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Exposure and affect: A field experiment
Abstract
A field experiment was carried out to test the hypothesis that the mere repeated exposure of a stimulus is a sufficient condition for the enhancement of the S’s attitude toward it. The utilization of a series of display advertisements in the newspapers of two universities made it possible to specify that a set of five Turkish words was exposed at various frequencies to large numbers of people. Questionnaires containing the test words and a good-bad rating scale for each were subsequently distributed among the school populations. The hypothesis gained support: respondents assigned the highest affective ratings to the most frequently exposed words, the lowest ratings to the least frequently exposed words, and moderate ratings to the words appearing at intermediate frequencies.
... The first group of studies are those that demonstrate that repeated exposure to a stimulus improves recipients' attitudes towards this stimulus (Harrison, 1968;Johnson & Watkins, 1971;Matlin, 1970;McCullough & Ostrom, 1974;Miller, 1976;Zajonc, 1968;Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969); a root function (Strong, 1914), a nearly linear (Zajonc, 1968), and a logarithmic relationship (Harrison, 1968) have all been discussed as possible functions for this phenomenon. However, the studies that show such an improvement in attitude as a result of repeated exposure generally do not look at the effects of persuasive communication, but rather at how recipients' attitudes are influenced by exposure to non-persuasive stimuli, such as drawings or meaningless syllables. ...
... The strength of these effects also depends on repetition frequency and on its interaction with variables relating to the stimulus, the recipients, and the context. Studies on non-persuasive stimuli have generally shown that fluency increases with repetition frequency, and attitudes towards the stimulus consequently become more positive (Harrison, 1968;Johnson & Watkins, 1971;Matlin, 1970;McCullough & Ostrom, 1974;Miller, 1976;Zajonc, 1968;Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969). Studies on persuasive stimuli have also found that moderate levels of repetition lead to more positive attitudes towards product placements (Koch & Ruland, 2011;Matthes et al., 2007;Russell, 2002), posters (Miller, 1976), arguments (Cacioppo & Petty, 1979), and advertising messages (Anand & Sternthal, 1990;Weiss, 1969); however, a very high presentation frequency has been found to lead to a weakening of these effects, or even to a negative shift in attitudes (Path 2c and its underlying mechanisms provide a clear explanation of this effect later in the present paper). ...
This article develops a model to explain contradictory findings on the effects of repeated exposure to persuasive communication. The model’s starting point is the repetition frequency of a given stimulus. This determines - in interaction with variables relating to the stimulus, the recipients, and the context - whether the repeated stimulus is perceived consciously or unconsciously. If the recipient perceives the stimulus consciously, this can lead to habituation to the stimulus and to peripheral processing; alternatively, the recipient can become sensitized to the stimulus, which can result in central processing and perceiving the stimulus as a persuasive attempt. Moreover, mere-exposure effects can also have an influence on the perception of the stimulus, independent of the other paths described.
... Perhaps the best known mere exposure experiments, including many of Zajonc's own, used nonsense words or ideographs (e.g., Chinese-looking but meaningless characters) that subjects believed to be a foreign language (Zajonc, 1968;Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969). "Words" that Zajonc's subjects had seen more often were more likely to be thought to mean something good. ...
... Abstract visual stimuli and music are also often used (Anand & Sternthal, 1991;Heingartner & Hall, 1974; for reviews see Bornstein, 1989, andHarrison, 1977). Zajonc & Rajecki (1969) ran ads of nonsense syllables in college newspapers, varying the number of exposures, and found that the more students had been exposed to the ads, the more they like them. We modeled our questions on these experiments, varying exposure to company logos as letterheads or advertisements and exposure to Thai music or the Persian language Farsi through job contacts or carpooling (see Appendix A, Nos. ...
Consumer beliefs about influences on liking are explored. Questionnaires were administered to explore the extent to which respondents’ implicit beliefs resemble any of six concepts established in experimental psychology. Results indicate respondents apply beliefs consistent with classical conditioning and Weber's law and expect adaptation to occur in a wide variety of situations. They do not show a general belief in cognitive dissonance effects. They probably do not believe in affective opponent processes (rebound) or the ability of exposure alone (“mere exposure”) to increase liking, although the beliefs they do apply predict the same outcome in some contexts. Implications for consumer behavior are discussed.
... In the last century, psychologists have conducted a series of experiments on the "exposure effect" to establish a direct relationship between information exposure and information acceptance. Their results showed that repeated exposure to certain words enhances participants' favorable attitudes toward them, with the increased affective ratings and connotations as evidence [16,17,42]. Later, it has been confirmed with statements on various topics and in various modalities as experimental stimuli [18,43]. ...
Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) misperceptions constitute a critical precursor to undesired health outcomes for women. Drawing on the model of stigma management communication and exposure effects, we aimed to investigate the underlying processes of SRH misperceptions.
A nationwide survey was conducted via quota sampling with Chinese women (N = 1000). Structural equation modeling with maximum likelihood estimation and 5000 bootstrapping resamples were used to test the hypotheses.
Stigma perceptions positively predicted information avoidance (β = 0.207, p < 0.001), which, in turn, was positively associated with misperceptions (β = 0.195, p < 0.001). Misinformation exposure significantly predicted misperceptions (β = 0.607, p < 0.001), and this relationship was mediated by information avoidance (β = 0.020, 95% CI [0.007, 0.040]). Moreover, information overload strengthened the relationship between misinformation exposure and information avoidance (β = 0.153, p < 0.001) as well as the relationship between misinformation exposure and misperceptions (β = 0.077, p = 0.006).
Theoretically, the findings suggest that stigma and misinformation exposure play prominent roles in the formation of SRH misperceptions. Information overload facilitates the misinformation-misperception transformation. Practically, to counteract SRH misperceptions, health education should alleviate SRH stigma perceptions and strategically design messages to avoid information avoidance and overload.
... Some regulations will concern both content and space. A famous field experiment by Zajonc and Rajecki (1969) shows that the positive attitudes towards stimuli can be enhanced merely by repeated exposure. This finding easily explains why marketers put so much importance on public presence and flood the public space with ads. ...
