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Edleson Revisited: Reviewing Children’s Witnessing of Domestic Violence 15 Years Later

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Ericka Kimball
Ericka Kimball
Ericka Kimball
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Abstract

A systematic review of literature was conducted using the criteria identified in Edleson’s (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(8), 839–870, 1999) article titled “Children’s witnessing of domestic violence.” Based on the recommendations in Edleson’s (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(8), 839–870, 1999) article, four themes were examined in the current research 1) the impact of exposure to domestic violence, 2) the cumulative effects of exposure to multiple forms of violence, 3) potential protective factors that highlight children’s resilience, and 4) the father-child relationship. Using similar methods identified in Edleson’s (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(8), 839–870, 1999) article, the literature was searched and 46 articles reviewed during the Fall of 2014. The results highlight areas of great success in expanding the understanding of children’s exposure to domestic violence to increase identification and prevalence. However, the results found that after nearly 15 years, there has been little advancement in the research literature on emphasizing children’s voices in their experiences of domestic violence.
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Edleson Revisited: Reviewing Children’s Witnessing of Domestic
Violence 15 Years Later
Ericka Kimball
1
Published online: 20 November 2015
#Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Abstract A systematic review of literature was conducted
using the criteria identified in Edleson’s(Journal of
Interpersonal Violence,14(8), 839–870, 1999) article titled
“Children’s witnessing of domestic violence.”Based on the
recommendations in Edleson’s(Journal of Interpersonal
Violence,14(8), 839–870, 1999) article, four themes were
examined in the current research 1) the impact of exposure
to domestic violence, 2) the cumulative effects of exposure to
multiple forms of violence, 3) potential protective factors that
highlight children’s resilience, and 4) the father-child relation-
ship. Using similar methods identified in Edleson’s(Journal
of Interpersonal Violence,14(8), 839–870, 1999)article,the
literature was searched and 46 articles reviewed during the
Fall of 2014. The results highlight areas of great success in
expanding the understanding of children’s exposure to domes-
tic violence to increase identification and prevalence.
However, the results found that after nearly 15 years, there
has been little advancement in the research literature on em-
phasizing children’s voices in their experiences of domestic
violence.
Keywords Children’s exposure to domestic violence .
Domestic violence .Perceptions of domestic violence
A systematic review of literature was conducted using the
criteria identified in Edleson’s article titled “Children’s
witnessing of domestic violence,”published in the Journal
of Interpersonal Violence in 1999. Since its publication, the
article has been cited over 650 times in various journals. The
purpose of this article is to review the current state of research
since publication, to explore and critique the advancement in
research and knowledge over the past 15 years, and make
recommendations for future research.
Summary of Edleson 1999
In his 1999 article, Edleson summarized and synthesized how
children witness domestic violence, the effects on children,
and the potential benefits and challenges of this information.
While it was difficult to assess the prevalence of children’s
exposure to domestic violence because of the dependence on
adult reports of children’s experiences, Edleson (1999)noted
estimates of 3.3 to 10 million children or teenagers witnessed
parental violence a year. Edleson (1999) provided a clear and
succinct definition of the way children experience domestic
violence that includes not only the direct eye witnessing of
adult-to-adult physical violence, but also includes hearing the
events and seeing the aftermath. This addition would later be
described as indirect exposure which refers to “achild’sob-
servation of adult domestic violence between others and its
aftermath”(Mbilinyi et al. 2007,p.331).
With a clear definition, Edleson (1999) called for additional
research that focused specifically on children’s exposure to
domestic violence. More specifically, this research should in-
clude children’s reports of exposure since much of the re-
search to that point had focused on mothers or other adult
reports of children’s experiences (Edleson 1999).
Effects of Exposure to Domestic Violence
One of the main contributions Edleson (1999) made is the
identification and description of the problems associated with
*Ericka Kimball
ekimball@pdx.edu
1
Portland State University, PO Box 751, Mailbox Code: SSW,
Portland, OR 97206, USA
J Fam Viol (2016) 31:625–637
DOI 10.1007/s10896-015-9786-7
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... In these circumstances, we wanted to have a closer look at studies that have "given a voice" to children living with domestic violence, in order to determine the nature and the scope of existing research in this specific area. We also wanted to verify whether recent studies have filled the gaps highlighted by Överlien (2010), and provide evidence to shed light on the debate involving Kimball (2016) and Holt and Överlien (2019). In addition, this would enable us to identify the remaining gaps in the literature and to formulate recommendations for future studies in this area. ...
