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Factors influencing the flavour of game meat: A review

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... Game meat marketing is limited by several factors, such as the seasonality of animals harvested, poor colour stability, and short shelf-life (Neethling et al., 2016). Thus, a considerable amount of game meat and products sold in the market are frozen and consumed immediately after thawing (Wiklund et al., 1997). ...
... Consumers and their purchase decision is strongly affected by the colour of meat as they can easily evaluate this trait at the point of sale. Meat with a bright cherry-red colour is perceived as being fresher and more wholesome in comparison with discoloured meat which is considered to have a lower quality, and dark meat which is often associated with dark, firm, and dry (DFD) meat (Neethling et al., 2016(Neethling et al., , 2017Modzelewska-Kapituła and Ż mijewski, 2022). Venison, and game meat in general, is typically darker and has a more intense red colour that can be attributed to higher ante-mortem muscle activities and a greater number of red muscle fibres. ...
... Venison, and game meat in general, is typically darker and has a more intense red colour that can be attributed to higher ante-mortem muscle activities and a greater number of red muscle fibres. However, it seems to be acceptable for consumers as it is considered a typical feature of this type of meat (Neethling et al., 2016;Ludwiczak et al., 2017;Kudrnáčová et al., 2019). Typical colour coordinates for venison and game meat with normal pH could be described as L* > 33, a* > 12, b* ~10, resulting in calculated chroma values (C*) > 17 and hue angle (h • ) 19-36 (Farouk et al., 2009a;Hoffman et al., 2019). ...
... The main precursors of these particular volatile compounds are unsaturated fatty acids, as the main constituent of phospholipids (Martin et al., 2002). Products of lipid oxidation and degradation are aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, hydrocarbons, and furans, while during the Maillard reaction, sulphuric and heterocyclic compounds are formed (Neethling et al., 2016). Bhadury et al. (2021) has shown that many volatile compounds that were assumed to be created during thermal processes are also detected in raw meat. ...
... Diet affects the volatile compounds in ruminant meat, and thus, a grain-based diet leads to a higher content of aldehydes and lactones, while the meat of grass-fed animals has higher contents of various phenols, terpenes, indoles, and sulphur compounds (Bleicher et al., 2022). The total fatty acid composition and fatty acid ratios in meat are characteristic of the animal species (Neethling et al., 2016). Thus, the content of PUFAs in deer meat, as the main precursors for volatile compound formation, depends on species. ...
... Deer from lowland region had access to pastures, while mountain deer grazed to a lesser extent and primarily consumed concentrate feed. Pasture diets are richer in n-3 PUFA, as protective compounds for lipid oxidation and fat-soluble antioxidants like carotene and tocopherol that prevent lipid oxidation and formation of volatile compounds (Neethling et al., 2016). ...
... In addition, aroma plays an important role in determining the quality and consumer acceptance of dry products. The aroma characteristics of dried shrimp are mainly formed by the Maillard reaction, thermal degradation of lipids and the interaction between the both to generate complex volatile compounds (Neethling, Hoffman, & Muller, 2016;Whitfield, & Mottram, 1992). Studies have reported that pyrazines (2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine, 2,6-dimethylpyrazine, and 2-ethyl-5methylpyrazine), benzaldehyde, trimethylamine, 1-octen-3-ol, and 2pentylfuran were the key aroma compounds in dried shrimp products (Hu, Wang, Liu, Cao, & Xue, 2021;Okabe, Inoue, Kanda, & Katsumata, 2019;. ...
... Studies have reported that pyrazines (2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine, 2,6-dimethylpyrazine, and 2-ethyl-5methylpyrazine), benzaldehyde, trimethylamine, 1-octen-3-ol, and 2pentylfuran were the key aroma compounds in dried shrimp products (Hu, Wang, Liu, Cao, & Xue, 2021;Okabe, Inoue, Kanda, & Katsumata, 2019;. Pyrazines were Maillard reaction products, and 1-octen-3-ol and 2-pentylfuran may be derived from thermal degradation of lipids, as well as benzaldehyde may be generated by Maillard reaction or thermal degradation of lipids, and trimethylamine was originated from the degradation of nitrogen-containing compounds, but the Maillard reaction and lipid thermal degradation were not independent of each other, and they could interact in the same reaction system (Neethling, Hoffman, & Muller, 2016;Whitfield, & Mottram, 1992;. However, it is not known which key flavor precursors can be converted into these key aroma compounds in dried shrimp, which has an important impact on accurately improving the quality of dried shrimp. ...
... Momentously, lipids are important flavor precursors. Lipids are thermally degraded to produce carbonyl compounds such as aldehydes and ketones, and these carbonyl compounds interact with amino compounds such as amino acids to form various aroma compounds through Maillard reactions (Neethling et al., 2016;Wasserman, 1972;Tatiyaborworntham, Oz, Richards, & Wu, 2022). Moreover, with the different types and contents of fatty acids of lipids, the aroma compounds produced by thermal degradation of lipids were also different (Whitfield & Mottram, 1992;Farmer, & Mottram, 1990). ...
Article
Aroma is critical to the commercial acceptance of the hot-air-dried shrimp. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of phospholipid species with different fatty acid compositions on the aroma formation of dried shrimp. GC-IMS and GC-MS were used to obtain volatile fingerprints and volatile compound profiles, respectively. The results of GC-IMS and GC-MS indicated that the effect of phospholipids on the overall aroma of dried shrimp was related to the unsaturation of fatty acids constituting phospholipids, and fatty acids with higher unsaturation had a greater impact on the overall aroma of dried shrimp. Therefore, PC(C16:0/C18:2) had the greatest effect on the overall aroma of dried shrimp, followed by PE(C18:1/C18:1), and the lowest was PE(C18:0/C18:0). GC-MS results showed that phospholipids could promote the formation of aromatic compounds such as pyrazines and aldehydes in dried shrimp, and the magnitude of the effect of different phospholipids was highly positively correlated with the degree of unsaturation of fatty acids in phospholipids. PE(C18:0/C18:0) could significantly promote the formation of 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine and 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine. PE(C18:1/C18:1) could importantly improve the formation of 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-5-methylpyrazine and 1-octen-3-ol. PC(C16:0/C18:2) could prominently increase the formation of 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-5-methylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-3,6-dimethylpyrazine, benzaldehyde and 2-nonanone. Furthermore, three phospholipid species significantly inhibited the formation of trimethylamine.
... In addition to the nutritional properties, the consistency of game meat quality is given by its sensory properties. Given the complexity of the nutritional composition of game meat corelated to a sensory profile, the particular nutritional value provides the mix of characteristics that is resulting in overall food satisfaction [116,117]. The main particularities of game meat quality sensory assessment are consisting in the evolution of its gustatory satisfaction, in tenderness, juiciness, and aroma assessment [21]. ...
... For instance, various molecules, such as the peptides and nucleotides directly influence the formation of volatile aromatic compounds. Similarly, lipids have an important influence on the flavor of meat since the volatile profile of aromatic compounds is generally dominated by lipid compounds [117]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Game meat contains bioactive compounds that directly influence the formation of a rich reservoir of flavor precursors that produce specific sensory properties. Quality is considered one of the most influential determinants of consumer behavior, but the interpretation of this concept differs between consumers. Although recognized for its quality, its unique sensory characteristics (smell, taste, aroma) may have a major impact on consumer perception. The aim of this review is to describe the consumer behavior regarding game meat through elements of neuroperception, using methods of analysis, observation, and interpretation of scientific information from the literature. Following the analysis of published papers on this topic, it was shown that external factors influencing the biological basis of behavior could provide explanations for the acceptance or rejection of this type of meat and solutions. Neuroperception can explain the mechanism behind consumer decision-making. The influence of extrinsic factors (environment, mood, emotions, stress) shapes the perception of the quality attributes of game meat, the unique sensory characteristics of game meat passing through a primary filter of sensory receptors (eyes, nose, tongue, etc). Game meat is darker and tougher (compared to meat from domestic animals), and the taste and smell have the power to trigger memories and change the mood, influencing consumer behavior. Understanding consumer attitudes towards game meat in relation to quality attributes and the physiology of sensory perception can provide important insights for food industry professionals, processors, sensory evaluators, and researchers.
... In addition to evaluating sensorial traits, gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry can aid in understanding the differences in juiciness and palatability in meat through the identification of flavor compounds present in the meat (Lee et al., 2011;Stetzer et al., 2008;Watanabe et al., 2008). Previously, studies have associated changes in beef flavor with an increase in linoleic acid in the meat to cattle fed in feedlots using different feedstuffs (Neethling et al., 2016). This difference could be attributed to the large number of derivative compounds produced from this fatty acid when the meat is heated and cooked (Elmore et al., 2004;Ferrinho et al., 2018;Polizel Neto et al., 2022). ...
... The worst grades were observed for color and tenderness parameters, independent of treatment (Table 1). These aspects are very important for consumer acceptance and are related to the production system, as they are associated with sensory aspects by consumers and impact their willingness to buy beef (Neethling et al., 2016). The main aspect to be considered in the present study was that the animals used in this study were Nellore cattle, and the beef from these animals was not aged. ...
Article
The aim of this study was to evaluate the sensory characteristics of meat from cattle fed a cottonseed diet. A total of 100 beef cattle, with a mean initial live weight of 386.19 ± 4.48 kg and a mean slaughter weight of 527.82 ± 17.96 kg, aged between 13 and 48 months, were maintained in the feedlot for 88 days. This study was conducted with two treatments: a control treatment and feeding cattle whole cottonseed at a concentration of 15.9%. The animals were slaughtered for determination of sensory and volatile compounds in the beef. There was a difference in aroma, with better grades attributed to beef not fed cottonseed. The use of cottonseed promoted the occurrence of a strange taste in beef. There was a difference in the profile of volatile compounds between the groups. In general, feeding cattle cottonseed did not modify the qualitative sensorial aspects of beef; however, there was a greater chance of the development of some strange flavors of high intensity. The volatile compound profile of beef from cattle fed cottonseed was different than that of beef from control group.
... Another factor that may be associated with the 'unpleasant colour' in S. merianae meat is its content of unsaturated fatty acids (>60%, Table 2). High levels of unsaturation, combined with elevated iron levels, promote lipid oxidation during the cooking process (Joseph et al., 2010;Neethling et al., 2016). This lipid oxidation promotes the oxidation of myoglobin, leading to colour deterioration in the meat and the emergence of brown hues (Descalzo et al., 2005;Neethling et al., 2016;Holman et al., 2018;Tomasevic et al., 2021). ...