Behavioural techniques or ‘nudges’ can be used for various purposes. In this paper, we shift the focus from government nudges to nudges used by for-profit market agents. We argue that potential worries about nudges circumventing the deliberative capacities or diminishing the control of targeted agents are greater when it comes to market nudges, given that these (1) are not constrained by the principles that regulate government nudges (mildness, sensitivity to people’s interests and public justifiability) and (2) are often ‘stacked’ – they come in great numbers that overwhelm agents. In addition, we respond to possible objections and derive several policy suggestions.
... Nevertheless, intergroup contact is likely to reduce negative attitudes towards outgroup members. Quantity of contact allows a "mere exposure" effect that has repeatedly been shown to improve the appreciation of other religious groups (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006;Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969), while quality of contact (i.e. closeness, equality, and cooperativeness) provides conditions for the improvement of favorable attitudes towards outgroup members (Kanas et al., 2015). ...
The study aims to extend knowledge on interreligious conflicts in Indonesia by investigating the extent to which perceived threat, outgroup distrust, and interreligious contact mediate the relationship between majority–minority affiliation and support for interreligious conflict in Indonesia. We employed two modes of support, lawful and violent protests, to represent support for interreligious conflict. We collected survey data, covering random samples of ordinary citizens (N = 2,055, Muslims and Christians) across the archipelago. Our results reveal that perceived threat is the strongest mediator in the relationship between majority–minority affiliation and support for interreligious conflict. In contrast, interreligious contact shows no significance in explaining the relationship of interest. Overall, our study highlights the importance of focusing on support for both lawful and violent protests to describe and explain latent interreligious conflict in Indonesia, while taking into account relevant concepts resulting from prolonged interreligious conflict (namely perceived threat and outgroup distrust) on the one hand and different traits of interreligious contact as highly potential solutions on the other.
... Monahan et al. (2000) further demonstrated that the mere exposure effect not only influences liking toward the novel items, but also results in increases in people's moods when they are later exposed to those items. Perhaps more importantly, the mere exposure effect has been demonstrated in real-world settings including political campaigns (Grush et al., 1978;Schaffner et al., 1981), advertising (Hekkert et al., 2013;Morgenstern et al., 2012;Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969), product placements (Matthes et al., 2007), and brand choice (Baker, 1999;Janiszewski, 1993). 2 Most theoretical explanations of the mere exposure effect have focused on perceptual fluency (Bornstein & D'Agostino, 1994;Schimmack & Crites, 2005;Winkielman et al., 2003). These explanations maintain that the more times people are exposed to an object, the easier it is for them to process that item. ...
... According to Lewis (2020), this adds up to more daily views on YouTube (6.8 billion views) than searches on Google (5.9 billion queries). Through repeated exposure (see Zajonc and Rajecki, 1969;Kahneman, 2011;Kramer et al., 2014;Jackson, 2019), a vast fraction of the population seems greatly under the influence of what YouTube exposes them to on a daily basis (Lewis, 2018). To understand today's science communication, it thus seems critical to have at least an overview of the science communication produced and shared on YouTube. ...
With 1 billion watch-time hours per day, YouTube now plays a major role in communication. Unfortunately, a large amount of misinformation is produced and widely shared on this platform (Donzelli et al., 2018 ; Allgaier, 2019 ; Loeb et al., 2019 ). In this paper, after providing a brief overview of the creation of science content on YouTube, we particularly emphasize the importance of YouTube's automated recommendations. We then discuss the main challenges of making such recommendations aligned with quality science communication.
... clear coloured sports drinks) could be a major decision for a manufacturer. The danger in adapting the marketing campaign is that the more consumers are exposed to a particular stimulus, the more they will prefer the specific stimuli ( Chung et al., 2010;Zajonc and Rajecki, 1969 ). Conversely, consumers may become bored with the stimulus and use the product less frequently, and therefore rate other coloured sports drinks more positively ( Zandstra et al., 2004 ). ...
By the year 2020, the sports drinks segment in the global beverage industry is expected to reach US$6B. In an alternate segment, bottled water is the main competitor. Sports drinks marketing continues to focus on unproven benefits such as attention, increased performance during sport, increased energy and stamina. Both categories claim their product is the healthier alternative to the other. Yet there has been limited, if any, research on the effects of the perceived taste of sports drinks, familiarity with the brand, nutrition involvement and colour cue perceptions on sports drink consumption. Study 1 explored the perceived healthiness of sports drinks based on colour cues. The results showed that based on colour alone, clear coloured sports drinks are considered the healthiest. Study 2 explored dual-stage moderated mediation effects of familiarity with the brand, nutrition involvement and clear colour on the perceived taste and sports drink consumption relationship. The results showed that if sports drinks are perceived to be flavourful, delicious and good tasting; then consumers' are more likely to consume greater quantities of it. Furthermore, familiarity with the brand mediates the relationship between perceived taste and sports drink consumption. Moreover, interaction effects of nutrition involvement and clear colour, results in a dual stage moderated mediation which has positive, direct and indirect effects on sports drink consumption. This study will assist marketers to shift their marketing tactics in terms of the way they promote the healthiness of sports drinks, from the physiological benefits to more cognitive based benefits.
... No seguimento do exposto, caberá notar que o estudo da influência da pré-exposição supraliminar numa tarefa subsequente tem sido estudada através de diferentes métodos como palavras e textos -priming semântico -mais comummente utilizados (Borine, 2007;Fajardo & Leão, 2014;Pereira & Pereira, 2011;Salles, Machado, & Janczura (2011);Zajonc, 1968;Zajonc & Rajeck, 1969), conceitos e traços da personalidade (Mussweiler & Damisch, 2008), rostos (Moreland & Zajonc, 1982;Zajonc, Markus, & Wilson, 1974), letras, localização espacial de objetos (Borine, 2007), stroop, cálculos de desempenho tarefa intelectual, ideogramas chineses e japoneses associados a rostos (Winkielman et al., 1997), pronúncias (sons), jogos eletrónicos (Adrião, Arriaga, & Esteves, 2013;Arriaga et al., 2011;Ferreira, Esteves, & Monteiro, 2007), vídeos (Lerner, Small, & Loewenstein, 2004;Zillmann & Weaver, 1999), degustação e música (Bueno, 2006), caricaturas sexuais e observações sexistas depreciativas (Rickwood & Price, 1988), objetos (Kay, Wheeler, Bargh, & Ross, 2004) a imagens (Bradley, Codispoti, Cuthbert, & Lang, 2001;Bradley, Houbova, Miccoli, Costa, & Lang, 2011;Carvalho, 2009;Dill et al., 2008). ...
