey. Sensory results based on descriptive techniques suggest that new odor–aroma families are needed, and to describe such a product. Preliminary data on acceptance of pot honey produced by different species are shown. The free-choice profile (FCP) method helped to group honeys according to their entomological origin, by untrained panels.
The inhibition bands showing activity against Gram-positive bacteria were detected by analyses of acidic extracts of honeybee heads, thoraxes, and royal jellies (RJs) using a bacterial growth-inhibition assay on polyacrylamide gel. The presence of antibacterial peptide royalisin and another unknown peptide was found in two detected RJ inhibition bands by N-terminal sequencing. The data suggested that royalisin was the peptide responsible for the activity against Paenibacillus larvae larvae and other tested Gram-positive bacteria. The analyses of RJs collected from individual colonies at two apiaries, one of which showed incidence of American foulbrood, revealed differences in the content of the antibacterial peptide. The results suggest that the differences might be associated with genetic variability between colonies.
Beekeeping with stingless bees (meliponiculture) in Mexico is an ancient tradition which today is in the process of disappearing as a consequence of changes in cultural, economic and ecological factors. This article reviews the historical background of meliponiculture as well as its potential uses in Mexico. Meliponiculture could be revived, providing an important source of income for peasant farmers in areas where the use of Africanized honey bees is restricted, provided technical and marketing problems are solved. We outline the current weaknesses and the changes needed to exploit these bees to their full potential for honey and wax production and use in other activities such as pollination.
Beekeeping with stingless bees (meliponiculture) is practiced in Guatemala, Mexico and Venezuela. In this article we review the medicinal uses of stingless bee honeys in these countries. We include honeys from 23 stingless bee species, review their use in the treatment of ocular cataracts and pterygium, fatigue, gastritis, ulcers, lung weakness, coughs, wounds and bruises; their use as laxatives and fertility enhancers, and their nutritional value. A proposal on quality standards for stingless bee honey is considered a contribution for further regulations.
El término calidad en el caso específico de la miel, está determinado por sus características sensoriales, químicas, físicas y microbiológicas. Internacio-nalmente, los criterios de calidad de la miel, son especificados mediante Regulaciones Standard, compiladas en el Codex Alimentario. En nuestro país, las características de los productos ali-mentarios argentinos, están reguladas a través del Código Alimentario Argentino que contiene la definición de los paráme-tros fisicoquímicos y microbiológicos que brindan garantía sanitaria. La miel es un producto muy estable respecto a los mi-croorganismos debido a su composición; habitualmente sólo pueden encontrarse bacterias del género Bacillus y algunos hongos y levaduras. El objetivo de este trabajo fue realizar una recopilación bibliográfica sobre las características microbiológicas de la miel, en relación a su flora habitual y a los posibles agentes contaminantes y en base a éstos, la metodología empleada para diagnosticarlos y evaluar así, uno de los parámetros de calidad. The term quality in the specific case of honey is determined by its sensory characteristics, chemical, physical and microbiological. Internationally , the quality criteria of honey are specified by regulations Standards, compiled in the Codex Alimentarius. In our country, the characteristics of Argentinian foods are governed by Argentine Food Code which contains defining the parameters physicochemical and micro-biological offered health guarantee. Honey is a very stable connection to microorganisms because of its composition; usually can only be found bacteria of the genus Ba-cillus and some fungi and yeast. The objective of this work was to make a compilation literature on the microbiological characteristics of honey, in relation to its normal flora and contaminants potential and based on these, the methodology used to diagnose and assess the case, one of the quality parameters.