... High levels of unsaturation, combined with elevated iron levels, promote lipid oxidation during the cooking process (Joseph et al., 2010;Neethling et al., 2016). This lipid oxidation promotes the oxidation of myoglobin, leading to colour deterioration in the meat and the emergence of brown hues (Descalzo et al., 2005;Neethling et al., 2016;Holman et al., 2018;Tomasevic et al., 2021). Additionally, the by-products of lipid degradation (alkanes, ketones, hydrocarbons, alcohols, acids and aldehydes; Insani et al., 2008) contribute to the development of rancid odour and taste (Faustman et al., 2010;Purrinos et al., 2011). ...
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Considering the escalating consumer preference for health‐conscious commodities, reptile species' meat can be presented as an alternative animal protein source because of its notable nutritional characteristics. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physicochemical parameters (pH, tenderness, cooking loss, colour and fatty acid profile) and sensory profile of black‐and‐white Tegu meat. The black‐and‐white Tegu meat was assessed through to consumer‐based sensory Analysis alongside the Yellow Anaconda, Broad‐snouted Caiman and broilers through. The samples of reptile species' meat were obtained from sustainable use programs. In terms of physicochemical parameters, the results indicate that black‐and‐white Tegu meat exhibits moderate brightness, displaying a pale pink/yellowish tone. Oleic acid was the most abundant fatty acid in black‐and‐white Tegu meat, comprising approximately 22.5%, while the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids was approximately 34%. Regarding overall liking, all four types of meats scored higher than indifference. However, black‐and‐white Tegu meat presented a lower acceptability (P < 0.001), likely attributed to its dry texture and unpleasant colour, as perceived by consumers. Our findings underscore the need to explore preparation methods for enhancing the sensory characteristics of black‐and‐white Tegu meat. This will enable its promotion as a healthy food choice in the future. The utilisation of black‐and‐white Tegu meat as a food source will benefit families participating in the sustainable use and conservation program, the ‘Proyecto Tupinambis’.
... Flavor, often referred to as a "game meat" flavor, is another crucial element distinguishing pork from wild boar meat [84]. Lammers et al. (2009) [85] reported that the typical aroma of wild boar meat could be due to Maillard reactions followed by Strecker degradations of the sulfur-containing essential amino acid methionine and phenylacetaldehyde (derived from phenylalanine). ...
... The average chemical composition of wild boar meat shows high levels of proteins (22-26%) and low total lipid contents (2-5%), which are composed of oleic (36-43%), linoleic (13-19%), linolenic (0.6-1%), and palmitic (20-21%) acids [24,83,84]. The lipid and cholesterol levels (55-59 mg/100 g meat) are lower than meats from other ruminants [24,89,90]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Pork production involves several sustainability issues. The recent increase in the natural wild boar population and the possibilities of its breeding to produce meat and for sport hunting have revived attention on this wild species. The most important factors that could account for its expansion and niche invasion are briefly summarized with the scientific opinion on management strategies. The information available to date on the quantitative, nutritional, and sensory characteristics of wild boar meat is reviewed to highlight its potential, if properly managed, as a sustainable option in meat production. This review reports on the opportunity of using wild boar meat in processed products and the need for research on processing qualities and acceptability for different final products. Above all, this review suggests that wild boar can be considered a sustainable alternative to meet the animal protein demand, as it can be established in marginal areas where it is already adapted to the environment, representing an interesting addition to traditional zootechnics.
... In general, a low stress death by stalking should result in better quality meat and meat-processing companies will pay better prices for meat from stalked animals than for stress-hunted meat (Güldenpfennig et al., 2021). The way that animals are hunted and eviscerated in the field differs from the typical sanitary conditions in effect in slaughterhouses (Soriano et al., 2006;Cifuni et al., 2014;Neethling et al., 2016;Mirceta et al., 2017). ...
... vs 33.70 nmol/L). However, given the field conditions, the possibilities for quality control of game meat are limited (Neethling et al., 2016;Mirceta et al., 2017). Stress is detrimental and also has a negative impact on meat quality (Edwards, 2019). ...
Article
Full-text available
For centuries, game meat has been an important source of proteins, vitamins and minerals in the human diet. Interestfor game meat during last few decades is increasing, mainly due to lower ecological footprint and a preferred chemicalcomposition in comparison to the meat of domestic animals. In recent years, Europe has been facing an overpopulationof wild boars, which affects the availability of game meat to a wider niche of consumers. Therefore, wild game meatis a great alternative to others red meats and it has a great advantage on the world meat market. Regarding physicalparameters of wild boar meat wide range of values can be found depending on analysed muscle type, sex, age, seasonand/or hunting technique. In general, same as meat of other large game species, wild boar meat is darker (lower L*),more red (higher a*) and colour parameter values can highly vary depending on previously mentioned factors. pH valueusually ranges between 5.5 to 5.8, but also variations are often as wild boars have different post-mortem pH decline thandomestic pigs. Expected cooking loss of wild boar meat is about 30% and higher, while meat tenderness measured asWarner-Bratzler shear force is usually higher than 40 N.
... Meat differences most probably depend on the species, and considering the animal's diet is important in quantifying the differences in the composition and quality of meat derived from different muscles. Due to different muscle anatomical locations and functions, including the physical activity level of skeletal muscles, the physicochemical composition of muscles differs and, accordingly, influences the differences in the characteristics of meat [51]. The hunting season demonstrated an effect (p < 0.001) on protein and hydroxyproline contents in the LTL and effects (p < 0.05, p < 0.001 and p < 0.01, respectively) on dry matter, protein and hydroxyproline contents in BF muscles. ...
... In their review, Neethling et al. [51] noted that meat from female game animals contains significantly higher amounts of fat compared with males and, consequently, also contains higher proportions of SFA; however, no such relation was found for the brown hare. A high amount of palmitic (C16:0) fatty acid in the tissues of the brown hare is in agreement with the findings for wild hares in Romania [52]. ...
Article
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The objective of the study was to determine the effects of sex and hunting season on the carcass, meat and fat quality of hunted brown hares (Lepus europaeus). Twenty-two hares of both sexes hunted in winter (December) during two hunting seasons in accordance with the law on hunting in Lithuania were evaluated using reference methods The data were subjected to two-factor analysis of variance in the general linear (GLM) procedure. No significant differences in carcass measurements and muscularity or internal organs between the sexes of brown hares were found; however, the hunting season appeared to affect the size of hares. The biceps femoris (BF) thigh muscle of males had lower (p < 0.05) dry matter content and higher (p < 0.05) drip loss compared with females. The hunting season demonstrated an effect (p < 0.001) on protein and hydroxyproline contents in the longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) and affected dry matter, protein and hydroxyproline contents (p < 0.05, p < 0.001 and p < 0.01, respectively) in BF muscles, and differences in the colour of muscles were also observed. The shear force in the Warner-Bratzler (WB) test was higher (p < 0.001 and p < 0.01, respectively) for LTL and BF muscles during the first hunting season. The hunting season did not affect the total SFA in the intramuscular fat (IMF) of all the tissues, but it affected levels of monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids in the muscles. No differences were found in the total saturated fatty acids (SFA) of both muscles between the sexes, but females demonstrated lower (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively) and more favourable n-6/n-3 PUFA ratios in the muscles and fat and a lower (p < 0.05) thrombogenic (TI) index in the LTL compared with males.
... Consumers worldwide express more and more interest in consuming game meat, and this trend is increasing every year, holding the reputation of exotic and luxurious meat [19,20]. Their appreciation for game meat is attributed to its nutritional value, as well as for its taste, aroma, and natural origin [21][22][23][24]. This type of meat is recognized as being healthier and highly nutritious, with its specific taste. ...
... Besides the control sample, a statistically significant difference was observed for most of the color parameters for sample "B" compared to the other samples. It was expected that game meat affects color in terms of its darkening [22]. The total color difference values of fresh samples show that the color of meat parts has a higher degree of difference compared to fat parts (values above 10 compared to values below 10). ...
Article
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This study analyzes the influence of two different types of game meat (deer and wild boar) in relation to quality characteristics and oral processing attributes of skinless sausage. The goal of this study was to compare grilled game-meat-based “ćevap” with conventional pork-meat-based samples. Research comprised of color analysis, evaluation of textural components, testing degree of difference, temporal dominance of sensations, calculation of main oral processing attributes, and examination of particle size distribution. The results show that oral processing attributes are similar in between samples and concur with results of the pork-based sample. This confirms the working hypothesis that it is possible to make game-meat-based “ćevap” fully comparable with conventional pork meat products. In parallel, color and flavor characteristics are influenced by the type of game meat in the sample. Most of the dominant sensory attributes that occurred during mastication were game meat flavor and juiciness.
... In addition to the nutritional properties, the consistency of game meat quality is given by its sensory properties. Given the complexity of the nutritional composition of game meat corelated to a sensory profile, the particular nutritional value provides the mix of characteristics that is resulting in overall food satisfaction [116,117]. The main particularities of game meat quality sensory assessment are consisting in the evolution of its gustatory satisfaction, in tenderness, juiciness, and aroma assessment [21]. ...
... For instance, various molecules, such as the peptides and nucleotides directly influence the formation of volatile aromatic compounds. Similarly, lipids have an important influence on the flavor of meat since the volatile profile of aromatic compounds is generally dominated by lipid compounds [117]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Game meat contains bioactive compounds that directly influence the formation of a rich reservoir of flavor precursors that produce specific sensory properties. Quality is considered one of the most influential determinants of consumer behavior, but the interpretation of this concept differs between consumers. Although recognized for its quality, its unique sensory characteristics (smell, taste, aroma) may have a major impact on consumer perception. The aim of this review is to describe the consumer behavior regarding game meat through elements of neuroperception, using methods of analysis, observation, and interpretation of scientific information from the literature. Following the analysis of published papers on this topic, it was shown that external factors influencing the biological basis of behavior could provide explanations for the acceptance or rejection of this type of meat and solutions. Neuroperception can explain the mechanism behind consumer decision-making. The influence of extrinsic factors (environment, mood, emotions, stress) shapes the perception of the quality attributes of game meat, the unique sensory characteristics of game meat passing through a primary filter of sensory receptors (eyes, nose, tongue, etc). Game meat is darker and tougher (compared to meat from domestic animals), and the taste and smell have the power to trigger memories and change the mood, influencing consumer behavior. Understanding consumer attitudes towards game meat in relation to quality attributes and the physiology of sensory perception can provide important insights for food industry professionals, processors, sensory evaluators, and researchers.