Several experimental studies have emphasized the influence of the affective state, generically understood, and emotional state, in specificity, in cognitive processing. In this sequence, we aimed to analyze the effect of pre-exposure to stimuli of different valences —negative, positive and neutral— in the cognitive operation of numerical magnitude estimation of antisocial behavior. 37 female university students took part in this study, all from the same class aged between 18 and 24 years, M = 19.53, SD = 1.06. They were randomly distributed in three experimental conditions related to the stimulus valence: negative, positive, and neutral. The participants viewed a series of 18 pictures of the International Affective Picture System of the respective experimental condition, registering into the Self Assessment Manikin the affective state that the images produced. After four minutes of interval, the participants estimated the severity of 15 antisocial behaviors. The results indicated that the negative valence pre-exposure had a significant effect of decreasing the estimation of the severity of antisocial behaviors, comparatively with the other groups. Finally, we discussed the results according to the hypothesis of emotional desensitization.
Keywords: priming effect; emotion desensitization; magnitude estimation; antisocial behaviors.
Resumo Diversos estudos experimentais têm evidenciado a influência do estado afetivo, genericamente entendido, e emocional, em especificidade, no processamento cognitivo. Nesta sequência, tivemos como objetivo analisar o efeito da pré-exposição a estímulos de diferentes valências afetivas-negativa, positiva e neutra-na operação cognitiva de estimação de magnitude numérica da severidade de comportamentos antissociais. Participaram 37 estudantes universitários do mesmo grupo turma, do gênero feminino, entre os 18 e os 24 anos de idade, M = 19.53; DP = 1.06. Foram distribuídas aleatoriamente por três condições experimentais, definidas pela valência dos estímulos: negativa, positiva e neutra. Seguidamente, visualizaram um conjunto de 18 imagens-do IAPS-da valência da respetiva condição experimental, registrando na Self Assessment Manikin o estado afetivo que as imagens produziam. Após um intervalo de quatro minutos, as participantes estimaram a gravidade de 15 comportamentos antissociais. Os resultados indicaram que a pré-exposição de valência negativa teve um efeito significativo de diminuição da estimação da severidade dos comportamentos antissociais, comparativamente como os restantes grupos. Finalmente, procuramos na hipótese da dessensibilização emocional a compreensão dos resultados. Palavras-chave: pré-exposição afetiva; dessensibilização emocional; comportamentos antissociais; estimação de magnitude. Abstract Several experimental studies have emphasized the influence of the affective state, generically understood, and emotional state, in specificity, in cognitive processing. In this sequence, we aimed to analyze the effect of pre-exposure to * P.C.T. Ribeiro
... No seguimento do exposto, caberá notar que o estudo da influência da pré exposição supraliminar numa tarefa subsequente tem sido estudada através de diferentes métodos como palavras e textos -priming semântico -mais comummente utilizados (Borine, 2007;Fajardo & Leão, 2014;Pereira & Pereira, 2011;Salles et al., 2011;Zajonc, 1968;Zajonc & Rajeck, 1969), conceitos/ traços da personalidade (Mussweiler & Damisch, 2008), rostos (Moreland & Zajonc, 1982;Zajonc, Markus, & Wilson, 1974), letras, localização espacial de objetos (Borine, 2007), stroop, cálculos de desempenho tarefa intelectual, ideogramas chineses e japoneses associados a rostos (Winkielman et al., 1997), pronúncias (sons), jogos eletrónicos (Adrião, Arriaga, & Esteves, 2013;Arriaga et al., 2011;Esteves & Monteiro, 2007), vídeos (Lerner et al., 2004;Zillmann & Weaver, 1999), degustação e música (Bueno, 2006), caricaturas sexuais e observações sexistas depreciativas (Rickwood & Price, 1988), objetos (Kay, Wheeler, Bargh, & Ross, 2004) a imagens (Bradley, Codispoti, Cuthbert, & Lang, 2011;Bradley et al., 2011;Carvalho, 2009;Dill et al., 2008). ...
Several experimental studies have emphasized the influence of the affective state, generically understood, and emotional state, in specificity, in cognitive processing. In this sequence, we aimed to analyze the effect of pre-exposure to stimuli of different valences —negative, positive and neutral— in the cognitive operation of numerical magnitude estimation of antisocial behavior. 37 female university students, all from the same class, aged between 18 and 24 years, M = 19.53, SD = 1.06, took part in this study. They were distributed in three experimental conditions related to the stimulus valence: negative, positive, and neutral. The participants viewed a series of 18 pictures of the International Affective Picture System of the respective experimental condition, registering into the Self Assessment Manikin the affective state that the images produced. After four minutes of interval, the participants estimated the severity of 15 antisocial behaviors. The results indicated that the negative valence pre exposure had a significant effect of decreasing the estimation of the severity of antisocial behaviors, comparatively with the other groups. Finally, we discussed the results according to the hypothesis of emotional desensitization
... In order to minimize familiarity effects (Zajonc, 1968;Zajonc and Rajecki, 1969;North and Hargreaves, 1995;Obermeier et al., 2013), we selected poems that we expected to be relatively unknown to our participants, and also asked them whether they knew the poems they were presented with (see below). ...
This study tested the hypothesis that features of linguistically non-mandatory phonological recurrence (rhyme, alliteration, assonance, and consonance), parameters of word positioning (position within a line and line position) and dominant stress peaks are related to readers’ identification of distinctively joyful and sad words in poetry. To this end, forty-eight participants read eight German poems, completed an underlining task, and filled out a brief questionnaire. Results show that these target features are clearly of importance for readers’ perception of pronounced levels of joy and sadness. Words featuring alliteration, assonance or consonance were significantly more often underlined as distinctively joyful than were words that lack these features. Our study shows also that words that feature a dominant stress peak and are placed in more advanced positions within the poems were more likely to be identified as emotional (distinctively joyful and sad) when compared to words in earlier and unstressed positions.
... In order to minimize familiarity effects (Zajonc, 1968;Zajonc and Rajecki, 1969;North and Hargreaves, 1995;Obermeier et al., 2013), we selected poems that we expected to be relatively unknown to our participants, and also asked them whether they knew the poems they were presented with (see below). ...