A polyphasic approach was done to definitively distinguish isolates into two closely related species of the Bacillus subtilis group collected from the dairy farm environment or commercial powdered milk. A hundred and fifty six isolates and type strains B. subtilis (1A337) and B. amyloliquefaciens (10A18) were classified according to phenotypic and molecular characteristics. Only differences ingrowth temperature could be used to distinguish isolates among the phenotypic traits tested, and these distinctions were supported by
molecular analysis. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analysis (RAPD) analysis was shown to be a friendly, technically simple
and accurate method for rapid screening and identification of B. subtilis and B. amyloliquefaciens. Further analysis of 16S rRNA, rpoB and gyrA gene sequences of the isolates was done to confirm species identification. Sequences from the isolates and type strains showed between 96.5-100% (16S rRNA), 94.8-100% (rpoB) and 80.6-99.6% (gyrA) similarity, thus allowing for more refined distinction using the rpoB and gyrA genes. In addition, gyrA gene sequences had greater discrimination potential in having higher divergence between species (18.2 ± 0.7 %) than did rpoB sequences (4.9 ± 0.3 %). BOX-PCR fingerprinting was shown to have the potential for analysis of genotypic diversity of these species at the strain level.
Resumo
The Neotropical genera Paratrigona Schwarz and Aparatrigona Moure are revised. Eleven new species (Paratrigona catabolonota, sp. n., P. eutaeniata, sp. n., P. onorei, sp.n., P. melanaspis, sp. n., P. compsa, sp.n., P. femoralis, sp. n., P. euxanthospila, sp. n., P. incerta, sp. n., P. crassicornis, sp. n., P. rinconi, sp. n. and P. permixta, sp. n.) and one new subspecies (P. lineata glabella, ssp. n.) are described. Diagnosis, key for worker of all species, drawings of the striking features of the males of P. opaca, P. lophocoryphe, P. prosopiformis, P. haeckeli, P. lineata lineata and P. lineata glabella, and a cladistic analysis are also included.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant activity of honey from different entomological sources which were harvested in the dry season of 2008-2009 from distinct mesoregions of the State of Alagoas in the North East of Brazil. Honey produced by five different species of bees, even from the same region and season, showed a statistically significant difference (p <0.05) in the content of phenols, flavonoids and antioxidants, with higher levels of these compounds found in honey produced by Plebeia spp. and A. mellifera. Honey from stingless bees was quite different from that of A. mellifera, especially from the Plebeia spp. A dendrogram of the five species of bees showed the formation of 3 groups, one being formed by Apis mellifera, one by the genus Melipona (M. subnitida, M. quadrifasciata and M. scutellaris) and another formed by Plebeia spp. Composición y actividad antioxidante de la miel de abejas africanizadas y sin aguijón en Alagoas (Brasil): un análisis multivariante Resumen El propósito de este estudio fue evaluar la actividad antioxidante de la miel de diferentes fuentes entomológicas que se recogieron en la estación seca de 2008-2009 de distintas mesorregiones del Estado de Alagoas en el noreste de Brasil. La miel producida por cinco especies distintas de abejas, incluso de la misma región y de temporada, mostró una diferencia estadísticamente significativa (p < 0,05) en el contenido de fenoles, flavonoides y antioxidantes, con mayores niveles de estos compuestos se encuentran en la miel producida por Plebeia
Honey mainly consists of sugars and water. Apart from sugars, honey also contains several vitamins, especially B complex and vitamin C, together with a lot of minerals. Some of the vitamins found in honey include ascorbic acid, pantothenic acid, niacin and riboflavin; while minerals such as calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium and zinc are also present. Honey has been used for its healing, nutritional and therapeutic properties since ancient times. Its antibacterial potentials even against multi-drug resistant bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacterbaumanni have been proved. Honey is well known for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacities, which may be useful for the prevention of chronic inflammatory process like atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases. The antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of honey will be reviewed here.
Honey, a natural product of very high nutritive value is made when the nectar (floral) and sweet deposits from plants (non floral) are gathered, modified and stored in the honeycombs by honeybees of the genera Apis and Meliponini. Its composition and quality vary greatly with the botanical source of nectar as well as environmental and climatic conditions. Depending on its quality, honey can contribute to the health and nutritional status of humans. These beneficial actions have been ascribed to its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant potential. Interestingly, honey is gradually receiving attention as a complementary and or an alternative source of treatment in modern medicines. It is active against antibiotic-sensitive and antibiotic-resistant strains of micro-organisms and has the potential not to select for further resistant strains.