... Ivanović et al. (2020) demonstrated that animal species exerted a significant effect on the values of a* (higher in roe deer) and b* (higher in red deer) in the longissimus thoracis muscle, whereas similar values of these color parameters were noted in the gluteus superficialis muscle. The dark color of game meat is perceived by some consumers as an indicator of inferior quality (Neethling et al., 2016). Actually, game meat has a high content of myoglobin that contains pigments responsible for its dark color, which is associated with high motor activity of wildliving animals (Kerry et al., 2002). ...
... Game meat has a characteristic aroma and taste, which are distinct from those of other meat types (Hutchison et al., 2010) and often discourage consumers from choosing game meat and fully appreciating its culinary value. Game meat flavor is affected by the specific lifestyle and diet of animals (food availability, seasonal variation in food resources, selective feeding), physical activity (low body fat content), reproductive cycle (increased production of sex hormones during the rut), harvesting conditions (sanitary conditions during carcass processing in the hunting ground, absorption of odors from the environment), and storage conditions (Neethling et al., 2016). In the present study, a tendency to higher intensity of aroma and taste was noted in larger cervids, i.e. moose and red deer. ...
Article
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The quality of the longissimus lumborum muscle has been compared in male moose, red deer, fallow der and roe deer from wild populations. The results of this study indicated that Cervid meat had favorable chemical composition and high sensory quality but its properties were affected by the species of the animal. The highest quality was characterized roe deer meat. It was found that her meat had the best water-holding capacity and was most tender, and intramuscular fat had highest nutritional value. However, due to the high diversity and variation of factors affecting game meat quality, further research is needed to confirm the observed interspecific differences between members of the family Cervidae.
... Meat flavor is an important and complex attribute of sensory quality Lawrie & Ledward, 2006;Calkins & Hodgen, 2007). This trait is a combination of aroma and flavor and is influenced by various compounds that stimulate smell and taste James & Calkins, 2008;Neethling, Hoffman, & Muller, 2016;Neethling et al., 2016). Wild birds possess the characteristic flavor of game meat, as observed by Morales et al. (2018) in red partridge (Alectoris rufa). ...
... Meat flavor is an important and complex attribute of sensory quality Lawrie & Ledward, 2006;Calkins & Hodgen, 2007). This trait is a combination of aroma and flavor and is influenced by various compounds that stimulate smell and taste James & Calkins, 2008;Neethling, Hoffman, & Muller, 2016;Neethling et al., 2016). Wild birds possess the characteristic flavor of game meat, as observed by Morales et al. (2018) in red partridge (Alectoris rufa). ...
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The aim of the present study was to evaluate the efficiency of selection for body growth and its association with carcass and meat quality traits in the red-winged tinamou. Two experimental groups were selected based on the selection index: selection group with a higher index (TinamouS) and commercial group with a lower index (TinamouC). Weight at 180 days and slaughter weight were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the TinamouS group, as were hot carcass weight, skinless breast weight, wing weight, and thigh and drumstick weight. The meat quality traits or sensory attributes did not differ significantly (p > 0.05) between groups. A significant positive correlation (0.59; p < 0.05) was found between shear force and chewability and a significant negative correlation (− 0.59; p < 0.05) between aroma intensity and strange aroma. The present study suggests that the selection index promotes greater body growth and preserves meat quality and sensory traits in red-winged tinamou.
... These were confirmed for the muscle fiber type distributions where wild boar is richer in oxidative myofibrils, is darker, has stronger muscles, lean meat, and in general, is considered less juicy and tender (Guzek et al., 2013;Sales & Kotrba, 2013). Another crucial element distinguishing pork from wild boar meat is flavor, often characterized as 'game meat' flavor (Neethling, Hoffman, & Muller, 2016). Recent research found wild boar meat was acceptable to consumers (Macháčková, Zelený, Lang, & Vinš, 2021). ...
... It had dominance rates between 35 and 50% for all three cooking methods. Neethling et al. (2016) discussed the influence of cooking on the complexity of game meat flavor development. However, no publications have investigated the dynamics of game meat flavor release during mastication. ...
Article
The literature suggests that wild boar meat structure is unique among pork meats, being less juicy and tender. However, a deeper analysis of wild boar meat consumption from the oral processing and sensory perception perspectives is lacking. This research reports on how boiling, grilling, and sous-vide cooking methods affect wild boar ham color, texture, mastication, bolus formation, and dynamic sensory perception. The examined cooking methods produced steaks of different colors, where the sous-vide was lighter and redder on cross-section. Meat having higher redness had lower hardness and chewiness. That was also further observed for oral processing, where the sous-vide and grilled meat demanded less effort for mastication, absorbed less saliva, and produced boluses with fewer and bigger particles than did the boiled meat. In contrast, boiling led to higher cooking loss, which further affected bolus formation, with more saliva needed. Regarding sensory perception, boiled meat was firm and fibrous compared to grilled and sous-vide meats that were juicier.
... Similar to this study, many authors cited taste and other sensory characteristics such as tenderness and juiciness as important reasons for consuming game [4,59,61,63,68,[76][77][78][79]. The taste of game is specific and is both an advantage and a disadvantage of this meat. ...
... The unknown taste of game was more often an incentive to try it for men up to 30 years of age and people with a primary education [71]. It should be noted that the sensory value, nutritional value, and natural origin were perceived as the main value of game [4,5,56,60,63,78,[80][81][82]. ...
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Wild game meat can be a healthier, safer, and more environmentally friendly alternative to meat from farm animals. The aims of this study were to know the preferences and opinions of Polish consumers regarding game meat and its use in their diet, and to identify consumer segments based on differences in individual game meat choices, concerns, and eating habits related to game meat. The survey was conducted using the platform for online surveys among 1261 adult Poles. Six clusters characterizing the behavior of game consumers were identified (casual consumers, occasional game gourmets, indifferent consumers, occasional consumers, accidental consumers, wild game lovers) and four clusters among those who do not eat game (uninterested, restricted, dislikers, fearful). It has been found that wild game is more often eaten by hunters and their family or friends. The most common reasons for not consuming game are high prices, low availability, no family tradition, and unacceptable taste. Many positive respondents eat game because of its nutritional value but are concerned about the potential health risks and lack of cooking skills. The results of this study indicate the need for information programs for consumers about this meat. They will provide guidance to meat companies about consumer preferences for game and allow them to develop appropriate marketing strategies.
... affect the quality of game (Neethling et al. 2016). Despite some problematic aspects related to the health safety or processing of game meat, it is a regionally available raw material with high nutritional value due to its low-fat content and favourable composition of selected nutrients (Kudrnáčová et al. 2018;Corradini et al. 2022). ...
... A lower concentration of furan in impala and springbok meats can be explained by the observed lower levels of its precursors, i.e. glucose 6-phosphate and fructose 6-phosphate (Kosowska, Majcher, & Fortuna, 2017). The high concentration of unsaturated fatty acids in impala, in contrast to the low concentration of springbok and mountain reedbuck meat, results in stronger flavour development in meat (Neethling, Hoffman, & Muller, 2016). Therefore, different fatty acid profiles between impala, springbok and mountain reedbuck species influenced the profile and amounts of volatile compounds formed. ...
... In contrast, the influence of wet aging on the flavor profile of beef remains a subject of ongoing debate within the scientific community. Although a cohort of studies reports a positive correlation between the duration of wet aging and the development of enhanced flavor profiles (Ba et al., 2014;Neethling et al., 2016;Ha et al., 2019), other researchers have indicated that the impact on flavor is not significant (Smith et al., 2014). This discrepancy suggests that while wet aging may be a reliable method for improving the tenderness and juiciness of beef, its impact on flavor remains equivocal and warrants further investigation. ...
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The objective of this study was to determine if wet aging increases the value and demand for lower-quality USDA-grade beef steaks. USDA Select boneless beef loins (NAMP #180) were dorsally divided into 4 equal portions, which were randomized to receive 0, 7, 14, or 21 d of wet aging. A total of twenty 2.5-cm-thick steaks from each aging time (n = 20 steaks per aging treatment) were cooked to an internal temperature of 71°C, cubed, and served to a consumer panel (N = 126), which evaluated acceptability using a 9-point hedonic scale with 1 and 9 representing “dislike extremely” and “like extremely,” respectively. Immediately after the panel, a elicitation mechanism auction method was used to obtain independent consumer willingness to pay for each aging time. Consumers were separated into 6 clusters based on overall acceptability ratings. Cluster 1 (n = 24) preferred steaks that were aged for 0 and 21 d (P ≤ 0.014). Cluster 2 (n = 50) liked all treatments moderately but liked steaks aged for 7, 14, and 21 d more than 0-d aged steaks (P ≤ 0.018); Cluster 3 (n = 20) preferred 0-d steaks over 7-d steaks and 7-d steaks over 14-d and 21-d aged steaks (P ≤ 0.044). Cluster 4 preferred 7-d and 21-d aged, and Cluster 6 preferred 14-d and 21-d aged steaks. Demand analysis indicated that 0, 7, and 21 d of aging would sell 5.29, 5.34, and 6.94 more units (0.454 kg) (P < 0.001) than steaks aged for 14-d holding price constant at the current market value of $14/0.454 kg. Overall, results indicated that wet aging for 14-d was not sufficient to provide the flavor and tenderness improvements that were apparent after 21 d of aging. Under optimal pricing and various cost scenarios, 21 d of aging was the most profitable single product offering only if daily production costs were sufficiently low.
... For example, although they disagree that they consume wildlife meat all the time (41.5%) or eat wildlife meat daily (54.1%), most respondents have indicated their preference for eating wildlife meat because it is tastier (63.3%) which is why they enjoy eating wildlife meat (52.5%). Taste and other textural attributes, such as tenderness and juiciness, have been noted by numerous authors as major reasons for consuming game meat (Neethling et al. 2016, Sandalj et al. 2016, Demartini et al 2018, Popoola et al. 2022. Their responses to consuming wildlife meat are also related to their socio-cultural beliefs as a fraction of them agreed that they eat wildlife meat as part of their traditional practices (38.8%) and native right (37.5%) while a small percentage stated they eat wildlife meat only during celebrations (26.5%). ...
