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Bibliography of rock art dating

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Rock Art Research 2012 - Volume 29, Number 1.
118
ORIENTATION
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ROCK ART DATING
Marvin W. Rowe
Introduction
I have tried to make this bibliography as complete
as possible. I have made no value judgements and
 
of these listed have not stood the test of time, but are
included for completeness. I have also tried to put the
following references into some sort of category. The
two broad categories are pictograms and petroglyphs.
Then categories under these two are based on pigments
and techniques. I have undoubtedly mis-categorised
some of the references and apologise in advance for
any mistakes and omissions that I have inadvertently

ries.
PICTOGRAMS
Charcoal pigments: conventional
pretreatment with AMS radiocarbon dating
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& style. La chronologie de l’art parietal à l’heure actuelle.
L’Anthroplogie 111: 435–466.
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of raman spectroscopy to monitor the removal of humic
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Acknowledgments
I thank Paul Bahn, R. de Balbin, Robert G. Bednarik,

and Paul Taçon for their additions and corrections to this
bibliography.




E-mail: Marvinrowe@gmail.com
RAR 29-1041
... Worldwide, the first direct dates for rock art were obtained by Van der Merwe et al. (1987) on charcoal pigment from a South African rock painting. Since then, several laboratories have radiocarbon dated carbon-based pigmented rock paintings using acid-base-acid (ABA) pretreatment, combustion, and AMS measurement (see Aubert, 2012;Langley and Taçon, 2010;Steelman and Rowe, 2012;Rowe, 2012 for review articles). A unique application of ABA pretreatment was employed to directly date beeswax rock art, occurring in northern Australia (Nelson et al., 1995;Taçon et al., 2004). ...
... Over the past three decades, methodological improvements in the technique have facilitated reliable dating of pictographs. Plasma oxidation has been used to radiocarbon date over 300 pictographs worldwideincluding charcoal pigments and the organic constituents of inorganic-pigmented paintings (see list of references in Rowe, 2012). The plasma oxidation technique has been verified by successfully dating known-age materials from radiocarbon laboratory intercomparisons (Steelman, 2004;Steelman et al., 2004Steelman et al., , 2017 and pictographs with archaeologically constrained ages (Hyman and Rowe, 1997b;Rowe, 2009). ...
Article
The Lower Pecos Canyonlands was the first study area where the method of plasma oxidation was employed to extract organic material from prehistoric rock paintings for accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon dating. During the developmental phase of this method, Rowe's laboratory at Texas A&M University obtained 32 radiocarbon measurements for Lower Pecos rock art: 29 dates for 16 paintings of the Pecos River style, and 3 additional dates for paintings of other styles found within the region. We evaluate these legacy dates based on contextual, compositional, and measurement elements, concluding that these experimental results are problematic and should not be used to draw archaeological conclusions. Building on knowledge gained during the development of the technique, Rowe established field and laboratory methods to address issues impacting the reliability and precision of radiocarbon results. Steelman's laboratory at Shumla Archaeological Research & Education Center has implemented these and additional protocols, including: (1) proper documentation of sampling locations so that the provenience of the sample is known (contextual); (2) analysis of unpainted control background samples to identify the presence or lack of contaminants in the rock substrate (compositional); (3) chemical pretreatment with base to remove any potential humic acid contamination (compositional); and (4) improved laboratory procedures to ensure that laboratory contamination is avoided (measurement). Using this methodology, Steelman's laboratory has obtained eleven radiocarbon results for four rock art sites in the region: 6 dates for Pecos River style paintings; 1 date for a red zigzag painting of another style; and 4 oxalate minimum/maximum ages. Three of these AMS measurements are from a single composition and pass a χ²-test consistent with being coeval. To our knowledge, this data also presents the first minimum, direct, and maximum age for a single pictograph. This review suggests that future dating research in the region will produce a refined chronology for age comparisons between different rock art sites, painting styles, and even sub-styles – adding to our knowledge of the hunter-gatherers who lived in this painted landscape.
... Several laboratories have radiocarbon dated rock paintings using acid-base-acid (ABA) pretreatment, combustion, and AMS measurement (Rowe, 2012). A unique application of ABA pretreatment was employed to directly date beeswax rock art, occurring in northern Australia (Nelson et al., 1995;Taçon et al., 2004). ...
... Developed by Marvin Rowe's laboratory at Texas A&M University, plasma oxidation has been used to radiocarbon date the organic constituents in over 300 pictographs worldwide (e.g., Rowe, 2012;Baker and Armitage, 2013;McDonald et al., 2014;Rowe et al., 2016;Russ et al., 2017;Steelman et al., 2019). The plasma oxidation technique has been verified by successfully dating known-age materials from radiocarbon laboratory intercomparisons (Steelman et al., 2004 and pictographs with archaeologically constrained ages (Hyman and Rowe, 1997;Armitage et al., 2001). ...
Article