Honey has been identified as a potential alternative to the widespread use of antibiotics, which are of significant concern considering the emergence of resistant bacteria. In this context, this study aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of honey samples produced by a stingless bee species and by Apis sp. against pathogenic bacteria, as well as to identify the presence of phenolic compounds.
Honey samples from the stingless bee M. compressipes manaosensis were collected twice, during the dry and rainy seasons. Three commercial honey samples from Apis sp. were also included in this study. Two different assays were performed to evaluate the antibacterial potential of the honey samples: agar-well diffusion and broth macrodilution. Liquid-liquid extraction was used to assess phenolic compounds from honey. HPLC analysis was performed in order to identify rutin and apigenin on honey samples. Chromatograms were recorded at 340 and 290 nm.
Two honey samples were identified as having the highest antimicrobial activity using the agar diffusion method. Honey produced by Melipona compressipes manaosensis inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli (0157: H7), Proteus vulgaris, Shigella sonnei and Klebsiella sp. A sample of honey produced by Apis sp. also inhibited the growth of Salmonella paratyphi. The macrodilution technique presented greater sensitivity for the antibacterial testing, since all honey samples showed activity. Flavonoid rutin was identified in the honey sample produced by the stingless bee.
Honey samples tested in this work showed antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The results reported herein highlight the potential of using honey to control bacterial growth.
Background
Stingless bees were significant resources managed by Mesoamerican peoples during pre-Columbian times and remain important in particular areas. Our study aimed at inventorying stingless bees’ species, traditional knowledge and forms of use and management of them at the municipality of Nocupetaro, Michoacán, Mexico, a region of the Balsas River Basin.
Methods
We inventoried the stingless bees of the municipality of Nocupétaro, Michoacán, México, through extensive collecting of bee specimens in different vegetation types. We then conducted semi-structured interviews to local experts in order to document their knowledge and management techniques of stingless bees’ species.
Results
We identified a total of eight stingless bees’ species in the study area as well as three additional unidentified taxa recognized by people through the local names. Our inventory included one new record of species for the region (Lestrimelitta chamelensis Ayala, 1999). The taxa identified are all used by local people. Scaptotrigona hellwegeri Friese, 1900; Melipona fasciata Latreille, 1811; Frieseomelitta nigra Cresson, 1878 and Geotrigona acapulconis Strand, 1919 are particularly valued as food (honey), medicinal (honey and pollen), and material for handcrafts (wax). All species recorded are wild and their products are obtained through gathering. On average, local experts were able to collect 4 nests of stingless bees per year obtaining on average 6 L of honey and 4 Kg of wax but some came to collect up 10–12 hives per year (18 L of honey and 24 Kg of wax).
Conclusions
Local knowledge about use, management and ecological issues on stingless bees is persistent and deep in the study area. Information about this group of bees is progressively scarcer in Mexico and significant effort should be done from ethnobiological and ecological perspectives in order to complement the national inventory of bee resources and traditional knowledge and management of them.
The aim of the present issue was to evaluate the antibacterial activity of four commercial honeys against mutans streptococci in schoolchildren with high risk of caries development. We have investigated 20 schoolchildren from Temuco city (Chile), aged 12 -14 years. Saliva samples were obtained by stimulation with solid paraffin. The count of mutans streptococci in saliva was estimated by microbiological method. The antimicrobial activity of honey was evaluated by dilution in TYCBS medium in 9 schoolchildren (> 500.000 cfu/mL). Four concentrations of honey were used ranging from 5 to 35%. The presence of S. mutans was detected in 100% of schoolchildren. Our data shown that honey present high antimicrobial activity against S. mutans, being the dilutions at 30 and 35% that shown the better inhibitory effect (p<0.001). No differences between 4 honeys in relation to antibacterial activity were observed (p>0.05). In conclusion, our data showed that honeybees present in vitro antibacterial activity against S. mutans. However, future studies are necessary to characterize the honey components, responsible for this property.