The present study retested previously reported empirical evidence suggesting an iconic relation between sound and emotional meaning in poetry. To this end, we analyzed the frequency of certain phoneme classes in 48 German poems and correlated them with ratings for emotional classification. Our analyses provide evidence for a link between the emotional classification of poems (joyful vs. sad) and the perception of tonal contrast as reflected in the attribution of phenomenological sound qualia (bright vs. dark). However, we could not confirm any of the previous hypotheses and findings regarding either a connection between the frequencies of occurrence of specific vowel classes and the perception of tonal contrast, or a relation between the frequencies of occurrence of consonant classes and emotional classification.
... Pornography Revisited: There May Be Strong Effects after All THE TIME FACTOR It has been argued elsewhere (Byrne, 1977;) that brief experimental exposure to erotica is unlikely to demonstrate modeling effects. Zajonc (1968) and his colleagues (Harrison, 1969;Moreland & Zajonc, 1976;Wilson & Nakajo, 1965;Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969) have convincingly shown that repeated exposure to various types of stimuli results in decreased anxiety and increasingly favorable evaluations. Because of the anxieties associated with sex in our society, it seems likely that change would be brought about only following a series of contacts with erotica. ...
... Therefore, research investigating indirect tests of memory with nonverbal stimuli (such as the ideograms used in the present studies) is important. In fact, replicating mere exposure studies with elderly subjects is a fruitful area to pursue, as the stimuli used in such studies are typically novel, visually abstract, and/ or nonverbal-for example, Japanese (Moreland & Zajonc, 1976) and Chinese ideograms (Zajonc, 1968), random shapes (Hamid, 1973), geometric figures (Smith & Dorfman, 1975), Turkish words (Zajonc, 1968;Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969), and photographs of men's faces (Zajonc, 1968). In fact, Harrison (1977) noted that the initial familiarity and degree of visual complexity of the stimuli are important variables for whether or not an exposure effect is obtained. ...
Memory for frequency of occurrence typically is investigated using familiar stimuli (e.g., words) and with ''direct'' tests of memory; that is, the subject is required to state explicitly how often an item occurred or which item occurred more often. Experiments 1 and 2 examined the effects of age on the ability to make judgments (i.e., direct tests) regarding the frequency of occurrence of words and of novel, visual stimuli (Japanese ideograms). In Experiment 3, young and old subjects were compared on ''indirect'' measures of memory for frequency of occurrence of these ideograms, as indexed by the mere exposure effect. On the direct test of memory, elderly and young subjects did not differ when shown words, but elderly were impaired compared with young subjects when ideograms were presented. When tested indirectly, both groups were sensitive to the frequency of occurrence of ideograms. The pattern of results replicates and extends previous findings regarding performance dissociations between direct and indirect measures of memory in aging.
... Emphasized by Homans (1950) and demonstrated experimentally by Zajonc (1968), this phenomenon leads to the prediction that intergroup contact will induce liking under a wide range of conditions. Research has consistently found evidence for the relationship between exposure and liking with a range of targets (e.g., Bornstein, 1989;Harmon-Jones & Allen, 2001;Lee, 2001) and across varied research settings (e.g., Moreland & Zajonc, 1977;Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969). Moreover, recent work has demonstrated that the increases in liking that derive from exposure can generalize to greater liking for related, yet unknown, targets (Rhodes et al., 2001); this is comparable to the generalization of contact's effects to unknown outgroup members. ...
Finding ways to reduce prejudice and discrimination is the central issue in attacking racism in our society. Yet this book is almost unique among scientific volumes in its focus on that goal. This important book combines critical analysis of theories about how to reduce prejudice and discrimination with cutting-edge empirical research conducted in real-world settings, as well as in controlled laboratory situations. This book's outstanding contributors focus on a common set of questions about ways to reduce intergroup conflict, prejudice, and stereotyping. They summarize their own research, as well as others, interpret the conclusions, and suggest implications concerning the practical methods that have been, or could be, used in programs aimed at reducing intergroup conflict. The chapters present solidly based critical analyses and research findings in clear, reader-friendly prose. This book evolved from the Sixteenth Annual Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology. Each Symposium in the series concentrates on a single area in which social psychological knowledge is being applied to the resolution of a current social problem. Ideal for teachers, social workers, administrators, managers, and other social practitioners who are concerned about prejudice and discrimination, this book will also serve as a valuable foundation of knowledge in courses that examine this topic.
... disliked (Litvak, 1969), in positive and negative contexts (Saegert, et at., 1973), in laboratory and field settings (Moreland & Zajonc, 1976;Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969), and in nonhuman animals (for a review, see Hill, 1978). ...
... These findings have been replicated in numerous subsequent experiments (Brickman et al., 1972;Hamid, 1973;Harrison, 1969;Harrison & Zajonc, 1970;Harrison et al., 1974;Janisse, 1970;Matlin, 1974;Moreland & Zajonc, 1976, 1977Zajonc et al., 1971). The external validity of the mere-exposure effect has been extended through field experiments in which subjects were asked to rate the favourability of nonsense words previously placed in their mailboxes a predetermined number of times (Rajecki & Wolfson, 1973) or inserted in newspaper advertisements (Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969). The effect has been found even when the stimuli were live human beings and exposure was manipulated by varying the number of interpersonal encounters (Saegert et al., 1973). ...
... This effect has been termed the mere exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968). It has been found robustly in humans (for a review, see Bornstein, 1989); with stimuli that are presented so briefly that they are not consciously perceived (for a review, see Bornstein, 1992); with abstract, nonrepresentational stimuli and meaningful, social stimuli (Saegert, Swap, & Zajonc, 1973); in positive and negative contexts (Saegert et al., 1973); in laboratory and field settings (e.g., Moreland & Zajonc, 1976;Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969); and in nonhuman animals (for a review, see Hill, 1978). ...
Affective models of the mere exposure effect propose that repeated exposure to a stimulus increases the positive affect or reduces the negative affect toward the stimulus, whereas recent cognitive models propose that affect is not involved in the mere exposure effect. To test these competing predictions, participants repeat- edly viewed photographs of women's faces and then viewed these women again (familiar) and novel women (unfamiliar) while facial muscle region activity and brain activity were recorded. Familiar stimuli were rated as more likable and they evoked more zygomatic (cheek) muscle region activity than unfamiliar stim- uli. Interactions with individual differences occurred. Persons reporting less positive affect and persons reporting more negative affect at baseline evidenced more zygomatic activity to the famil- iar than to the unfamiliar. Persons with relatively less left frontal cortical activation at baseline evidenced a tendency toward a greater mere exposure effect. These results suggest that repeatedly exposing persons to nonreinforced stimuli increases their positive affective reactions to those stimuli.