This study demonstrates a novel approach to overcoming challenges associated with obtaining reliable radiocarbon dates for rock paintings. Using two independent methods, we obtained ages for Pecos River style paintings at Eagle Cave in Langtry, Texas. The first method employed plasma oxidation to isolate organic carbon directly from the paint layer for accelerator mass spectrometry C-14 measurement. The second method treated mineral accretion layers with phosphoric acid to isolate calcium oxalate for plasma oxidation cleaning, combustion, and C-14 measurement to obtain minimum and maximum ages for the paintings. Radiocarbon dates for the paintings are statistically indistinguishable, with a weighted average of 3280 ± 70 years BP calibrated to 1740-1420 cal BC (3690-3370 cal BP) at 2 sigma (95.4%) probability. Radiocarbon assays obtained for the overlying accretion layers are younger and underlying accretion layers are older. The chronological stratigraphy of the accretion and paint layers supports the validity of both dating methods. With accurate and reliable dating methods, rock paintings in the region can be studied alongside excavated cultural deposits to provide a more complete understanding of this hunter-gather society. These methods for dating rock paintings can be applied to many rock art provinces around the world.
... Rock-art research constitutes an expansive subdiscipline (Malla 2015;Marymor & Rowe 2021;Rowe 2012) and one of the most popular areas of investigation of the human past. We would like to argue here that, beyond the variety of theories and approaches employed throughout the history of its research (culture-history, structuralism, functionalism; cognitivism; landscape, chronological, iconographic, interpretative, analogical, and art-historical approaches), there is an underlying notion in most research about rock art: that of a pan-human universal activity that emerged with Homo sapiens. ...
Article
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Research on rock art around the world takes for granted the premise that rock art, as a product of the Upper Palaeolithic symbolic revolution, is a natural behavioral expression of Homo sapiens , essentially reflecting new cognitive abilities and intellectual capacity of modern humans. New discoveries of Late Pleistocene rock art in Southeast Asia as well as recent dates of Neandertal rock art are also framed in this light. We contend in this paper that, contrary to this essentialist non-interpretation, rock art is a historical product. Most human groups have not made rock art. Rock art's main characteristic is its inherent territorial/spatial dimension. Moreover, or probably because of it, rock art is fundamentally associated with food-producing economies. The debate between the cognitive versus social and historical character of rock art is rarely explicitly addressed. In this paper we explore this historical dimension through examples from rock-art corpora worldwide: they provide key case studies to highlight the relevance of addressing the different temporalities of rock-art traditions, their interruptions and, therefore, their historical qualities.
... Most dates obtained on pictographs worldwide have been on charcoal pigmented paintings. There are about 150 publications on dating charcoal pigment in rock art that involve at least six laboratories (Rowe 2012), providing variable and sometimes contested results (Ochoa et al. 2021). A balance between the need to date the art and the impact of such actions should be found since while sampling large paintings like the ones found in Palaeolithic art may cause only small scars to the charcoal drawings, dating much smaller Levantine paintings may result in the destruction of a large part of the motifs to obtain enough matter for dating. ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper offers a broad and critical overview of current discussions on the potential uses and the characterization of pigments in prehistory, with a special focus on prehistoric rock art. Today, analytical approaches to pigments and paints allow us to go beyond the identification of the elemental and molecular composition of these archaeological remains, to explore also raw material procurement, transformation and use strategies of interest to investigate the technological and socio-cultural practices of prehistoric artists and their change over space and time. The paper also summarizes the palette of prehistoric artists, as well as the techniques and analytical strategies used to date to characterize prehistoric pigments and paints (colours, raw materials, binders and recipes) used in prehistoric rock art.
... Developed by Rowe, the method of plasma oxidation has been used to successfully AMS radiocarbon date over 300 rock paintings around the world (Russ et al., 1990(Russ et al., , 2017Rowe, 2012;Rowe et al., 2016;Armitage et al., 2020;Steelman et al., 2021). The plasma oxidation technique is particularly useful for dating rock paintings and other samples with abundant minerals. ...
Article
At Serpentine Bends Site #1, we employed plasma oxidation followed by accelerator mass spectrometry to radiocarbon date two prehistoric rock paintings as well as soot on the shelter ceiling. Pictograph results are 2325 ± 30 ¹⁴C years BP for a black line and 1315 ± 40 ¹⁴C years BP for a red outline of a circle motif. We also utilized X-ray diffraction to chemically identify pyrolyzed carbon in the black stain on the shelter ceiling, confirming that it is from fire smoke. Four radiocarbon ages for the soot represent a weighted average of multiple fires, instead of a single event. The oldest result of 2740 ± 70 ¹⁴C years BP is from the underlying black soot closest to the rock substrate and, as a weighted average of multiple layers, represents a minimum age for human activity at the site. Dating both pictographs and prehistoric soot provide novel methods for dating human activity within rockshelters around the world, especially when there is a lack of excavated materials for study.