The research was conducted at the Pastures and Forages Research Station "Indio Hatuey" in order to determine the organoleptic, physical and chemical characteristics of the honey produced by Melipona beecheii. For the extraction and packaging of the honey; sterile syringes and dry sterilized flasks, properly labeled, were used. After that, in the samples, where the presence of pollen grains from Gliricidia sepium was detected, a sensorial, physical and chemical analysis was conducted based on the following indicators: aspect, color, smell, taste, texture, humidity (g/100 g), free acidity (meq/100 g), pH and soluble solids (g/100 g = %). Moreover, the content of different sugars in the honey was determined through a HPLC analysis. The pH values were around 3,6, the free acidity was 35,0 meq/100 g, and humidity, 24 %. On the other hand, the sensorial analysis was in agreement with the quality specifications recommended in the Cuban Quality Norm, because the honey did not show any unpleasant taste, smell or color. It is concluded that the M. beecheii honey showed excellent quality, because it did not undergo any apparent degradation process; that is why it can be considered as fresh honey, which constitutes a key requisite for any feedstuff destined to human consumption.
Objective: To evaluate the healing properties of natural honey on experimentally induced antral ulcers in refed rats. Setting: Department of Medical Pharmacology, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Materials and methods: Antral ulcers were induced by subcutaneous injection of a single dose of indomethacin (20 mg/kg) in refed rats and the effects of oral treatment with honey (0.156 and 0.312 g/kg) or sucralfate (250 and 500 mg/kg) twice daily on the time-course of healing of antral ulcers were investigated. Sucralfate was used as a reference drug. Treatment with honey or sucralfate was started 24 h after indomethacin administration and rats were killed 3, 5, 10 and 15 days after indomethacin to evaluate gastric lesions. Results: Compared with controls, both honey and sucralfate significantly accelerated healing of antral ulcers. Thus, there were 61-70% and 51-64% more healings than the corresponding controls after 9-14 days treatment with highest doses of honey and sucralfate, respectively. Furthermore, the healing of ulcers were also reflected by the absence of diarrhoea and regaining of body weight of rats. Conclusion: These results suggest that honey has curative properties for healing of antral ulcers and may be used like sucralfate in the management of peptic ulcer diseases. However, further biochemical, histopathological and clinical studies are required to establish the therapeutic potentialities of honey in modern medicine.
The antimicrobial activity of bee honey is one of its most studied biological properties, with an extensive spectrum of activity against medically important microorganisms. The specificity of this activity depends on the components of the honey, which vary according to its floral and entomological origin. The action mechanisms of the most transcendental compounds for honey antimicrobial activity; acidity, osmolarity and hydrogen peroxide, are reported. Recent studies have demonstrated the existence of other compounds contributing to the antimicrobial activity of honey such as, enzymes, antimicrobial peptides, phenolic compounds and Methylglyoxal. This article describes both the most important therapeutic properties and the components attributing antimicrobial activity to bee honey, as well as the microorganisms which this effect has been evaluated and their respective minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). In conclusion, it has been demonstrated that the antimicrobial activity and other biological activities of bee honey such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antiviral properties are conferred by a group of components intrinsic to honey and it depends of the botanical, geographical and entomological origin of the honey.
Background: The current study investigated the antimicrobial, immunological and heating effects of Melipona subnitida honey on infected wounds of rat skin. Method: Wistar rats were anesthetized with sodium thiopental 20mg/Kg IP and ketamine 30 mg/kg IM. We evaluated the effects of honey using rats by generating 1 cm2 full-thickness skin wounds on the dorsum. The wounds of Group C rats (not infected) were treated daily with topic saline solution (0.9%) and in the Group HONEY (not infected) the wounds were treated with topic honey once a day. In the Groups C/I (infected) and HONEY/I (infected) the wounds were inoculated with polymicrobial solution, and tissue bacterial culture was performed 24 hours later. These wounds were treated with topic saline solution and honey, respectively. In the third day of treatment it was made a new bacterial culture. After epithelialization, wound tissue biopsies were used for cytokines dosage and histology. Results: The HONEY/I wounds showed more rapid healing and re-epithelialization than in the other groups, and the difference was significant (p<0.05). It was observed that the density of collagen, fibroblasts, macrophages and the expression of TNF-á, IL1-â and Il-6 were higher on the HONEY/I wounds then in the other groups. After the treatment with honey, the amount of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in the infected wounds decreased significantly. Conclusion: The results may encourage the use of honey in skin infected wounds because it stimulated cytokine production, reduced the healing time and had antibacterial activity.