... Zajonc (1968) said this "mere exposure" to a stimulus is a sufficient condition to enhance an individual's evaluation of it. Since then, the mere exposure effect has been found to be highly robust, with the effect being found in both children and adults (Heingartner & Hall, 1974), in between-participant designs (Moreland & Zajonc, 1976) as well as within-participant designs (Crandall, 1972), and in field settings (Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969) as well as in laboratory settings (Matlin, 1970). Shehan (1985) found that increasing the familiarity of music through repeated listening and performance has been a significant determinant of preference. ...
... These findings have been replicated in numerous subsequent experiments (Brickman et al., 1972; Hamid, 1973; Harrison, 1969; Harrison & Crandall, 1972; Harrison & Zajonc, 1970; Harrison et al., 1974; Janisse, 1970; Matlin, 1974; Moreland & Zajonc, 1976, 1977; Zajonc et al., 1971). The external validity of the mere-exposure effect has been extended through field experiments in which subjects were asked to rate the favourability of nonsense words previously placed in their mailboxes a predetermined number of times (Rajecki & Wolfson, 1973) or inserted in newspaper advertisements (Zajonc & Rajecki, 1969). The effect has been found even when the stimuli were live human beings and exposure was manipulated by varying the number of interpersonal encounters (Saegert et al., 1973). ...
9.BASKI
Prof. Dr. Erdoğan KOÇ Prof. Dr. Erdoğan Koç 20 yılı aşkın bir süredir üniversitelerde lisans, yüksek lisans ve doktora seviyelerinde tüket c davranışı alanında dersler vermektedir. Yüksek cirolu markaların ürün yöneticiliği deney m de bulunan yazar 15 yılı aşkın bir süredir ulusal ve uluslararası şirketlere eğitimler vermekte ve danışmanlık yapmaktadır. Etki değeri yüksek ve saygın uluslararası dergilerde pek çok bilimsel çalışması bulunan yazar aynı zamanda pek çok saygın uluslararası bilimsel dergide editörler kurulu üyeliği ve hakemlik görevlerini de yürütmektedir. K tabın 9. baskısı bu deneyimlerin ışığında, Türkiye'de ve dünyada ortaya çıkan teorik ve pratik gelişmeler ve ihtiyaçlardaki değişimler göz önünde bulundurarak hazırlanmıştır. Kitapta Tüketici Davranışı ve Pazarlama Stratejileri 900'den fazla araştırma sonucu ve 1200' ün üzerinde ilginç örnekle desteklenerek, uygulama esaslı bir yaklaşımla anlatılmaktadır.
İşletmenin temel amacı müşteri yaratmak ve müşterileri tutmak olduğu için bir işletmenin iki (ve sadece iki) temel fonksiyonu vardır: pazarlama ve innovasyon (yenilikçilik). Pazarlama ve innovasyon (yenilikçilik) sonuç üretir. Diğer fonksiyonların hepsi maliyet üretir." (Peter Drucker) Tüketici sofistikasyonunun derinleştiği ve marka kalabalıklığının son derece arttığı günümüzde, tüketici davranışını anlamak ve uygun yenilikler pazarlama stratejileri ile hayata geçirmek işletmenin rekabet gücü geliştirmesini etkileyen en önemli unsurlardan biri haline gelmiştir. Araştırma sonuçları göstermektedir ki; i) müşteri memnuniyetindeki %1' lik bir artış yatırım üzerindeki getirinin yaklaşık olarak %12 artmasına ii) mevcut müşterilerin elde tutulma oranındaki %5'lik bir artış ise %25 la %125 arasında kâr artışına neden olmaktadır. iii) müşteri tatminindeki %1'lik bir artış müşteri sadakat oranının %10 artmasına neden olabilmektedir. Yen müşteri kazanmak eskiler muhafaza etmekten 5 kat daha maliyetlidir. Kitabı ders kitabı olarak kullanacak öğretim üyeleri yazar tarafından hazırlanmış sunumları yayin@seckin.com.tr adresinden isteyebilirler.
This study investigates whether participation in classroom interaction and a specific type of affective priming using parents’ pictures had positive effects on ethnic minority children’s L2 vocabulary acquisition. A quasi-experimental study was set up in which preschoolers-at-risk were engaged in a task-based intervention with different types of affective priming while they were participating in, or overhearing, classroom interaction in the L2. The results of the study indicated significant main effects of (1) the children’s prior proficiency in the second language and (2) their participation in productive classroom interaction on their vocabulary acquisition. A significant interaction effect was found for overhearing and school disliking. For affective priming, no significant effects were found. This present study provides evidence that both participating in, and overhearing, productive classroom talk are powerful ways to boost young children’s L2 vocabulary acquisition.
Unsere Wahrnehmung und die Interpretation von Informationen und Reizen aus der externen Umwelt steht in engem Zusammenhang mit unseren Gedächtnissystemen und den für eine Gedächtnisbildung zugrunde liegenden, vielfältigen Lernprozessen. Dieses Kapitel beschreibt den prinzipiellen Wahrnehmungsprozess, erläutert, auf welche Reize wir besonders ansprechen und welche Faktoren den Prozess der Wahrnehmung beeinflussen. Mit diesen Ausführungen wird deutlich, warum Wahrnehmung immer höchst subjektiv und auch von zufälligen Faktoren abhängig ist.
Als Gedächtnis bezeichnet man ganz allgemein die Fähigkeit, Erfahrungen, Wissen und unsere motorischen Fertigkeiten so abzuspeichern, dass wir sie für kürzere oder längere Zeit behalten und später wieder abrufen können. In diesem Kapitel wird zunächst erläutert, wie man in der Wissenschaft die unterschiedlichen Gedächtnissysteme entdeckt hat, um diese dann in der Folge ausführlich zu beschreiben. Ein besonderes Gewicht wird aufgrund der Wichtigkeit für unsere Handlungen und Verhaltensweisen auf das emotionale Gedächtnis gelegt. Diese Ausführungen beinhalten eine Beschreibung von wichtigen psychologischen Konstrukten wie Emotionen, Gefühle, Einstellungen und deren Zusammenspiel.