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There are many types of forests in Sarawak that support various species of wildlife. In Sarawak, consuming wildlife meat is common among local communities especially those residing in rural areas where they hunt wildlife for their own consumption. Logging activities and the construction of roads have increased accessibility into the forests, and the connection between rural and urban areas. This has created the potential for wildlife meat commercial trade. However, the behaviour of local communities pertaining to wildlife meat consumption is understudied in Malaysia. This study aims to determine local communities' attitudes and perceptions toward consuming wildlife meat and their wildlife meat preferences in Bintulu. Local communities' attitudes and perceptions toward wildlife meat consumption were compared between the urban-rural communities. The findings showed that the local communities in Bintulu have a neutral attitude and perception toward consuming wildlife meat. The neutral tendency is attributed to their mixed responses toward consuming wildlife meat. Although the local communities do not depend on wildlife meat as their source of food, they consume it as part of their social and cultural beliefs and tradition. They also have the tendency of choosing neutral responses to state their attitudes and perceptions towards wildlife meat consumption statements. Despite their neutral attitude and perception, rural communities have a tendency to consume wildlife meat compared to urban communities. Among the wildlife meat, wild boar meat is the most preferred. The findings provide guidance towards developing successful strategies and actions to influence local communities towards sustainable use of wildlife for consumption.
... It is extremely challenging to standardise the quality of hunted game meat, as so many factors influence its final physico-chemical, sensory, and microbiological quality, from animal factors (species, age, sex, muscle type), environmental factors (nutrition, environmental contaminants, disease exposure, season), to processing factors (killing method and efficacy, time from killing to evisceration and refrigeration, facilities available and their hygiene) (Hoffman, Mostert, & Laubscher, 2009;Kohn, Hoffman, & Myburgh, 2007;Neethling, Hoffman, & Muller, 2016). Different game species have unique sensory profiles, which are further influenced by factors such as age, sex, season, and origin. ...
Article
Re-wilding and similar initiatives have resulted in an increase in wildlife suitable for human consumption in Europe. However, game meat production and consumption present several challenges, including infectious diseases which pose risks to livestock, processers, and consumers. This review provides insights into the infectious diseases and toxic contaminants associated with game meat. The effect of killing method on the meat quality is also discussed and means of improving the meat quality of game meat is elucidated. The use of different food safety systems that could be applied to provide safe meat is reported. The importance of collaborative multi-sector approaches is emphasized, to generate and distribute knowledge and implement One Health strategies that ensure the safe, traceable, sustainable, and professional development of commercial game meat supply chains.
... It is through addressing these processes that game meat safety could be achieved. Researchers [19,28,49] have continuously reported on the involvement of other stakeholders in the promotion of safer game meat. This investigation suggests that the stakeholders listed below are important for small wild ungulate meat production, and could play a significant role in the formation of a stakeholders' forum, as outlined in Figure 2. ...
Article
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Animal slaughter plans and related activities must not increase the number of hazards in meat. In their nature, these processes must reduce possible hazards to minimum or acceptable levels. This is a generally accepted concept worldwide; hence, authorities continue to develop regulations that seek to mitigate the scourge of meat hazards for consumer protection. The situation is similar with small wild ungulate meat, in which a hazard analysis plan needs developing to improve meat safety. This investigation follows a narrative review of articles published for a PhD program and other scholarly articles supporting the concept of a basic slaughter plan for small wild ungulate animals in South Africa. The findings of this investigation highlight the need to control hazards within one health concept plan, which should be implemented and propagated by establishing forums that will drive meat safety solutions in these communities. There should be a basic hygiene slaughter plan developed and endorsed by all members of the forum. The outcome must be the control of microbiological, chemical and physical hazards from farm-to-fork, and as part of a system imbedded in game meat policies and regulations.
... The literature widely discusses the subject of low fat content in wild game meat, as well as the presence of bioactive ingredients in this product [37,[45][46][47]. In turn, Soriano and Sanchez-Garcia [48] conducted an analysis of the nutritional value of wild animal meat obtained in Central and Mediterranean Europe. ...
Article
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To conduct rational hunting management, a certain number of wild animals must be harvested yearly. However, some countries have a problem with managing the harvested meat. An example is Poland, where game consumption is estimated at 0.08 kg/person/year. This situation leads to environmental pollution as a result of meat exports. The level of environmental pollution depends on the type of transport and distance. However, the use of meat in the country of harvesting would generate less pollution than its export. Three constructs were used in the study, which aimed to determine whether the respondents show food neophobia, whether they are willing to seek diversity in food, and what their attitudes towards game meat are. All the scales used were previously validated. Four-hundred and fifty-three questionnaires were collected using the PAPI method. It was found that the respondents showed ambivalent attitudes towards game meat to the greatest extent (76.6%), 16.34% had positive attitudes, and 7.06% had negative attitudes. It seems essential that most of the respondents were highly inclined to look for variety in food (55.85%). Regarding food neophobia, there were 51.43% of people with medium neophobia, while also many people with a low level of neophobia—43.05%. Such results allow speculation that the respondents are open to the new food, they are looking for it, and the low level of game meat consumption is primarily due to the lack of knowledge and awareness about the value of this meat.
... So far, only very few studies have focused on consumer demand, consumer segmentation, or consumer behavior related to game meat (e.g., Demartini et al., 2018;Marescotti et al., 2019;Marescotti et al., 2020), and practically no such studies have been conducted in the Northern European context. Instead, previous research has traditionally analyzed the nutritional content and quality of game meat (Lecocq, 1997;Neethling et al., 2016) or the attitudes related to game meat and hunting more generally (Gamborg & Jensen, 2016;Gamborg et al., 2018;Krokowska-Paluszak et al., 2020;Ljung et al., 2012), thus taking a very product-oriented approach to game meat consumption. Studies have shown the connection between hunting and consumption/perceptions of game meat from the hunters' perspective, who have access to the meat resource and are familiar with it (e.g. ...
Article
As traditional meat production has become stigmatized for several reasons, consumer interest in game as an ethical and ecological meat alternative has increased. However, game meat is typically harvested through hunting, toward which consumers may have very divided attitudes. Concurrently, game meat is still valued as food. This interesting mismatch raises questions as to what types of game meat consumer segments exist and whether the value of ecological food can surpass the negative attitudes toward hunting. This pilot study focused on consumer segments interested in European moose meat in Finland and analyzed how attitudes toward hunting reflect opinions on moose meat. The data were based on a survey (n = 199) conducted in 2018. The results indicated three potential consumer segments (established, skeptical, and ambivalent) for moose meat and show that respondent attitudes toward hunters constitute a large part of the attitudes toward hunting in general.
... Additionally, defining the overall concentration of lipid oxidative volatiles depends on how much of the lipid is unsaturated (Wu, Zhan, Tang, Li, & Duan, 2022). Free fatty acid concentration and composition are regulated by processing, means, and processing markets in addition to breed, species, diet, live weight, post-slaughter aging, and their interactions (Aaslyng & Meinert, 2017;Neethling, Hoffman, & Muller, 2016). Studies have revealed that the flavor of pork is considerably altered by the oxidation of modest amounts of fatty acids. ...
... Among these identified compounds, aroma-active compounds (AACs) that contribute significantly to the overall aroma of penaeid shrimp mainly include 3-ethyl-2,5dimethylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-5-methylpyrazine, 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, 1-octen-3-ol, benzaldehyde, 3-methylbutyraldehyde, 2-methylbutyraldehyde, 3-(methylthio)propionaldehyde, and trimethylamine. The sources of AACs include the shrimp itself and the formation by reactions, such as the thermal degradation of lipids and the Maillard reaction, among others [7]. Moisture content and precursor types are two important factors affecting the formation of these compounds. ...
Article
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In the present paper, the role of amino acids of Penaeus vannamei was investigated in the formation of volatile substances during drying. The variations in volatile substances among samples with different moisture contents (raw, 45%, 30%, 15%, and 5%) were obtained by gas chromatography ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The amino acid contents of the above samples were measured by the amino acid automatic analyzer. Correlation between pyrazines and the various amino acid contents was analyzed by the Pearson correlation coefficient. Their correlation was verified by conducting addition assays. The types and contents of volatile components increased significantly in samples with moisture contents between 30% and 5%. The most obvious increases in the type, content and odor activity value of pyrazines were observed in this range. Basic amino acids (Arg, Lys, and His) had a strong correlation with the formation of pyrazines. Addition assays verified that the addition of Arg and Lys increased the content of pyrazines in shrimp after drying.
... However, in the context of killing game in the field, it is not viable to use complex methods that require expensive equipment, skills and knowledge. The use of OAs as an added step in the slaughter processes to decontaminate carcasses appears to be more viable [17,18]. ...
Article
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Meat contamination by microorganisms could occur during numerous processes linked to game meat animal slaughter. These contaminants could pose a risk to product quality and consumer health. Contamination often occurs around the wound caused by shooting. Animal slaughter plants are given a responsibility to identify, evaluate and control the occurrence of hazards in their processing plant. To improve this control plan, the effectiveness of lactic (LA) and acetic acids (AA) for reducing the microbiological load directly around the wound was investigated. After killing by means of an aerial (helicopter) shotgun (n = 12) firing lead pellets and land-based rifle bullet shots (n = 36), samples of the flesh directly around the wounds of impala (Aepyceros melampus) were taken immediately after dressing (AD) before any treatment was conducted. Thereafter, at the step where carcasses are typically washed with potable water, the flesh directly around the wound was subjected to a wash with either ≈5 mL potable water (T1), 5% LA solution (T2) or 5% AA solution (T3) and then chilled overnight. Samples of the flesh directly around the wounds were also taken after chilling (AC). The aim of the study was to determine the effectiveness of each organic acid in reducing the microbiological load (total plate count; E. coli; coliforms and Salmonella) present in the flesh directly around the wounds of impala carcasses. The study found that shotgun pellets caused less body damage with fewer microorganisms recorded compared to samples from rifle-killed carcasses. LA reduced the occurrence of Salmonella during slaughter. The results of the other microorganisms revealed inconclusive outcomes on whether the application of water, 5% LA or 5% AA was effective in the reduction of the microbial organisms on the flesh directly around the wounds.