... In caves with active speleothem growth, calcite might have obscured the drawings. On the other hand, calcite overgrowth can sometimes be dated radiometrically (U-series) in cases where carbon is insufficient for 14 C (see Rowe 2012). No such overgrowth of imagery was observed at Andriamamelo, but it is worth a search there and elsewhere for drawings covered in potentially datable calcite minerals. ...
Article
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Stylistically unique black rock drawings have been discovered in Andriamamelo Cave in western Madagascar. Several image groupings comprise naturalistic scenes with anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, and therianthropic figures. These complex images are not similar to the polychrome painted symbols previously described from the Isalo region of SW Madagascar. Eight instances were noted where images and themes suggest Ptolemaic Egyptian mythological characters and symbols, some possibly of stellar constellations. One type of M-shaped figure occurred 16 times throughout the entire design field. We have not found this figure in other rock art around the Indian Ocean, except a rare occurrence in Borneo, believed to have been created about 2000 years ago. It also matches one distinctive character found in the Amharic alphabet of Ethiopia. One set of eight curvilinears resemble Arabic characters or indigenous Sorabe. Extant animals were tentatively identified, and also three of the extinct megafauna may be pictured (elephant bird, tortoise, and sloth lemur). The latter appears in an inferred hunting scene, with a hunter pointing a weapon, the giant lemur upside down, and two dogs. Images suggest connections between traditional Malagasy symbology and the disparate worlds of the island’s ancient influences, both from NE Africa and Borneo. Milligram-sized samples of the black pigment were collected from an image for AMS ¹⁴C dating, but they contained insufficient carbon in aggregate.
Article
At the Painted Coulee site (24JT86), pictographs depicting both atlatl and bow technology are present. We utilized plasma oxidation followed by accelerator mass spectrometry to directly radiocarbon date the organic material in two paint samples. A red painting of an anthropomorph with a shield and a possible atlatl in conflict with a fleeing person holding a bow was dated to 1790 ± 50 RCYBP (cal AD 120–390). Another red anthropomorph wearing snowshoes and holding a bow was dated to 1710 ± 45 RCYBP (cal AD 240–425). Radiocarbon dates for underlying oxalate minerals provided maximum ages for the paintings that are consistent with the direct ages. This early example of Plains Biographic rock art is significant because it illustrates a scene between a Late Archaic shield-bearing warrior with a possible atlatl and an anthropomorph with a bow and arrow at a time when bows first came into use on the Northwestern Plains.
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Daraki-Chattan in the Chambal basin is the richest known Pleistocene cupule site in the world. Here excavations were conducted by the Rock Art Society of India in collaboration with the Archaeological Survey of India under the EIP Project for five seasons from 2002 to 2006. The excavations established that the site was in use mostly in the Lower Palaeolithic. The excavations also yielded twenty-eight cupules on exfoliated rock slabs, two still lying in the trench, and ten hammerstones from different levels of the excavated sediments right from close to bedrock. Besides, a stone block bearing two linear petroglyphs was discovered from layer three. The paper presents the contextual study of the cupules and hammerstones excavated from this site.
Article
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The various methods that have so far been applied to the dating of rock art in China are considered and their effectiveness is examined. The approaches are compared and contrasted with those employed in various other parts of the world, particularly in the light of the new methodology of direct dating. The utility of new techniques is considered for future dating work on Chinese rock art, by discussing their potential applicability, the tendency towards over-sophisticated methods, their reliability and their relevance for Chinese researchers. Guidelines are presented for future strategies in this field.
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The article is a response to numerous recent claims about rock art dating results, explaining how many of them are not epistemologically or logically sound.
Article
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The article considers the numerous shortcomings of traditional approaches to rock art dating before it examines direct dating. The historical development of that methodology is described and the methods applied up to 1996 are defined, as well as potential future developments. Of particular significance is the following discussion of the archaeological misinterpretation of scientific data.
Article
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‘Direct dating’ is predicated on two crucial preconditions. First, the physical relationship of the art and the dating criterion must be direct and indisputable. Second, the propositions concerning the chronological relationship of rock art and the dating criterion must be falsifiable. This paper lists all direct-dating results from 1980 to 1995.
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This paper is a refutation of the claim that a petroglyph panel at the Fariseu site in the Coa valley of northern Portugal has been archaeologically dated. It is shown that the evidence derives from colluvium, which is unsuitable sediment for archaeological dating. Also, at least one of the equine figures wears a bridle, which is incompatible with the purported Pleistocene age.
Article
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The results of microerosion analysis applied to a series of Australian petroglyphs are briefly reported.