Tüketici Davranışı ve Pazarlama Stratejileri: 8. Baskı
Managers are currently confronted with highly complex situations where time constraints and the availability of information make it essential that they have an effective decision-making process. Studies show that in many cases we do not use a rational process to make decisions but instead rely on instinct, emotion, or quickly processed information. The objective of this chapter is to enhance managers’ decision making by understanding the impact their cognitive biases may have on decision making, more specifically on managing people.
This review paper presents a comprehensive compilation of research evidence describing the impact of health communication campaigns through the mass media. Drawing from diverse sources, it organizes findings from dozens of investigations examining the role of mass communication in learning about heart disease, safe driving, family planning, venereal disease, drugs, smoking, diet, and mental retardation.
The basic theoretical perspective regarding the potency of the mass media, ranging from hypodermic to null effects, are also discussed. Specific strategies for effective mass communication are outlined in terms of communication sources, message appeals and styles, media channels, and receiver variables. The criteria for attributing “success” of mass media campaigns are also delineated.
In today's post-bureaucratic organization, where decision-making is decentralized, most managers areconfronted with highly complex situations where time-constraint and availability of information makesthe decision-making process essential. Studies show that a great amount of decisions are not taken aftera rational decision-making process but rather rely on instinct, emotion or quickly processed information.After briefly describing the journey of thoughts from Rational Choice Theory to the emergence ofBehavioral Economics, this chapter will elaborate on the mechanisms that are at play in decision-makingin an attempt to understand the root causes of cognitive biases, using the theory of Kahneman's (2011)System 1 and System 2. It will discuss the linkage between the complexity of decision-making and postbureaucraticorganization.
This article closes a theoretical gap in the literature by incorporating neutralization theory, mere exposure effect, self-control theory, and the theory of planned behavior to investigate social and personal factors influencing the downloading of pirated digital movies. Research was conducted using convenience sampling in a large university in Western Australia. Data were analyzed using regression models. Habitual conduct, affect, and facilitating conditions have significant influence upon attitudes toward downloading pirated movies; conversely, self-efficacy, moral judgement, and social factors do not. In addition, attitudes toward downloading pirated movies have a significant influence upon the intention to download pirated movies. It was also found that internet usage, internet time spent and internet speed do not moderate the relationship between attitudes and intention to download pirated movies. Managers, marketers and policymakers must collaborate aggressively to combat movie piracy. Marketers and policymakers can start by creating awareness campaigns to invoke the guilt factor and provide another, cheaper alternative on the internet. In addition, the punishment should be harsher and anti-piracy agencies should be more aggressive in catching all illegal downloaders by tracking their IP addresses from the internet provider that they used.
Das imaginäre Pendel, das die Wirkung von Medien zwischen den Polen „Omnipotenz“ und „Impotenz“ anzeigt, deutet wieder auf die Mitte. Zur Ruhe wird es jedoch kaum kommen. Denn eines scheint sicher: Die am Wirkungsprozeß beteiligten Faktoren sind so dynamisch, daß endgültige Aussagen über Medieneffekte aufgrund der historischen Bedingtheit der jeweiligen Aussagen nicht zu machen sein werden. Die damit sich ergebende Ambiguität hinsichtlich allgemeiner Aussagen über Medienwirkungen wird auch in R.A. BAUER’s Artikel über das „widerspenstige Publikum“ aus dem Jahre 1964 deutlich (BAUER, 1964). Sein Artikel wurde jedoch zu einer wesentlichen Referenzquelle gerade für jene Ansichten die, wie es McLEOD & BECKER ausdrückten, zur Erklärung fehlender Medienwirkungen das Publikum so aktiv machten, daß jeder Effekt bei jeder Kommunikation festgestellt werden könnte (McLEOD & BECKER, 1974, S. 137).
This chapter discusses effects of mere exposure, cognitive set and task expectations on aesthetic appreciation. To explain the contradictions between empirical findings, Berlyne has postulated a two-factor theory. The first factor "positive habituation" leads to an increase of attractiveness, while the second factor "tedium" decreases attractiveness. Positive habituation as well as tedium are a result of familiarization, but because the positive effect of habituation starts immediately and the negative effect of tedium somewhat later, their joint effects on attractiveness lead to an inverted-U function between familiarity and affect. This function relates the "hedonic value" of stimuli with their arousal potential, the latter being dependent on the novelty and complexity of the stimuli. According to Berlyne the arousal potential of stimuli is a result of their degree of complexity, which is a function of collative variables such as ambiguity, incongruity, and novelty. The more complex a stimulus, the more arousal potential it will have. The relationship between arousal potential and hedonic value, for example the degree of aesthetic preference, has the shape of an inverted-U. Very high as well as very low arousal potential is supposed to have aversive effects and therefore stimuli of an intermediate level of complexity will be preferred.
Research and theory on intergroup contact have become one of the fastest advancing and most exciting fields in social psychology in recent years. The work is exciting because it combines basic social psychological concerns - human interaction, situational influences on behavior - with an effective means of improving intergroup relations at a time when the world is witnessing widespread intergroup hatred and strife.
This chapter examines the familiarity-leads-to-liking hypothesis, with specific reference to developments since the time it was formalized and revitalized by Zajonc in 1965. Zajonc suggested that the function best describing the relationship between exposure and liking takes the form of a positive, decelerating curve, with attitude enhancement of a function of the logarithm of the exposure frequency. “Mere exposure” refers to conditions that make the stimulus accessible to the organism's perception. The chapter begins with a consideration of studies that have related assessed or varied familiarity to affective reactions focusing on the conditions suspected of limiting the exposure effect or causing contrasting effects. The conditions under which different results prevail are identified to consider major interpretations. A good deal of research in the past has demonstrated that repeated exposures to some stimulus lead to a liking for it under a wide range of conditions. The effect has been found when exposures have been reduced to a fraction of a second, rendered unrecognizable, or increased to ten times the number used in Zajonc's initial experiments. The effect has been extended into the realm of interpersonal attraction, and considerable new data has been accrued concerning the relationship between familiarity and aesthetic preference.