The protein structure, physicochemical properties and mineral composition of Apis mellifera honey of different floral origin, commercialized in several states of Sudan were studied. Gel electrophoresis was applied to study the protein structure in order to establish a correlation between botanical species and the protein structure. SDS-PAGE pattern of the samples showed that about 12 distinctive bands for each sample were detected. All samples shared four bands with different molecular weight. Physicochemical properties of the s amples showed that Acacia nilotica honey contained higher moisture content compared to other types while Acacia seyal was rich in sugar. The pH, refractive index and color varied between the samples. Azadirachta indica honey had electrical conductivity significantly (p ≥ 0.05) differed from other samples which could be a reliable and distinctive parameter to differentiate Azadirachta indica honey from other types. For all honey samples both major and trace minerals varied between them. The heavy metals also were found to be varied between the samples. Cr was found to be <0.1mg/kg and Cd ranged from 0.05 to 0.1mg/kg which is below the risk level set by the WHO while Pb was found to be <0.45 mg/kg which exceeded the maximum amount allowed by WHO.
The water-soluble antioxidant capacity of 19 samples of honey from 14 different floral sources was determined by a spectrophotometric assay. The highest concentration of antioxidants measured was 20.3 times that of the lowest, showing that great variation exists in the chemical nature of honey from different floral sources. Antioxidant content was positively correlated with both water content and honey colour. Because of the health benefits of dietary antioxidants, floral source should be a factor in evaluating the potential of honey as an antioxidant-containing food supplement.
This chapter provides a general introduction to the tribe Meliponini or stingless bees. Their position within the Apoidea and within the Aculeata is briefly summarized in the section “Introduction.” The section on classification lists all genera and subgenera but does not list characters or provide for identification of taxa within the Meliponini. A section on biology is largely introductory to the sections on reproduction, foraging (including communication by successful foragers), foods (including foods unusual for bees, such as carrion, booty stolen from other nests by robbers, perspiration, tears from eyes, etc.), nests (including sites, construction materials, structure), defense, and history and phylogeny (including fossils, antiquity).
One characteristic medical practice of ancient Maya people was the extensive use of honey “kab” of the native stingless bee Melipona beecheii, “xunan kab.” The Maya traditional doctors “ah dzac” used the honey extensively as a fundamental part of their medicine. According to the ancient Maya, the illnesses cured with honey of Melipona were of supernatural origin. This honey was used to cure “cold” and “hot” diseases, respiratory, digestive, and sensory maladies, syndromes of cultural filiation, and the group of ailments known as fevers, wounds, burns, and poisonous stings or bites. The Maya supplied certain attributes to honey, considering it a divine product of special “kinam,” force, sent by the gods, an energetic and sacred food to assist man in controlling the diverse diseases that he suffered. The cause of the diseases and the melipona honey-healing processes are described in the prescriptions and incantations, carefully preserved in anonymous Mayan manuscripts.