... The presence of toxic metals in game meat harvested for export to European communities is generally monitored [45]. However, concerns regarding meat exported to other regions and meat consumed locally have been raised [46]. Even though the risk of these metals when in higher concentrations is known and their presence in game meat is expected to be controlled, this is generally not carried out in developing countries [30,47]. ...
Article
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Processes of killing wild game meat animals could introduce toxic metals into the animal’s meat, which subsequently may pose a risk of consumer exposure to toxins during ingestion. In most cases, toxic metals occur naturally in the environment and may be found in traces in different parts of a game meat animal. However, some of these metals are also introduced to meat animals by bullets used during the hunting and killing of game meat animals. These bullets are generally made from metals such as lead, arsenic, and copper, all of which have strictly regulated limits in food products including meat. Samples of helicopter-killed impala in the area around the bullet/pellets’ wound (n = 9) and from animals killed by a single projectile (n = 9) were analysed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The type of bullet used influenced the mean concentration of some of these toxic metals (mg/Kg) in meat samples; helicopter killing resulted in the following levels of As (0.665, SD = 1.95); Cd (0.000, SD = 0.000); Pb (620.18, SD = 1247.6); and Hg (0.017 SD= 0.033) compared to single projectile killing that resulted in the following levels: As (0.123, SD = 0.221); Cd (0.008, SD = 0.021); Pb (1610.79, SD = 1384.5); and Hg (0.028, SD = 0.085). The number of samples per metal with levels above the EU products’ limits were Pb = 18/18 samples from both killing methods, As = 2/18 samples from helicopter killing, Cd-= 1/18 from rifle killing and Hg = 0/18. To minimise the risks of toxic metals posed by bullets, the use of lead (Pb) free bullets should be encouraged, and the control of meat animal killing methods must always be performed, especially for meat contamination prevention.
... The first group is a basic taste mixture of non-volatile compounds like monosodium glutamate, ribonucleotides, and organic acids. The second group, i.e. a 'reaction flavor type' middle note, is produced by heat-induced degradation of lipids, amino acids, and the corresponding derivatives, reducing sugars and other carbonyls, thiamine, and ribonucleotides, via lipid oxidation, Maillard-type reactions, caramelization and pyrolysis [36]. The third group is the aroma (top-note) represented by mixtures of volatiles, such as pyrazines, thiazoles, oxazoles, and others [37]. ...
Article
Due to environmental and ethical concerns, meat analogs represent an emerging trend to replace traditional animal meat. However, meat analogs lacking specific sensory properties (flavor, texture, color) would directly affect consumers' acceptance and purchasing behavior. In this review, we discussed the typical sensory characteristics of animal meat products from texture, flavor, color aspects, and sensory perception during oral processing. The related strategies were detailed to improve meat-like sensory properties for meat analogs. However, the upscaling productions of meat analogs still face many challenges (e.g.: sensory stability of plant-based meat, 3D scaffolds in cultured meat, etc.). Producing safe, low cost and sustainable meat analogs would be a hot topic in food science in the next decades. To realize these promising outcomes, reliable robust devices with automatic processing should also be considered. This review aims at providing the latest progress to improve the sensory properties of meat analogs and meet consumers' requirements.
... The literature points out that animal diets are reflected in their meat chemical composition, which depends on the season and animal food availability [24]. Moreover, IMF content is influenced by age-class; Neethling et al. [45] reported that IMF content increases with age, being the last tissue to mature. IMF content differences are mainly a result of animal age and various animal feed intakes: 1.23-4.27% ...
Article
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The present study evaluates the influence of gender and age-class on the carcass traits, meat chemical composition, and fatty acid profiles of randomly hunt-harvested wild boars from Romania’s Frasin District hunting area, which is an important part of the stock density management strategy. Only 76 wild boars were chosen to participate in the experimental design from a total of 94 wild boars hunted over seven winter seasons, based on two main criteria: right carcass part intact and animal health status (suitable for human consumption) as determined by the veterinary health notice issued by the Food Safety Authority, with all wild boars being evaluated before slaughtering. After sanitary inspection and within the first 24 h postmortem, meat samples were taken in duplicate from the right side of wild boar carcasses (m. Biceps femoris). The aim of this study was to compare the carcass characteristics, chemical composition, and fatty acid profile of wild boar Biceps femoris muscle obtained from the right side of carcasses, as well as the effects of gender, age-class, and their interaction on these traits, in a context where venison is frequently regarded as organic food by consumers due to the natural habitat in which wild animals live. The age of the animals had an effect on the postmortem undressed warm and cold carcass weights (p ≤ 0.05). Considering the proximal chemical composition, only the intramuscular fat (IMF) content was higher in adult meat samples compared to young animals. C18:1 n-9 was the most abundant fatty acid in wild boar meat, followed by C16:0, C18:2 n-6, and C18:0. For IMF content, gender, age class, and their interaction influenced mainly MUFA fatty acids, in particular C16:1 n-9, C20:1 n-9 and C22:1 n-9, and also PUFA fatty acids C18:3 n-6, C20:3 n-3, C20:4 n-6, C20:5 n-3, C22:4 n-6, and C22:5 n-6. The appropriate amounts of individual fatty acids in the muscles of the wild boars translate into a ratio of P/S acids that promotes health as a bio-alternative resource of meat.
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Chinese local pig breeds have unique meat flavor. In this study, we investigated the meat quality traits and the characteristics of the nutritional flavor substances such as amino acids (AAs), fatty acids (FAs), thiamine (Vitamin B1, VB1), and inosine monophosphate (IMP) in four Shanghai local pig breeds (MMS, SW, PD, and SHW) and the commercial crossbred Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire (DLY) breed. The results showed that the intramuscular fat (IMF) and protein content in the longissimus dorsi muscle (L) of Shanghai local breeds, especially Shanghai MMS and PD breeds, were significantly higher than those of the DLY breed (p-value < 0.01). The inter-breed differences in amino acid (AA) content were even more significant in the gluteal muscle (G). Total amino acids (TAAs), flavor amino acids (FAAs), and essential amino acids (EAAs) were significantly higher in the G muscle of the four Shanghai local breeds than that in the DLY breed. The results for fatty acids (FAs) revealed that the differences in unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) were all highly significant (p-value < 0.01), especially for the MMS breed, where the content of UFAs in the L and G muscle amounted to (14.86 ± 2.06) g/100 g and (14.64 ± 2.83) g/100 g, respectively, which were significantly higher than those of other breeds. The MMS breed was also found to have the highest IMP content and the lowest thiamine (VB1) content among several pig breeds. Therefore, these differences in meat nutritional flavor substances provide new insights into the characterization of meat flavor in Shanghai local pig breeds.
Article
Limited research has explored the use of Rhodobacter sphaeroides cell-free extracts (RCFE) in meat processing. To examine the potential application of RCFE in improving the flavor quality of Chinese-style sausage, in this study, we investigated the effects and mechanisms of RCFE grown under low-oxygen conditions on the flavor development of Chinese-style sausage, using GC–MS and 4D label-free proteomics. The GC–MS analysis detected 60 volatile organic compounds, with significant increases in acids, esters, and alcohols following the addition of RCFE (p < 0.01). Fifteen differential flavor compounds were identified as potential biomarkers to distinguish sausages. From a total of 2689 proteins, 364 differentially expressed proteins were identified (p < 0.05, |Log2FC| > 1, and VIP > 1,) in RCFE grown under low- and high-oxygen conditions. KEGG pathway analysis suggested that the RCFE grown under low-oxygen conditions may enhance alcohol and acid levels by upregulating the expression of related enzymes, which subsequently increases ester levels in the sausage.
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Objective: Improving meat quality is important for commercial production and breeding. The molecular mechanism of intramuscular fat (IMF) deposition and meat characteristics remain further study. Methods: This study aimed to study the mechanism of IMF deposition and meat characteristics including redox potential, nutrients compositions and volatile compounds in longissimus dorsi (LD) by comparing with different pig breeds including Shanghai white (SW), Duroc x (Landrace Yorkshire) (DLY) and Laiwu (LW) pigs. Results: Results showed that the contents of IMF, triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), and redox potential parameters were lower, while the content of MDA and activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were higher in LD of SW pigs compared with LW pigs (p<0.05). No differences were observed about these parameters between SW and DLY pigs. Also, the contents of medium-long chain fatty acids and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) were higher, while Asp was lower in LD of SW pigs compared with LW pigs (p<0.05). Volatile compounds results showed that 6 ketones, 4 alkenes, 11 alkanes, 2 aldehydes, 1 alcohol were increased and cholesterol was decreased in SW pigs compared with LW pigs. Transcriptome results showed that differential expressed genes involved in lipid synthesis, metabolism and transport in LD between SW and LW pigs, which were further verified by qPCR. Spearman correlation showed that HSL and Nedd4 were positively related to contents of TG and IMF, while negatively related to volatile compounds and fatty acids (p<0.05). Plin3 and Mgll were negatively related to contents of TG, IMF and cholesterol, while positively related to MDA, LDH, and volatile compounds (p<0.05). PPARA was negatively related to contents of TC and IMF, and activity of SOD, while positively related to volatile compounds (p<0.05). Conclusion: Our study provided new insights into potential mechanisms of IMF deposition, nutrients composition and volatile compounds of muscular tissues of different pig breeds.
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The study investigated the flavor variations in four different fresh pork cuts (longissimus thoracis, LT; trapezius muscle, TM; hamstring muscle, HM; Pork Belly, PB) from Chalu black pigs (ten castrated boars) using multi-omics techniques. The research also explored the influence of muscle fiber type on the flavor profiles of these cuts. Results from quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) indicated significant differences in muscle fiber type across the four pork cuts in various anatomical locations. Each cut exhibited distinctive volatile organic compounds (VOCs) profiles, with HM displaying a sweet and fruity green flavor, LT showcasing a fatty and nutty taste, PB presenting a fresh, citrusy, and green flavor, and TM offering a floral and bitter note. Variations in fatty acid carbon number and saturation were observed among the cuts, with HM, LT, and PB being rich in fatty acids with C16–18, C19–21, and 3 double bonds, respectively. The metabolites specific to each cut were found to play key roles in different metabolic pathways, such as protein-related pathways for HM, arginine biosynthesis for LT, lysine biosynthesis for PB, and D-arginine and D-ornithine metabolism for TM. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were associated with amino acid metabolism for HM, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis for LT, and cellular aromatic compound organization for PB. Notably, HM and PB displayed unique flavor characteristics, while TM exhibited relatively neutral features. The study also identified correlations among VOCs, muscle fiber type, lipids, metabolites, and gene patterns specific to each cut, highlighting the complex interplay of factors influencing pork flavor.