ABSTRACT: Most of the exposures to brand ads take place under mere exposure when these stimuli are available in the environment, but they are not processed consciously by the individual, but unconsciously, through the pre-attention. Nevertheless, studies on the effects of exposure to ads have focused the reception of conscious processes as well as the explicit measurement of this record. In light of the above mentioned, the study target of this theoretical essay is the attention process in the brand advertisers processing, involving the use of a literature review focused on the following conceptual foundations: processing perspective; theories of attention and evolution; attention process as a complex construct (pre-attention and attention); and record of information (explicit and implicit memory). It becomes evident that different levels of attention addressed to the processing, result in different ways of the stimuli record, influencing not only the way they are perceived and stored, but also the way they are interpreted and valued. Keywords: types of processing; process of attention; pre-attention; effects of the attention influence 1 INTRODUCTION Most of the exposures to brand ads take place under mere exposure conditions, in other words, when these stimuli are available in the environment, but are not necessarily processed in an active way by the individual at the conscious level (Fang, Singh Ahluwalia & 2007). In such conditions, the stimuli are, even so, processed, but automatically, without the effort and/or the awareness of the individual who receives the stimulus, a process called pre-attention (Janiszewski, 1993). Examples of this context occur daily in the individuals lives: reading journal articles, but also processing the ads; browsing the internet looking for pages of interest, but also processing the ads (banners) exposed in its surrounding regions; among others. Keywords: types of processing; process of attention; pre-attention; effects of the attention influence
72 college students saw a spatial display in which nonsense-word stimuli occurred 25, 10, 5, 2, 1 and 0 times. Occurrences of a given stimulus were either massed or distributed throughout the display. After a 4-min. viewing period, they rated all stimuli on a 7-point good-bad scale. Affect was a linear function of frequency, corroborating Zajonc's results with temporal presentation of stimuli that high-frequency items are preferred to low-frequency items. However, mode of presentation of these stimuli (massed versus distributed) had no direct effect or interaction with their frequency.
Radio programming appears to follow a theory of mere exposure, where repeated exposure to a stimulus results in enhanced positive affect toward that stimulus. Although mere exposure has received substantial empirical support, other studies of exposure to music suggest that an inverted—U better describes the exposure‐affect relationship. This study manipulated exposure to rock and popular songs in a counterbalanced design. Subjects heard manipulated songs at frequencies of 1, 8, 16, and 24. An inverted—U relationship was found, with a small but significant effect size that held when controlling for a number of stimulus and subject variables. The collative variables of subjective complexity and subjective novelty were hypothesized to interact with exposure in determining affective evaluations; this was not supported.
The author reviews the current definitions, models, and research literature available on pornography. The influence of the media on attitudes toward women and sexual aggression are discussed. Suggestions are made for educational and counseling interventions.
The purpose of this research is to identify the circumstances, if any, in which affective conditioning (AC) and mere exposure (ME) based advertising strategies can directly influence brand choice. In an experimental setting, affective conditioning and mere exposure procedures were applied to unknown brands in two product categories. Advertising employing AC and ME was not successful against known, well-established competitors. It was, however, successful against other unknown competitors if (1) these competitors did not have superior performance characteristics or (2) the motivation to deliberate at the time of brand choice was low. The research also suggests that an ME advertising strategy can be as successful as an AC strategy. This is important because an ME strategy is easier to execute. It also suggests that advertisers should place a higher priority on maximizing the prominence of the brand name and package in advertisements.
The notion that evolution is blind has somewhat hindered the integration of strategic choice to explanations of firm evolution. However, this article argues that it is mainly the Darwinian notion of survival selection that has difficulties in accommodating strategic choice. In contrast, another Darwinian notion of evolution – sexual/reproductive selection – does not pose similar difficulties. To demonstrate the commensurability of intentional, cognitively-shaped strategic choice to firm evolution under reproductive selection, we develop a set of propositions about choice processes involved in the evolution of Nokia Corporation. The propositions are grounded on an inductive, historical-longitudinal study of the firm’s evolution during 1986-1995.
A hypothetical inverted-U curve is postulated linking liking of stimuli to familiarity with them. An experiment using a special procedure was carried out in which the relationship was investigated for words, ranging from very unfamiliar to very familiar, between favourability and familiarity. The results conformed to the theoretical curve. This indicated that the positive correlation between the variables reported by several researchers (e.g. Zajonc) and the negative correlation found by others (e.g. Cantor) should be regarded as complementary rather than contradictory.
This article reports the findings of a series of studies conducted over a 3-year period. These studies investigated the influence of default values on the evaluative behavior of graduate education students who completed versions of a computerized evaluation instrument that presented one of three defaults: Excellent, Good, or Poor. Although overall evaluative ratings did not differ significantly among the three treatments, respondents who were exposed to the Excellent default rated the instructor significantly more favorably than did respondents exposed to either the Good default or the Poor default. Respondents in the Excellent default treatment also used fewer keystrokes in completing the evaluation and were significantly more likely to accept the default value than were respondents in the other two default treatments. Order of presentation and contiguity of items did not influence ratings significantly, regardless of the default employed.
Four investigations of the affect-pupil size relationship are reported here as attempts to test Hess's (1965) attraction-dilation and aversion-constriction hypotheses. In the first two studies, no evidence was found for a relationship between pupil size and frequency of exposure to a stimulus as defined by Zajonc (1968). However, it was observed that the stronger a stimulus was rated in terms of affect (like-dislike), whether positive or negative, the larger the pupil size. Pupil size at the neutral point was not smallest, as expected, but was elevated, relative to the points adjacent to it. Two additional studies, using a pseudo task which induced feelings of success or failure, confirmed the previous findings. A positive relationship was found between pupil size and affect intensity, and again, elevated pupil size at the neutral points. There was no evidence of constriction to any stimulus, positive or negative, in any of the four studies. It was concluded that pupil size is linearly related to the intensity continuum of affect and curvilinearly related to its valence (positive-negative) continuum.
For many users, the first real encounter with a computer occurs when taking an introductory course to computers at a college. To the extent that these training courses impact user understanding and motivation, they are important determinants of the user attitudes towards computers and merit serious assessment. Using 327 business undergraduates at two universities in the US, this paper reports on the reactions of students to computers and computer-related tasks before and after an introductory course to computers. Responses to a 20-item scale were analysed to examine the pattern of attitude change experienced by students in their training course. Factor analysis revealed five constructs for describing patterns of computer user attitude: negative reaction to computers; positive reaction to computers; reaction to computers for children education; reaction to computer-mediated services; and reaction to computer games. Four factors show significant change in mean scores after the training courses. The attitudes changed for males more than females, indicating improvement in attitudes. The respondents‘ attitude to computer-mediated services remained unchanged. While the directions of changes indicate an overall improvement in respondents’ reactions, many attitudes did not change significantly after having taken the training courses. This may be due to the content or the format of these courses.