... Rights reserved. Kimball (2016) and Holt and Överlien (2019). The scoping review included 34 articles published between 2009 and 2020, which means that a significant number of studies have addressed these issues. ...
... Over the last few decades, several studies have investigated the situation of children living with domestic violence. Holden and his colleagues (1998), Överlien (2010) and Kimball (2016) have reviewed the literature in this area, revealing an important evolution in the state of knowledge on children and domestic violence. In these circumstances, we wanted to have a closer look at studies that have "given a voice" to children living with domestic violence, and this article presented key findings from a scoping review on children's experiences, perspectives and participation in the context of domestic violence. ...
Children’s Experiences, Perspectives and Participation in the Context of Domestic Violence: A Scoping Review
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2025
  • J FAM VIOLENCE
Purpose This article presents key findings from a scoping review, which answers the following question: What is the state of knowledge on children’s experiences, perspectives and participation in the context of domestic violence? Methods The scoping review focused on articles published in academic journals between 2009 and 2020. A five-stage process was followed (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005), using Covidence software to manage the data. The review included 34 articles. Results Most studies were conducted in European countries, and most authors were from the fields of social work and psychology. All selected articles used qualitative methods to collect data directly from children. We identified three main themes (addressed in at least 20% of the articles) and several emerging themes (addressed in less than 20% of the articles). The main themes were children’s emotions and strategies, children’s relationships with their mothers and children’s relationships with their fathers. The emerging themes were children’s relationships with their siblings, children’s relationships with their grandparents, gender stereotypes, child protection and custody proceedings, disclosure, children’s relationships with their extended family and community, and police intervention. Conclusion While additional research is needed in this area, this review highlights the importance of listening to children’s voices, understanding their experiences from their own perspectives, and fostering their participation. In the right conditions, when they feel safe and supported, children are able to share their experiences, express their emotions, articulate their strategies, and talk about their relationships.
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... Children's experiences of DFV include directly observing or overhearing violence, witnessing the outcome of an assault, being involved in the violence through pressures to 'join in', being used to intimidate the mother, being used as a shield or intervening, or being impacted by psychological, sexual and/or physical abuse ). The direct physical and/or sexual abuse of children in the context of adult-to-adult violence is a strong pattern which demands that when the direct abuse of children is revealed, questions need to be raised about the abuse of the child's mother or other family members (Kimball 2016). ...
... The impact of this abuse on children is significant. Children exposed to DFV are more likely to experience depression, anxiety, substance use issues, aggression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and internalising and externalising problems, compared with children not exposed (Gartland et al. 2021;Kimball 2016). The evidence of disadvantage is irrefutable. ...
Responding to families and children where there is domestic violence and coercive control
Chapter
  • Feb 2025
Children living with domestic and family violence (DFV) are now recognised as significantly and harmfully impacted by experiences of living with violence and abuse. However, the notion that they are victim survivors in their own right has been slower to take hold in the policy and practice domain. DFV remains constructed as an adult problem of intimate partner violence in which children are 'collateral damage' and not the primary target of coercive controlling tactics. 'He is a poor partner, but a good dad' continues as an adage in the policy arena. This is most clearly demonstrated in family law decisions, where separation of the adults frequently does not align with separation and protection of children from the person using violence who is generally their father. We speak of 'men who use violence' and not 'fathers who use violence'. This chapter draws from research undertaken over the past eight years and argues that children living with, and separating from, DFV need to be identified as victim survivors with their own perspectives and experiences of the abuse and coercive control. The range of ways in which they are impacted and the protective factors that may be at play will be discussed. Policy and practice implications include the need to recognise that an effective response requires identifying children's needs in the context of their relationships with their mothers, fathers, carers and other family members-an 'all-of-family' response.
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... Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a prevalent health concern (CDC, 2022) with far-reaching impacts among women and children (Kimball, 2016;Levendosky et al., 2017). While most IPV studies tend to focus on individual outcomes, few have concentrated on the mother-child relationship (Buchanan et al., 2015), and those that do typically take a deficit-based approach. ...
... Despite characterizations of children in IPV homes as detached witnesses, more recent studies portray them as immersed in emotionally charged environments (Callaghan et al., 2016), constantly aware of the tension, and affected by what they see (Kimball, 2016). As such, children also deploy various strategies to protect themselves and resist the violence, including listening to music, caretaking of others, substance abuse, and self-isolation (Louis & Johnson, 2017). ...