Conference Paper
In recent years, consumers, including domestic meat consumers, have been looking for new products with high biological and nutritional value, plus flavour. Consumer concern for a healthy diet has led to increased demand for low-fat, low-cholesterol products, coupled with growing interest in returning to traditional products as an option to advanced processing. Game meat could meet consumer needs and requirements as an alternative to meat from domestic animals, with the following recommendations: 1. low fat content; 2. optimal unsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio; 3. high protein content; 4. low calorie content; 5. outstanding texture, taste and flavour. The main aim of the work was to obtain a salami-type product from wild boar (Sus scrofa) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) meat, from the Western area of Romania, followed by a comparative study of quality indicators with a similar advanced processed product from domestic pork. From a physico-chemical point of view, the determination of water, ash, protein, fat, NaCl, and finally the carbohydrate content and nutritional value were calculated. From a sensory point of view, appearance, consistency, taste, smell and general acceptability were investigated.
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This paper prepared alpha‐D‐glucopryanose/alpha‐L‐Alanine Maillard intermediates in acid or basic catalyst (labelled as G&A‐MIa and G&A‐MIb) with different molecular weights. ZSM‐5 greatly affected their pyrolysis behaviors. After ZSM‐5 added, the endothermal or mass loss peaks for both G&A‐MIa and G&A‐MIb decreased to lower temperature with different extents. For an instance, endothermal peaks of G&A‐MIb‐2000 at 647°C decreased to 614°C, and its mass loss peak at 167.3°C decreased to 147.0°C. Their pyrolysis under N 2 atmosphere or 90%N 2 + 10%O 2 presented that additional of ZSM‐5 obviously enhanced the generation of volatiles, especially 4 H ‐Pyran‐4‐one, 2,3‐dihydr o‐3,5‐dihydroxy‐6‐methyl (PODDM). We assigned the ZSM‐5 influence to its sensitivity on C‐N and C‐O bonds among MIs. DPPH (1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging by volatile absorption solution confirmed that ZSM‐5 obviously improved the antioxidant activity. This would be good news because application of ceramic cookers contains similar components to ZSM‐5.
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Mikrobiološko onečišćenje površine trupova životinja neizbježno nastaje pri klaoničkoj obradi ili je rezultat ozbiljnih higijensko-tehnoloških propusta. Cilj je svih mjera dobre higijenske i proizvođačke prakse postići što bolji mikrobiološki status trupa odnosno što manju populaciju bakterija indikatora onečišćenja te smanjiti incidenciju patogenih bakterija. Ponekad te mjere ne daju učinka, te se pristupa dekontaminaciji trupa, najčešće toplom vodom ili blagim otopinama organskih kiselina, mliječne ili octene. Uspješnost dekontaminacije trupova organskim kiselinama ovisi o mnogobrojnim čimbenicima; razini inicijalne kontaminacije, vrsti i osjetljivosti određene vrste mikroorganizma, načinu primjene otopine organske kiseline i trajanju izlaganja, koncentraciji i pH vrijednosti, temperaturi kiseline i trupa koji se tretira, tlaku primjene i kombinaciji navedenih čimbenika. Kemijska dekontaminacija ne smije imati štetan utjecaj na konačni proizvod i okoliš. Dekontaminaciju nikako ne treba doživljavati zamjenom za dobru higijensku praksu, odnosno alatom rješavanja neodgovorne nehigijenske obrade trupova.
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Shrimps are a widely cultivated species among crustaceans worldwide due to their nutritional profile and delicacy. Because of their unique flavor, shrimp-based food products are gaining consumer demand, so there is a need to understand the flavor chemistry of shrimp meat. Further, the processing and macromolecules of shrimp meat play a significant role in flavor generation and suggest a focus on their research. However, shrimp processing generates a large amount of solid and liquid waste, creating disposal problems and environmental hazards. To overcome this, utilizing these waste products, a rich source of valuable flavor compounds is necessary. This review comprehensively discusses the nutritional aspects, flavor profile, and role of macromolecules in the flavor generation of shrimp meat. Besides, recent trends in analyzing the aroma profile of shrimp and the benefits of shrimp by-products as a source of flavor compounds have been addressed. The delicious flavor of shrimp meat is due to its volatile and nonvolatile flavor compounds. Proteins play a major role in the textural and flavor adsorption properties of shrimp meat-based products. Green extraction technologies, especially ultrasonication, are recommended for valorizing shrimp by-products as a source of flavor compounds, which have enormous applications in the food and flavor industries.
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Vacuum packaging is widely used for extending the shelf life of commercial fresh meat products. It also ensures product hygiene during distribution and storage. However, very little information exists concerning the effects of vacuum packaging on the shelf life of deer meat. One of our aims was to evaluate how storage under vacuum at 4 °C affects the microbial quality and safety of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) meat cuts. This was assessed in a longitudinal study based on sensory analyses and measurements of (1) mesophilic aerobic bacteria (MAB), (2) lactic acid bacteria (LAB), (3) enterobacteria (EB), (4) and Escherichia coli (EC) counts, and the presence of foodborne pathogens (Campylobacter, Salmonella, stx-harbouring E. coli (STEC), Yersinia and Listeria). Microbiomes were additionally investigated by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing at the time of spoilage. In total, 50 vacuum-packaged meat cuts from the carcasses of 10 wild white-tailed deer harvested in southern Finland in December 2018 were analysed. A significant (p < 0.001) drop in the odour and appearance scores and a significant increase in MAB (p < 0.001) and LAB (p = 0.001) counts of the vacuum-packaged meat cuts were observed after 3 weeks of storage at 4 °C. A very strong correlation (rs = 0.9444, p < 0.001) between the MAB and LAB counts were found during the 5-week sampling period. Clear spoilage changes, manifested as sour off-odours (odour scores ≤2) and pale colour, were detected in the meat cuts spoilt after 3-week storage. High (≥8 log10 cfu/g) MAB and LAB counts were also detected. According to the 16S rRNA gene amplicon analyses, Lactobacillus was the dominant bacterial genus in these samples, demonstrating that LAB can cause rapid spoilage of vacuum-packaged deer meat cuts stored at 4 °C. The rest of the samples were spoilt after four or five weeks of storage, and a vast number of bacterial genera were identified in them. Listeria and STEC were detected by PCR in 50 % and 18 % of the meat cut samples, respectively, which may indicate a public health problem. Our results demonstrate that it is very challenging to ensure the quality and safety of vacuum-packaged deer meat stored at 4 °C, and freezing is therefore recommended to prolong the shelf life.
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Accurate and rapid determination of meat quality traits plays key roles in food industry and pig breeding. Currently, most of the spectroscopic instruments developed for meat quality determination can only obtain the spectral average value of the sample, so it is difficult to evaluate the spatial variation of meat quality traits. In this study, we evaluated the predictive potential of 14 meat quality traits based on large-scale VIS/NIR hyperspectral images collected by SpecimIQ. When predictions were based solely on hyperspectral data, the prediction accuracy (R²cv) for the majority of meat qualities ranged from 0.60 to 0.70. After adding texture information, the prediction accuracy of all traits is improved by different magnitudes (R²cv increases from 1.5% to 16.4%). Finally, the best model was utilized to visualize the spatial distribution of Fat (%) and Moisture (%) to assess their homogeneity. These results suggest that hyperspectral imaging has great potential for predicting and visualizing various meat qualities, as well as industrial applications for automated measurements.
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In China, indigenous pigs are popular due to their excellent meat quality and unique flavor. In this study, the unique flavor was investigated using Guangdong small-ear spotted pig (GD) and their hybrid progeny, which produced high-end pork in the Chinese market. Two-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC-TOF MS) was used to analyze and quantify volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the two pork types for identifying the unique flavor of these very popular pigs. The flavor is imparted by alkanes, aldehydes, ketones, and ethers. Flavor imparting compounds mainly include methyl isobutyl ketone, octane, pentane, and 3-ethyl-2, 2-dimethylheptane. High levels of volatilization of such compounds generated ethereal, acetonic, sweet, and green odors in the pork of GD. Hybrid offspring of Chinese and Western pig breeds can also inherit such special aromas, which are sometimes even more intense, with increased meat yield. Multi-omics analysis of the transcriptome and metabolome showed that AMD1 (Adenosylmethionine Decarboxylase 1) affects the p-cresol content by regulating the polyamine pathway, affecting the unique flavor of GD. This study revealed the unique flavor composition of GD, analyzed the advantages of species hybridization, and thus, provides a new direction and theoretical basis for pork quality improvement.
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This study aimed to investigate the effect of summer and winter on slaughter performance, muscle quality, flavor‐related substance content, and gene expression levels related to the fat metabolism of pheasants. One‐hundred 1‐day‐old pheasants were fed for 5 months starting in March and July and then, respectively, slaughtered in summer (August) and winter (December). The results revealed that compared with summer, winter not only increased pheasant live weight, dressed percentage, full‐eviscerated yield, and muscle yield (p < 0.05) but also enhanced the activities of SOD and CAT in serum (p < 0.05). Winter significantly increased meat color, the contents of inosinic acid, and flavor amino acid in muscle. Amino acid contents in leg muscles of pheasants in winter were significantly higher than in summer except for histidine (p < 0.05). Winter increased the contents of muscle mono‐unsaturated fatty acid, reducing saturated fatty acid. Summer improved fat synthesis in liver, promoted the deposition of triglycerides and cholesterol, and reduced the expression levels of fat metabolism‐related genes in muscle, while winter increased the expression levels of genes related to muscle fat metabolism to provide energy for body and affect muscle fatty acid profile. Overall, pheasants fed in winter had better sensory quality and flavor than summer.