Two experiments replicated and extended the “mere exposure” effect across the variables of race, sex, and level of initial favorability. Both experiments employed a between subjects design in which white subjects rated their favorability toward 20 photographs, 10 of black and 10 of white college graduates. The initial exposure sequence was followed by 10 repetitions of each photograph for experimental subjects and an inverted alphabet printing task for control subjects. During the posttest all subjects again rated the photographs. Irrespective of race and sex of photograph or initial level of favorability, exposure functioned to enhance interpersonal attractiveness in both experiments.
This chapter discusses the relationships between emotion and action. Emotion, by its very nature, is change in action readiness to maintain or change one's relationship to an object or event. Motivation, or motivational change, is one of the key aspects of emotions. Even so, action follows only under certain conditions, including the presence and availability of an action repertoire, an equilibrium of the costs and benefits of action, and the presence of resources and motivation to consider the costs and benefits. There are trade-offs between selection from the repertoire and the cost-benefit aspects. The repertoire usually includes low-effort actions that considerably expand the influence of emotions on action.
HYPOTHESIZES THAT MERE REPEATED EXPOSURE OF THE INDIVIDUAL TO A STIMULUS OBJECT ENHANCES HIS ATTITUDE TOWARD IT. BY "MERE" EXPOSURE IS MEANT A CONDITION MAKING THE STIMULUS ACCESSIBLE TO PERCEPTION. SUPPORT FOR THE HYPOTHESIS CONSISTS OF 4 TYPES OF EVIDENCE, PRESENTED AND REVIEWED: (1) THE CORRELATION BETWEEN AFFECTIVE CONNOTATION OF WORDS AND WORD FREQUENCY, (2) THE EFFECT OF EXPERIMENTALLY MANIPULATED FREQUENCY OF EXPOSURE UPON THE AFFECTIVE CONNOTATION OF NONSENSE WORDS AND SYMBOLS, (3) THE CORRELATION BETWEEN WORD FREQUENCY AND THE ATTITUDE TO THEIR REFERENTS, AND (4) THE EFFECTS OF EXPERIMENTALLY MANIPULATED FREQUENCY OF EXPOSURE ON ATTITUDE. THE RELEVANCE FOR THE EXPOSURE-ATTITUDE HYPOTHESIS OF THE EXPLORATION THEORY AND OF THE SEMANTIC SATIATION FINDINGS WERE EXAMINED. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
HYPOTHESIZED THAT NOVEL STIMULI ELICIT ANTAGONISTIC RESPONSE TENDENCIES, PRODUCING A TENSION STATE (RESPONSE COMPETITION). SUCH TENSION WAS SEEN AS ELICITING: (1) NEGATIVE AFFECT, AND (2) EXPLORATORY BEHAVIOR. 108 SS EXPLORED STIMULI, RATED THEM FOR AFFECT, OR PROVIDED AN INDICATION OF THE RESPONSE COMPETITION ELICITED. INVERSE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN RESPONSE COMPETITION AND ATTITUDINAL LIKING AND BETWEEN ATTITUDINAL LIKING AND EXPLORATORY BEHAVIOR WERE OBTAINED, WHILE THE RESULTS DID NOT SUPPORT THE HYPOTHESIZED POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESPONSE COMPETITION AND EXPLORATORY BEHAVIOR. REPEATED EXPOSURE OF INITIALLY NOVEL STIMULI WAS HYPOTHESIZED AS REDUCING RESPONSE COMPETITION AND ITS ASSOCIATED NEGATIVE AFFECT. THIS COULD ACCOUNT FOR RECENT EVIDENCE THAT STIMULUS EXPOSURE IS A SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR INCREASING THE FAVORABILITY RATING OF THAT STIMULUS. 24 SS SAW STIMULI 0, 1, 2, 5, 10, AND 25 TIMES. AN ASSESSMENT OF RESPONSE COMPETITION AFTERWARDS INDICATED THAT RESPONSE COMPETITION DECREASED AS A FUNCTION OF REPEATED STIMULUS EXPOSURES.
Conducted a series of five experiments to investigate the following issues: 1. Is word value related, in a general sense, to word frequency? 2. If a general relation between value and frequency exists, does it exist because more positively valued words are used more frequently or because one increases positive affect merely by increasing frequency? Or does the dependent-independent relationship depend on the experimental procedure used? 3. Are there significant differences in visual duration threshold between "good" and "bad" words of equal population-wide frequency? Are there significant differences between frequent and infrequent words equal in affective tone? Three positions may be taken concerning the relation between word value and word frequency, and the relation of each of these to visual duration thresh old. Two of these points of view would suggest a general relation to exist between word frequency and word value. Three experiments demonstrate the existence of this relationship. The more frequent a word or a nonsense syllable occurs in the English language, the better it is likely to be rated on the good-bad scale of the semantic differential. Since this relation does exist, we attempted to test out, in Experiment IV, one possible explanation of why the relation exists. A manipulation of the frequency of nonsense words produces systematic variation in the rated goodness of these nonsense words. Words that are frequent are also very likely to be rated as good. Hence, to separate out the influence of word value and of word frequency on visual duration threshold, we tachistoscopically presented lists of words matched in frequency, varying in goodness; matched in goodness, varying in frequency. Subjects reported the good words at significantly lower thresholds than the matched bad words; the frequent words at significantly lower thresholds than matched infrequent words. Both frequency and value appear to operate in producing differential visual duration thresholds for words. Possible explanations and certain implications of these findings were discussed.
Response competition as a mediating ractor in the frequency-affect relationship. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University ofMichigan
- M A W Matlin
MATLIN, M. A. W. Response competition as a
mediating ractor in the frequency-affect
relationship. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University ofMichigan, 1969.
Attraction, affiliation, and attachment. Paper presented at the Symposium on Comparative Social Behavior, Smithsonian Institute
- R B Zajonc
ZAJONC, R. B. Attraction, affiliation, and
attachment. Paper presented at the Symposium
on Comparative Social Behavior, Smithsonian
Institute, May 1969.
NOTES