“I’m glad we don’t have to see him anymore”: Mother-child interactions in the context of intimate partner violence
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2024
The long-term detrimental effects of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) on abused women and their children are well-documented. However, how IPV affects the mother-child relationship and its resistance to IPV have not received significant attention. Drawing on a strength-based feminist approach, this study focuses on the role that mother-child interactions play in an IPV context. Using grounded theory, a secondary data analysis on interviews with 11 abused mothers revealed different forms and patterns of exchanges between mothers and children, suggesting insights into the dynamics of mother-child interactions that reflect acts of resistance in an IPV context. A proposed conceptual model illustrates this process and suggests next steps for further delineating these connections.
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... It is important to underline that a child's exposure to IPV is associated with the development of serious and persistent social, emotional, and behavioral problems (Artz et al., 2014;Kimball, 2016). The family relationship between children and offenders is potentially harmful for the youngest children and can affect their future relationships. ...
... The imperative for recognition of this form of child victimization comes after decades of research and hundreds of studies (Kitzmann et al., 2003) showing the consequences that exposure to DV can produce in children's lives. These studies highlight the negative physical, psychological, cognitive, and behavioral effects that can arise at any stage of the child's development compared to children who are not exposed to DV (Artz et al., 2014;Evans & Burton 2013;Kimball, 2016;Kitzmann et al. 2003;Sani, 2019). The studies also reveal that DV can have repercussions of violence n future relationships (Evans 2003;Evans and Burton 2013;Sani et al., 2017), corroborating the hypothesis of the intergenerational transmission of violence. ...
Exposure of Children to Domestic Violence: An Analysis of Official Data from Police in Portugal
Chapter
  • Jan 2022
Domestic violence (DV) against vulnerable victims is an unavoidable socio-criminal reality of our day. Exposure of children to DV constitutes a high-risk situation which is often overlooked. The present study focuses on the analysis of 1829 domestic violence cases reported to the Guarda Nacional Republicana (GNR), one of the Portuguese police forces. The data are from the Porto district of northern Portugal, which has one of the highest intimate partner violence rates in the country, between January 1st 2015 to December 31th 2015. The results reveal that ~ 41% (n = 754) of DV cases were committed in the presence of children. Most children (91%, n = 690) were exposed to physical and psychological violence. Moreover, 73% (n = 551) of the exposed children are less than 12 years old and, of these, 41% (n = 226) are between 1 and 5 years old. These statistics raise concerns given the evidence that children exposed to interparental violence are more likely to have emotional and psychological problems than children from non-parental homes. This study allows for reflection on the opportunities for intervention by the police in the early identification of situations of exposure to DV, and proposes the adoption of preventive and protective behaviours among children exposed to this crime.
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... Domestic violence has negative consequences on all victims, especially the children who need nurturing as they are socialised. Children who witness domestic violence are reported to be fearful and inhibited and show more anxiety and depression than other children who are not exposed to domestic violence (Kimball 2016). Feelings of fear, worry, powerlessness, sadness, anger, confusion, shame, or guilt are commonly reported in children who witness domestic violence (Georgsson et al. 2011;Thornton 2014). ...
Experiences and Impact of Domestic Violence on Children: A Qualitative Study in the City of Tshwane, South Africa
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
South Africa has a high prevalence of domestic violence, and its impact is commonly limited to the partner, and not adequate attention is paid to its consequences on the children who experience such violence in their home. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the experiences of children who are raised in homes where there is domestic violence. The participants were 23 male and female children aged 12 to 16 years who were referred to one of the centres of Families South Africa (FAMSA) in the City of Tshwane because of domestic violence in their homes. A descriptive qualitative design, using in-depth interviews, was employed to collect data and NVivo version 12 was used to analyse the data. Three (3) major themes emerged from the data, these being the impact of domestic violence on children, the long-term social impacts of domestic violence, and coping strategies used by the participants to survive domestic violence. Additionally, seven (7) sub-themes emerged from the three major themes. The findings imply the need to acknowledge that children are direct victims of domestic violence that occurs between their parents. It is recommended that the school health programme in South Africa integrate screening for children who witness domestic violence.
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... Furthermore, IPV exposure continues to be the most frequently reported form of child abuse, representing 41-48% of substantiated investigations (Fallon et al., 2015;Lefebvre et al., 2013). Risks to children and youth associated with these experiences have been well-established to the point that CEIPV may be considered a form of maltreatment depending on severity (Artz et al., 2014;Carpenter & Stacks, 2009;Kimball, 2016) and classifications of exposure, for example, seeing the abuse (e.g., hitting, threatening), experiencing direct violence, as well as seeing and hearing the aftermath of a violent incident, such as physical marks and broken furniture (Artz et al., 2014;Edleson et al., 2007;Haj-Yahia et al., 2021;Ravi & Casolaro, 2018). The potentially debilitating long-term, negative consequences for children and youth who have CEIPV and other family-related traumas are well documented and include mental health challenges, conduct and behavioral problems, delinquency, crime, and victimization (among others) (Artz et al., 2014). ...