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Chinese indigenous pigs are favored for their rich flavor, which is generated through complex reactions involving lipid-oxidation-related flavor precursors. In this research, we characterized the aroma compounds and fatty acids of representative Chinese pig breeds by gas chromatography–olfactometry–mass spectrometry (GC–O–MS) and GC–ion mobility spectrometry (GC–IMS) with multivariate analysis. A total of 79 volatile compounds were identified, among which 15 compounds were selected as odorants in pork. According to multivariate statistical analysis, some odorants, including hexanal, 1-octen-3-ol, 2,3-octanedione, (E, E)-2,4-decadienal and dodecanal could be discriminative compounds explaining breed-originated differences in flavor profiles. As confirmed by partial least squares regression (PLS-R), some fatty acids, including C18:1n9c, C22:6n3 and C18:3n3, were major precursors for the formation of rich flavor in indigenous pig breeds. These results revealed that fatty acids and volatile compounds were breed-dependent, and the differences in flavor were related to the variance in the fatty acid content.
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The core of South Africa tourism industry is based on wildlife tourism. Private game reserves and game farms which forms part of wildlife tourism constitute most of the wildlife products in South Africa. On these private reserves and game farms, hunting is one of the major income generators for product owners. The aim of this study is to analyse the economic impact of hunting on the regional economies of three of South Africa's most important hunting provinces. The study used economic multipliers, input-output analysis, and related modelling processes through input-output (supply-use) tables and social accounting matrices (SAM). The results differed significantly for the three provinces, with Limpopo receiving the biggest impact (R2.6 billion) and the Free State having the highest multiplier (2.08). The geographical location of the game farms, the number of farms per province and the species available all influenced the magnitude of the economic impact of hunters over and above the traditional determinants of economic impact analysis. The implication of the research is that it will help product owners in the development of game farms or hunting products, contribute to policy formulation, especially for government decisions on what products to offer where, and how to create more jobs.
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Volatile compounds of dry-cured Parma ham, the most representative among those of Italian style, were extracted by means of the dynamic headspace technique followed by adsorption onto Tenax traps. GC-FID and GC-FPD were used to obtain the aromatic profiles of the samples; gas chromatographymass spectrometry was also used to identify the structure of the volatile components. One hundred twenty-two compounds were identified in this study, several of which have not been previously reported. Hydrocarbons (22), aldehydes (16), alcohols (25), and esters (28) were the prevalent volatiles, The mechanism of formation of some classes of compounds is also discussed.
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Humans hunt or raise a wide variety of animals for meat, which vary from free-range to intensively reared. These animals form a valuable part of human nutrition. Their tissues, including the fat, contain vitamin and other essential nutrients necessary for health. However, animal fat from ruminants and other land mammals is usually regarded as saturated. The purpose of this review is partly to examine the basis for the saturated fat hypothesis of cardiovascular disease given more recent research, to examine the human health effects of animal fats, and partly to draw into one place the diverse knowledge about animal fat and the effects of fat on metabolism. Mechanistic understanding of the initiation of the fatty streak and atherosclerosis calls into question the avoidance of ruminant or porcine fat. Due to high levels of oleic acid, a low n-6 : n-3 fatty acid ratio in some groups, and the presence of specific micronutrients including vitamins and essential fatty acids, animal fats are of benefit in human nutrition. Animal fats can be obtained in minimally processed form making them a convenient source of energy and micronutrients.
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Twenty reindeer calves (age 10 months) were included in the study. They were all fed one of two different pelleted feed mixtures ad libitum for two months before slaughter. Ten calves were fed a control diet of conventional pellets (CPD) (Renfor Bas, Lantmännen, Holmsund, Sweden) and ten calves received pellets enriched with linseed cake (LPD). The reindeer were slaughtered according to standard procedure at Arvidsjaur Renslakt AB, a reindeer slaughter plant in Arvidsjaur, Sweden. At 1 day post mortem, both longissimus dorsi (LD) muscles from each carcass were excised. The left LD was used for sensory evaluation and the right LD for colour and water-holding capacity measurements. The right LD was cut in 4 pieces that were randomly allocated to storage times of 1 day, 1, 2, or 3 weeks at + 4 °C. Samples allocated for storage were vacuum packaged. Evaluation of meat colour was carried out after each of the four storage times while drip loss/purge was registered after 1, 2, and 3 weeks storage at + 4 °C. The left LD muscles were vacuum packaged, frozen at -20 °C and kept frozen until preparation for sensory evaluation. No significant differences were found in carcass quality (carcass weight, EUROP carcass conformation and fat scores), meat colour stability and water-holding capacity of LD samples when comparing the two treatment groups LPD and CPD. However, sensory panellists judged samples from LPD fed reindeer to have a tendency (not significant) to be more tender (P= 0.06) and juicy (P=0.07) than the meat samples from CPD fed reindeer. No flavour differences were found when comparing meat samples from the two treatment groups.
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Impala (Aepyceros melampus) constitute one of the most commercially important species in game farming in South Africa. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of day and night cropping on the meat quality characteristics of impala. Emphasis was placed on the influence of the cropping method on muscle pH 45 (45 minutes post mortem), pH u (ultimate pH), pH decline, and the related influence on drip loss, cooking loss, toughness and colour of the meat in the M. longissimus lumborum. Measurements taken from 16 animals cropped at night were compared to those taken from 24 animals cropped in daytime. A mean pH 45 of 6.67 ± 0.11 was recorded for the night cropped animals compared to a mean pH 45 of 6.55 ± 0.23 for the day cropped animals. A mean pH u of 5.39 ± 0.08 for animals cropped at night was recorded compared to a mean pH u of 5.45 ± 0.11 for the animals cropped in the day. Regression analysis showed the rate of pH decline to be slower in the night cropped animals compared to those cropped in the day. This persisted when the pH values were adjusted to correct for ambient temperature. The cooling rate of the M. longissimus lumborum was twice as fast in the night cropped group. Shear force values and drip losses respectively, for the night-cropped animals were 19.11 ± 5.68 g/mm 2 and 2.93 ± 1.59%, whereas for the day cropped animals the values were 23.42 ± 8.13 g/mm 2 and 4.15 ± 2.34%. The results of this study indicate that night-time cropping does have a beneficial effect on certain meat quality parameters.
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Background: The consumption of venison from deer species has increased in recent years owing to presumably positive health effects. Therefore a comparison was made of the physical characteristics, chemical composition and sensory attributes of meat obtained from red deer, fallow deer and Aberdeen Angus and Holstein cattle raised under conditions typical for commercial farming practice and slaughtered at similar ages. Results: Venison had one-quarter the crude fat content, lower total collagen and a higher proportion of heat-soluble collagen. It was darker and less yellow than beef. Deer species provided meat with higher polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio and lower atherogenic index. In addition, the venison of red deer contained five times as much n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids as the beef. Steaks prepared from venison were scored higher than beef for flavour and aroma intensity; they were also tenderer and more easily chewable. Conclusion: Compared with beef, venison from two widely farmed deer species was superior in nutrient composition, thus offering potential benefits for human consumption, and it received higher scores for most of the sensory attributes examined.
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The aim of this study was to determine the effect of region (Qua-Qua, Maria Moroka, Sandveld and Tussen die Riviere) and gender on carcass characteristics and chemical composition of meat from the red hartebeest. The parameters measured on 29 red hartebeest included body weight, carcass weight, dressing percentage, proximate composition, fatty acid, cholesterol, amino acid and mineral content. The average carcass weight of males (79.3 kg) was significantly higher than that of females (56.0 kg); however, there was no difference in dressing percentages. The animals obtained from the Qua-Qua region had the highest lipid content (1.3 g/100 g meat sample) compared to hartebeest sampled in other regions. Differences in concentrations of individual fatty acids, amino acids and minerals were minor and of no practical value. The ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids (0.78) is above the recommended 0.7 and therefore has positive implications for human health. These nutrient values determined in meat from red hartebeest could be incorporated into human food composition tables. These results will also be of value to the South African game meat exporters who may wish to market their products in terms of their nutritional value in order to compete with meat from domestic livestock or international venison products. In such cases, it is required by law (both locally and internationally) to provide adequate nutritional labelling.
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This paper focuses on dietary approaches to control intramuscular fat deposition to increase beneficial omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and conjugated linoleic acid content and reduce saturated fatty acids in beef. Beef lipid trans-fatty acids are considered, along with relationships between lipids in beef and colour shelf-life and sensory attributes. Ruminal lipolysis and biohydrogenation limit the ability to improve beef lipids. Feeding omega-3 rich forage increases linolenic acid and long-chain PUFA in beef lipids, an effect increased by ruminally-protecting lipids, but consequently may alter flavour characteristics and shelf-life. Antioxidants, particularly α-tocopherol, stabilise high concentrations of muscle PUFA. Currently, the concentration of long-chain omega-3 PUFA in beef from cattle fed non-ruminally-protected lipids falls below the limit considered by some authorities to be labelled a source of omega-3 PUFA. The mechanisms regulating fatty acid isomer distribution in bovine tissues remain unclear. Further enhancement of beef lipids requires greater understanding of ruminal biohydrogenation.
Chapter
In the anaerobic postmortem use of energy, only carbohydrates can be utilized. In muscular tissue it is glycogen that is metabolized to lactic acid. In a muscle of a rested animal with a good glycogen store, so much lactic acid (0.1. M and more) can be produced that the pH declines from approximately 7.0 to 5.3 to 5.8. The maximum formation of lactic acid (or the ultimate pH) may last 1. h in pale, soft, exudative (PSE)-prone pig muscles, takes approximately 5-7. h in normal porcine tissue and may end in some bovine muscles beyond 24. h postmortem. In stressed animals, the glycogen stores may be partially or totally depleted before death and the ultimate pH is measured between 6.2 and 7.0. A rapid pH decline creates the possibility of conditions that denature protein - namely high temperature and low pH. These conditions may lead to PSE meat. A limited pH decline to ultimate values above 6.2 causes dark, firm, dry meat, which spoil easily and lacks flavor. Thus the pH of meat measured accurately at different times postmortem is a quality characteristic.
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Grass feeding has been reported to affect several meat quality characteristics, in particular colour and flavour. In this paper we have reviewed some differences in meat colour and flavour between ruminants fed concentrates and animals allowed to graze pasture. The possible factors influencing the differences have been also examined. We have examined a total of 35 experiments which report the effect of pasture vs concentrate finishing systems on beef meat colour. Meat from cattle raised on pasture is reported to be darker than meat from animals raised on concentrates if measured by objective (P < 0.001) as well as subjective (P < 0.05) methods. Several factors, not a specific one are responsible for this difference, variations in ultimate-pH and in intramuscular fat content between animals finished at pasture and those finished on concentrates, seem to play a major role. Diet also affects meat flavour in both sheep and cattle but the components involved seem to be different. In sheep pastoral flavour is mostly determined by the branched-chain fatty acids and 3-methylindole (skatole). An important role seems to be played also by some products of oxidation of linolenic acid and its derivates. In cattle the role of skatole seems to be less important than sheep because of the lack of the branched-chain fatty acids. The pastoral flavour seems to be mostly determined by products of oxidation of linolenic acid and its derivates which derives substantially from grass.