This volume provides a comprehensive overview of tropical flower diversity, thereby forming an indication of evolutionary trends. An introductory chapter provides an evolutionary context and introduces tropical flowers. Six chapters then deal with general structural and biological features of flowers and illustrate facets of their diversity: floral organization (structural units and floral symmetry, perianth, androecium, gynoecium, and floral phyllotaxis); floral construction/architecture; adaptation to different pollinators; differentiations associated with pollinator attraction (for example - nectaries, resin glands/flowers, optical displays, and tactile guides); differentiations associated with breeding systems (for example - sex expression, dichogamy, herkogamy, heterostyly, and agamospermy); and the process of anthesis. Chapter eight then outlines floral diversity and evolution of selected tropical systematic groups: Magnoliales (Magnoliidae); Laurales (Magnoliidae); Aristolochiales (Magnoliidae); Lecythidales (Dilleniidae); Violales (Dilleniidae); Fabales (Rosidae); Gentianales (Asteridae); Scrophulariales (Asteridae); Zingiberales (Zingiberidae); and Orchidales (Liliidae). Next, the salient aspects of flower evolution are reviewed. To conclude, the author underlines the need for research synthesis at all levels. -S.R.Harris
Increasing production of stingless-bee honey and the prospect of broader marker for natural and organic products indicate the need to establish parameters to determinate the entomological origin and authenticity of honey. In this research, honeys of Apis mellifera, Melipona beecheii and Trigona spp. were collected in Yucatan, Mexico. Stingless-bee honeys contained more water and less total sugars and reducing sugars. SDS-PAGE patterns show distinctive bands for each kind of honey. The SDS-PAGE pattern of A. mellifera proteins honey showed three bands with molecular weights between 10.2 and 74.8kDa, there were five proteins bands in M. beecheii honey with molecular weights between 6.1 and 97.0kDa and nine for Trigona spp. proteins between 9.3 and 86.7kDa. Conventional physicochemical parameters along with electrophoresis profiles of stingless-bee honeys proteins could be an alternative for determination of entomological origin.
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This study examines the species richness of bees and flower visiting wasps in seasonal neotropical habitats in Costa Rica. A total of 9231 individuals were netted at flowers. These represented 192 species of bees and 138 species of wasps. Over 50% of the bee individuals were eusocial Apidae, but there were only 12% of the bee species. There was less dominance among the wasp families. Most of the species in both groups were uncommon: 50% of the bee species were represented by fewer than 8 individuals, and over 50% of the wasp species had only 1 or 2 individuals. Previous comparisons of the species richness of bees in tropical and temperature areas have been complicated by different sample sizes and a lack of distinguishing within- and between-habitat diversity components. Here, comparisons are made of within-habitat species richness for structurally similar habitats. The within-habitat species richness of bees was higher in tropical forests than in the temperate forests previously described. The tropical grassland had lower bee species richness, and it is postulated that the coevolutionary history of a habitat is an important component of bee diversity. The higher species richness of tropical forests was correlated with the abundance and diversity of animal-pollinated plants. Tropical bees were not more temporally specialized despite the longer flowering seasons, so diversity and temporal specialization were not correlated. The average flight season of tropical species was 3 times longer than that reported for bees in most temperate areas, and the turnover in species was also similar. Seasonality was correlated with the degree of species' sociality: eusocial bees were essentially aseasonal. Most seasonal bee species were encountered in the dry season. Flower visiting wasps were much more diverse in the tropical habitats than reported for temperate habitats, and they overlap with bees in resource use. Many other taxa also fed at flowers, and such diversity among competitors may be a factor in limiting bee diversity in the tropics.
This review outlines the antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites and lectins, compounds usually associated to defense mechanisms of plants. Secondary metabolites are separated into nitrogen compounds (alkaloids, non-protein amino acids, amines, alcamides, cyanogenic glycosides and glucosinolates) and non-nitrogen compounds (monoterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, tetraterpenes, sesquiterpenes, saponins, flavonoids, steroids and coumarins). Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins and their biological properties include cell-cell interactions. This chapter reports solvent organic extracts (mixture of secondary metabolites), isolated secondary metabolites and lectins from plants with antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria as well as antifungal activity towards human and plant pathogens. Mechanisms proposed for antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites and lectins against bacteria and fungi are also discussed. The effects of plant secondary metabolites and lectins on deleterious human and plant microorganisms indicates their perspectives of antimicrobial uses.
Pollen was obtained and identified from corbiculae of Trigona williana worker bees over a one year period at the INPA campus in the city of Manaus. Ranked by number of pollen grains, the dominant plant familes were: Arecaceae, Melastomataceae, Myrtaceae, Caricaceae, Moraceae and Malpighiaceae. Dominant plant species were Cocos nucifera, Maximiliana martiana, Cassia sp., Carica papaya, Bellucia grossularioides, Anocarpus incisa and Slachytarpheta cayennensis. Fewer plant species were exploited in the rainy season than in the dry season.