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... IPV is violence against children exposed to it, subjecting them to its detrimental effects, and globally one in four children resides with a mother who is a victim of IPV (Stoltenborgh et al., 2012;Unicef, 2017;World Health Organization, 2024a). Compared with their peers without IPV exposure, these children had a greater risk of developing trauma symptoms, and emotional and behavioral problems that could continue to put them at risk as adults, indicating an intergenerational transmission of impacts of IPV (Adams et al., 2019;Kimball, 2016;Pinheiro, 2006). Although the children might have very close relationships with their mothers who were their sources of comfort and support in the context of IPV (e.g., Lapierre et al., 2018;Mullender et al., 2002) and the mother might attempt to compensate for their children's exposure to IPV through positive and nurturing mothering (e.g., Letourneau et al., 2007;Pels et al., 2015), IPV is violence against the mother-child relationship. ...
The Integrated Model: Dynamic Changes in Mother–Child Relationship in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2024
  • J FAM VIOLENCE
Purpose This study aimed to examine the explicit and implicit aspects of mother–child relationship to explain changes in the relationship led by changes in the context of intimate partner violence (IPV) over time. The explicit mother–child relationship involves verbal and conscious communications, while the implicit relationship consists of nonverbal and nonconscious interactions. Method Grounded Theory was employed to assert the participant perspectives as most important. Participants included 33 Chinese mother–child survivors (13 mothers and 20 children) who were residents and ex-residents of a shelter for abused women and their children in Hong Kong. Data on their explicit relationship was collected from qualitative individual interviews. An art-based method, Joint Painting Procedure (JPP), was applied to obtain dyadic mother–child data on their implicit relationship. Results The integrated model, “Dynamic changes in mother–child relationship in the context of IPV”, was grounded in three main parts of findings. First, the participants’ intersecting social identities and backgrounds. Second, the changes in their explicit relational dynamics led by the transitions in the context of IPV. Third, their bidirectional and reciprocal implicit relational dynamics elicited through their JPP and post-painting discussions. Conclusion The integrated model has significant implications for professional interventions at the post-separation stage. First, IPV is an intersectional social problem requiring social and policy changes, and consideration of diversities among mother–child survivors. Second, the mother–child relationship and the context of IPV are dynamic and changing instead of static. Third, the implicit relationship provides a new dimension for professional interventions to strengthen the mother–child relationship.
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... Experiences can include a child witnessing or hearing violence between caregivers and/or attempting to intervene. It might also include seeing the physical evidence (such as bruising or grazes) or the emotional reactions of either parent following the occurrence of violence (Kimball, 2016). More recently, researchers have acknowledged that living in a house where FV occurs, or has the potential to occur, constitutes exposure (McTavish et al., 2016;MacMillan & Wathen, 2014). ...
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Insights Regarding Children-to-Mother Violence from the Perspective of Arab-Palestinian Mothers
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2025
  • J FAM VIOLENCE
Purpose This study seeks to deepen the understanding of child-to-mother violence, a largely overlooked issue in the literature. This phenomenon represents a significant societal and health concern, as it violates women’s fundamental rights to dignity and physical and mental well-being. Despite its importance, research on this topic is scarce globally, and no studies have been conducted in Israel until now. Methods In 2024, 36 semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with Arab-Palestinian women in Israel. These interviews examined the subjective experiences of child-to-mother violence, focusing on its various forms—physical, psychological, and economic—and their impacts on the women’s lives. The analysis contextualized the findings within the women’s marginalization, vulnerability, and civic exclusion as members of a minority group. Results The study identified diverse forms of child-to-mother violence and its harmful effects on multiple aspects of the mothers’ lives. It revealed a strong link between such violence and the impact of children witnessing domestic violence. These findings underscore the cyclical nature of violence within the household and highlight the compounded challenges faced by mothers due to their marginalized status. Conclusions This study sheds light on an overlooked issue and provides a foundation for developing targeted prevention and intervention strategies. It emphasizes the importance of addressing child-to-mother violence through comprehensive planning and coordinated efforts, fostering collaborative governance to reduce violence, support affected women, and promote their well-being.