Chapter
The flavours associated with cooked meats have proved particularly difficult to characterize, both for the sensory analyst and the flavour chemist. Meat flavour is influenced by compounds contributing to the sense of taste as well as those stimulating the olfactory organ. Other sensations such as mouthfeel and juiciness will also affect the overall flavour sensation. However it is the volatile compounds of cooked meat that determine the aroma attributes and contribute most to the characteristic flavours of meat. It has been one of the most researched of food flavours, with over 1000 volatile compounds having been isolated. A survey of the volatiles found in meat shows a much larger number from beef (880) than the other meats (361 from pork; 271 from lamb/mutton; 468 from chicken), but this is reflected in the much larger number of publications for beef (70) compared with pork (11), sheep meat (12) or poultry (20) (Mottram, 1991).
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Meat palatability is defined as meat eating qualities and is related to consumer acceptance. Juiciness, tenderness, and flavor are the three major components. Lipid and fatty acid content, the lean or muscle fiber components, and connective tissue within the muscle contribute to meat palatability. Cooked meat flavor is the result of chemical reactions within the lean and lipid portions during cooking. Off-flavor development is associated with either lipid oxidation or growth of microorganisms. Meat flavor can be measured by either trained or consumer sensory methods, or chemically where volatile compounds are measured.
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Sheepmeat (the flesh of Ovis aries) is eaten by millions of people all over the world and is probably eaten in every country to some extent. There are no religious or cultural taboos on eating sheepmeat, which contrasts sharply with the taboos that apply to beef (Hindu) and pork (Moslem, Jewish). Nevertheless, many people avoid sheepmeat because they object to its odour (especially during cooking) and/or its flavour. The Chinese even have a special word for the disagreeable cooking odour of sheepmeat, ‘soo’, meaning sweaty, sour (Wong, 1975). Even in those Western countries that have a greater acceptance of sheepmeat, many dislike it, particularly the meat from mature animals with its apparently stronger odour and flavour. Also, the relatively high melting point of sheep fat contributes to a ‘waxy’ mouthfeel that is unacceptable to many. On a cool plate the fat tends to harden rapidly, which contrasts with the more oily character of, say, pork fat.
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The odor responses, and the chemical compounds isolated, from the volatile pyrolysis products of lyophilized cold water extracts of lean beef and lean pork were found to be similar. The flavor precursors in lean meat are low molecular weight compounds present in the dialyzable portion of the cold water extracts of the raw lean meats. Beef and pork fat when heated produced dissimilar aromas. Free fatty acids and carbonyls were determined in these fats before and after heating. The results suggest that, on heating, the lean portions of pork and beef contribute an identical meaty flavor to these meats, while the characteristic flavor differences in pork and beef reside in the fat.
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The expectations, perceptions and purchasing behaviour of consumers of game meat were Researched by a survey method using a structured, self-administered questionnaire. The sample consisted of 300 South African consumers and included 100 white, 100 coloured and 100 black consumers. It is evident that South African consumers perceive game meat differently than they do the 'traditional' meat types such as beef, mutton/lamb, chicken and pork. They do not consider game meat as a 'regular' type of meat, but rather as an exotic, seasonal product. Furthermore, South African consumers indicated that they are not willing to pay more for game meat than other types of meat. South African consumers indicated that they consider the fat content of meat as an important quality when they purchase meat, as they aspire towards consuming lean meat. This research not only shows that South African consumers are ill-informed regarding the positive attributes of game meat, but also that producers and marketers of game meat are not doing enough to promote game meat. This provides an excellent opportunity for game meat producers and marketers, as game meat is lower in fat than pork, lamb or beef.
Chapter
This article presents an overview of the primary chemical components of tissues comprising meat from common domestic species such as bovine, ovine, porcine, turkey, and poultry. Proximate analyses and other compositional values of edible tissues are given for various species. Physical characteristics as they affect chemical composition are described in the text and presented in tables.
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The integrity of skeletal muscle is maintained by the intramuscular connective tissues (IMCTs) that are composed of extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules such as collagens, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins. The ECM plays an important role not only in providing biomechanical strength of the IMCT, but also in regulating muscle cell behavior. Some ECM molecules, such as decorin and laminin, modulate the activity of myostatin that regulates skeletal muscle mass. Furthermore, it has been shown that decorin activates Akt downstream of insulin-like growth factor-I receptor (IGF-IR) and enhances the differentiation of myogenic cells, suggesting that decorin acts as a signaling molecule to myogenic cells. With animal growth, the structural integrity of IMCT increases; collagen fibrils within the endomysium associate more closely with each other, and the collagen fibers in the perimysium become increasingly thick and their wavy pattern grows more regular. These changes increase the mechanical strength of IMCT, contributing to the toughening of meat. However, in highly marbled beef cattle like Wagyu, intramuscular fat deposits mainly in the perimysium between muscle fiber bundles during the fattening period. The development of adipose tissues appears to disorganize the structure of IMCT and contributes to the tenderness of Wagyu beef. The IMCT was considered to be rather immutable compared to myofibrils during postmortem aging of meat. However, several studies have shown that collagen networks in the IMCT are disintegrated and proteoglycan components are degraded during postmortem aging. These changes in ECM appear to reduce the mechanical strength of IMCT and contribute to the tenderness of uncooked meat or cooked meat at low temperature. Thus, the ECM plays a multifunctional role in skeletal muscle development and postmortem aging of meat. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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This study aimed to determine the effect of ageing in vacuum bags at 5.4±0.60°C on the sensory quality of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscle. Four randomly assigned portions of muscle from six male and six female mature springbok were aged for 1, 3, 8 or 28days, after which they were blast frozen. Assessment by a trained sensory panel found a significant increase in gamey, metallic, liver-like, sour/aged and off/manure attributes and a decline in beef-like aroma during ageing. Sensory tenderness and sustained juiciness increased and residue decreased significantly; however there was no significant change in the Warner Bratzler shear force of the cooked meat, which was below 24N for all ageing periods. Significant gender effects were only present for metallic aroma (female>male), residue (male>female) and cooking loss (male>female). It was concluded that springbok LTL should be aged for a maximum of eight days. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Article
The objective of the present study was to determine the chemical composition as well as the physicochemical and sensory properties of meat (Longissimus lumborum muscle) from wild fallow deer (Dama dama L.) bucks shot during a hunt in forests of north-eastern Poland (n = 11) and farm-raised fallow deer bucks (n = 14) slaughtered on a farm in north-eastern Poland. It was found that the number of samples with pHu higher than 6.0 accounted for 57% of all samples collected in the group of farmed-raised fallow deer. Meat samples with pH > 6.0 were not taken into consideration while evaluating meat quality. Meat from wild fallow deer, compared with farmed animals, was characterized by a higher (P≤0.01) content of fat, a higher (P≤0.01) calorific value, a more desirable fatty acid profile, including higher (P≤0.05) concentrations of unsaturated fatty acids, lower (P≤0.01) average pHu values, lower (P≤0.05) lightness (L*) and higher (P≤0.01) color saturation resulting from a higher contribution of redness (P≤0.01) and yellowness (P > 0.05). Meat from wild fallow deer received also higher scores for aroma desirability (P≤0.01), taste desirability (P≤0.05), juiciness (P≤0.05) and lower (P≤0.01) scores for tenderness.
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The objective was to determine the influence of calcium lactate/phosphate enhancement on quality of beef round cuts in high-oxygen modified atmosphere (HiOx-MAP; 80% O2/20% CO2). Mm. semimembranosus (SM), semitendinosus (ST), and adductor (AD) were divided and assigned to water-injected control (CON), 3mM phosphate (STP), or 200mM calcium lactate/3mM phosphate (CAL/STP) treatments at 24h postmortem. Steaks (n=10) were vacuum packaged (VAC) and stored for 9days, then displayed for 7days in VAC or HiOx-MAP. Lipid oxidation, pH, surface color, star probe, and sensory characteristics were evaluated. HiOx-MAP resulted in greater lipid oxidation, more discoloration, and decreased sensory quality of steaks (P<0.05) compared to VAC. However, CAL/STP enhancement significantly reduced lipid oxidation of all steaks, decreased ST and SM star probe values, and improved tenderness of HiOx-MAP packaged AD and SM (P<0.05). Results suggest that CAL/STP enhancement has beneficial effects on lipid stability and sensory attributes of beef round cuts under HiOx-MAP. Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Article
This article constitutes a state-of-the-art review of the literature on the effects of expectations on the sensory perception of food and drink by humans. In the ‘Introduction’, we summarize the theoretical models of expectations that have been put forward. In the ‘Empirical research utilizing direct methods’ section, we describe the influence that expectations created by a variety of product extrinsic cues have on sensory perception, hedonic appraisal, and intake/consumption. We critically evaluate the evidence that has emerged from both laboratory studies and real-world research conducted in the setting of the restaurant, canteen, and bar. This literature review is focused primarily on those studies that have demonstrated an effect on tasting. Crucially, this review goes beyond previous work in the area by highlighting the relevant cognitive neuroscience literature (see the section ‘Applied research through the lens of cognitive neuroscience methods’) and the postulated psychological mechanisms of expectation in terms of recent accounts of predictive coding and Bayesian decision theory (see the ‘Predictive coding and expectations’ section).
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With an increasing world population, an increase in affluence and a substantial growth in the demand for high quality protein, the meat sector faces a fantastic but challenging century. New scientific knowledge, technology and creative minds are the main ingredients in order to reach out for this great opportunity. Efficiency all the way from breeding and farming to processing and dispatch is crucial for success. Technology has brought us far, and there is still a huge potential for increased efficiency by implementing best practices on a global scale. New challenges include: hyper flexible automation, more accurate and faster measurement systems and meeting special consumer demands already at the production line. Systems for optimal animal welfare will be even more important and sustainability is no longer a consumer trend but a license to operate. The scientific meat society must provide knowledge and technology so we together can reach out for a seemingly bright future.