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A Longitudinal Study of Modifying Influences in the Relationship Between Domestic Violence and Child Maltreatment
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2003
The increased risk of child maltreatment in the presence of domestic violence is well documented, but much remains unknown about factors that modify this relationship. This study investigates the roles of risk and protective factors in the relationship between domestic violence and being reported to the Department of Social Services for child maltreatment. Consistent with the literature, we find a significant overlap between domestic violence and maltreatment. Young maternal age, low education, low income, and lack of involvement in a religious community add to the risk for maltreatment associated with domestic violence. Separation between the maternal caregiver and her partner significantly reduces the risk for maltreatment when domestic violence is reported. A significant reduction in the risk for maltreatment is also found with higher levels of support from the maternal caregiver reported by the child in the context of domestic violence.
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The Social Networks of Homeless Youth Experiencing Intimate Partner Violence
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2014
While there is a growing body of research on intimate partner violence (IPV) experienced by the housed youth population, a limited amount is known about IPV experienced by homeless youth. To our knowledge, no previous studies have examined how homeless youths’ experience of IPV is related to their social network, even though the social networks of homeless youth have been shown to be significant indicators of health and mental health. The purpose of this study is to understand the relationship between IPV, gender, and social networks among a sample of 386 homeless youth in Los Angeles, California. Results revealed that one fifth of the sample experienced IPV in the past year. Stratified regression models revealed that IPV was not significantly related to any measure of male social networks; however, females who experienced IPV had more male friends (β = 2.03, SE = 0.89, p < .05) than females who did not experience IPV. Female homeless youth who witnessed family violence during childhood had more male friends (β = 2.75, SE = 1.08, p < .05), but those who experienced sexual abuse during childhood had fewer male friends (β = −2.04, SE = 0.93, p < .05). Although there was no significant difference in the rate of IPV victimization across genders, the context of this abuse appears to be drastically different. The results suggest that females with more male friendships are at greater risk for exposure to IPV. To date, there are few effective youth-targeted IPV prevention programs and none have been shown to be effective with homeless youth. These results provide insight into future program development.
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Witnessing Marital Violence as Children: Men's Perceptions of Their Fathers
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Full-text available
  • May 2006
This study examined 104 men to explore the type of rela-tionship they had with their fathers during childhood/adolescence. A group of men who had witnessed marital violence as children were compared with a group of men who did not witness marital violence to determine whether there were differences in how these men perceived their relationships with their fathers. Adult men's perception of their fathers was measured using the Fatherhood Scale (FS), which found significant differences between the two groups on their total FS score. This study sought to determine, if in ad-dition to the father's violence against the mother, there were other aspects of fathering behavior that were predictors of whether or not these men, as children, would witness marital violence. The results indicated that child abuse and emotional abuse by the father, and parental divorce were signifi-cant predictors of whether or not the men in the study would witness marital violence during childhood. Using logistic regression, child abuse, emo-tional abuse and parental divorce classified 75% of the men in the correct group. Results indicate significant differences in self-reported measures of fathering between the two groups of men on five out of the seven FS subscales.
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Children's Witnessing of Adult Domestic Violence
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Full-text available
  • Aug 1999
Social service professionals are more frequently identifying children who witness adult domestic violence as victims of that abuse. This article expands common definitions of how children witness adult domestic violence. A total of 31 research articles that met established quality criteria were included in this review. A variety of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive-functioning problems among children were found to be associated with exposure to domestic violence. Factors that appear to moderate the impact of witnessing violence—such as whether the child was also abused, child gender and age, and the time since last exposure to violence—were identified. Concerns about research methodology used in this area of research and the application of this knowledge also are raised.
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The double whammy revisited: The impact of exposure to domestic violence and being a victim of parent to child violence
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  • Jan 2001
The current study tests the hypothesis that children who both experience and are exposed to domestic violence suffer from a 'double whammy' in terms of significant detrimental impacts. The hypothesis is tested by a secondary analysis of data collected for the Second National Family Violence Survey in the United States. There was no general support for the 'double whammy' hypothesis. However, girls aged 12-17, who were exposed to and experienced violence did experience more behavioural problems.
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Measuring Intrafamily Conflict and Violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scale
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  • Feb 1979
Development of research on intrafamily conflict and violence requires both conceptual clarity and measures of the concepts. The introduction to this paper therefore seeks to clarify and distinguish the concepts of "conflict," "conflict of interest," "hostility," and "violence." The main part of the paper describes the Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. The CT Scales are designed to measure the use of Reasoning, Verbal Aggression, and Violence within the family. Information is presented on the following aspects of this instrument: theoretical rational, acceptability to respondents, scoring, factor structure, reliability, validity, and norms for a nationally representative sample of 2,143 couples.
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