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The role of culture in explaining college students' selection into hookups, dates, and long-term romantic relationships
Abstract
We analyze the Online College Social Life Survey, a survey collected between 2005 and 2011 of students (N = 22,454) at 22 U.S. colleges and universities and estimate whether students hooked up, dated, formed long-term romantic relationships, or did not form relationships while in college and their desire for these relationship opportunities. Students have equal rates of hooking up and dating. Men are more likely than women to have dated and hooked up and less likely to have formed a long-term relationship, although they are more likely to wish there were more opportunities to form long-term relationships. An examination of intimate partnering by sexual orientation, race, religious attendance, and Greek culture reveals distinct pattern that can be explained by cultural norms.
... There are significant differences in young women's and men's typical romantic beliefs and behaviors, such as the likelihood of engaging in hookups-sexual behavior that goes beyond kissing but may not involve penetrative sex-and long-term relationships-committed relationships with sexual encounters that can eventually lead to cohabitation or marriage (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). For example, men were more likely to hookup than women, but the effect size was small (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). ...
... There are significant differences in young women's and men's typical romantic beliefs and behaviors, such as the likelihood of engaging in hookups-sexual behavior that goes beyond kissing but may not involve penetrative sex-and long-term relationships-committed relationships with sexual encounters that can eventually lead to cohabitation or marriage (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). For example, men were more likely to hookup than women, but the effect size was small (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). Another study that analyzed sex differences in emotional reactions to hooking up in college found no significant differences in the number of hookup partners between men and women; however, men had more permissive attitudes toward sex and hookups (Townsend & Wasserman, 2011), whereas women were more likely to regret engaging in a hookup with vaginal intercourse (Uecker & Martinez, 2017) or sexual encounters in general (Webster et al., 2021). ...
... Expectations about virginity and prior sexual experience have also relaxed over time for men and women (Gesselman et al., 2017). These shifts in beliefs about the acceptability of premarital sexual relations are consistent with college students' current hookup behaviors, who now report having more hookup partners than dating partners (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). ...
A content analysis of teen romantic drama movies examined potential gender differences and changes in depictions of romance, hookups, and long-term relationships over time in the American teen romantic drama genre. The 41 highest-grossing teen romantic drama movies from 1961 to 2019 were coded for the number of romantic ideals and challenges to romantic ideals verbally expressed by the main love interests, the number of depicted hookups or long-term relationships involving the teen characters, and the type of endings (positive, negative, or unclear). In addition, the main characters’ age and gender were recorded and analyzed. The results showed no significant differences in any of the factors over time, which is inconsistent with generational changes in typical romantic and sexual beliefs and behaviors. Male main love interests expressed the most romantic ideal expressions, and high schoolers engaged in the most hookups. Female engagement in hookups significantly predicted negative endings in films, which reinforces the regret and shame that many young women feel after engaging in noncommitted sexual relations.
... To date, research on religion and sexual behavior has been mainly done in the context of risk behaviors among adolescents and unmarried young adults in the United States (Burdette et al., 2015). These studies emphasized the role of religion in promoting sexual abstinence and discouraging premarital sex; for example, higher religiosity has been found to be associated with delayed initiation of sexual intercourse (Bearman & Brückner, 2001;Meier, 2003), reduced likelihood of engaging in casual sex (Burdette et al., 2009;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016), and having fewer sexual partners (Barkan, 2006). ...
... As previous studies have demonstrated, religiosity is associated with having less permissive attitudes toward extramarital sex, including the importance of sexual fidelity, and the view that sex should only occur when it is motivated by love or a wish to have children (Hardy & Willoughby, 2017;Iveniuk et al., 2016). Furthermore, religiously committed individuals show higher preference for marriage over other forms of relationships (Henderson et al., 2018;Lehrer, 2004), and are less likely to engage in sex outside a long-term committed relationship (Burdette et al., 2009;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). These relatively traditional approaches to romantic relationships and sexuality could therefore explain some of the differences found in sexual satisfaction by religiosity. ...
... Previous studies have shown that increased investments in exclusive long-term partnerships and greater time to develop satisfactory trusting relationships can matter for sexual satisfaction, while sex outside a committed relationship is often related to lower sexual satisfaction (Farvid & Braun, 2017;Waite & Joyner, 2001). As religious individuals are less likely to engage in casual sex (Burdette et al., 2009;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016), and are more likely to limit sexual activity to a relationship based on love (Hardy & Willoughby, 2017;Iveniuk et al., 2016), this can lead to lower expectations of sexual activity outside a formal union, as well as increased satisfaction from sex life in general. ...
Previous studies on the relationship between religiosity and sexual behavior have yielded mixed results, partly due to variations by gender and marital status. Furthermore, less is known about this relationship in relatively secularized societies, as in the case of Britain. In this study, we used data from the third British National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (Natsal-3) to explore the link between religiosity (11% of men and 16% of women stated that religion and religious beliefs were very important to them) and sex frequency and satisfaction among men and women in different types of relationships. Women and men who saw religion as more important in their lives reported having less sex on average, though this was mainly driven by the significantly lower sex frequency among non-cohabiting religious individuals compared to their less religious peers. At the same time, religiosity was linked with overall higher levels of sex life satisfaction. This relationship appeared to be largely mediated by attitudes on the appropriate context for sexual intercourse. These findings highlight the importance of sociocultural norms in shaping sexual behavior and sexual satisfaction.
... Race/ethnicity, religiosity, mothers' education, and parents' coupled status are related to selection into different types of and motivations for sexual practices (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;, but have not been studied systematically with regard to BDSM fantasies or practice, nor has BDSM role identity. Past research on BDSM studied primarily White respondents, with inadequate attention paid to race; Internet recruitment methods and White researchers limited respondents of other racial groups, but patterns also likely reflect a reluctance of historically marginalized groups to take on additional stigmatized identities (Sheff & Hammers, 2011). ...
... Past research on BDSM studied primarily White respondents, with inadequate attention paid to race; Internet recruitment methods and White researchers limited respondents of other racial groups, but patterns also likely reflect a reluctance of historically marginalized groups to take on additional stigmatized identities (Sheff & Hammers, 2011). While African-American people and Afro-Caribbean men report earlier ages at sexual debut (Cavazos-Rehg et al., 2010;Jayakody et al., 2011), people of color may avoid or delay stigmatized sexual practices because of an increased perception of or actual scrutiny of their sexual practices (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). Religiosity delays age at sexual debut and can similarly delay or reduce entrance into stigmatized sexual practices, but can affect sexual practices of women and men differently (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;Kuperberg & Walker, 2018;. ...
... While African-American people and Afro-Caribbean men report earlier ages at sexual debut (Cavazos-Rehg et al., 2010;Jayakody et al., 2011), people of color may avoid or delay stigmatized sexual practices because of an increased perception of or actual scrutiny of their sexual practices (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). Religiosity delays age at sexual debut and can similarly delay or reduce entrance into stigmatized sexual practices, but can affect sexual practices of women and men differently (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;Kuperberg & Walker, 2018;. Parental coupled status may influence the time adolescents spend unsupervised at home, increasing opportunities for sexual experimentation. ...
Prior limited research on entrance into BDSM divided paths of entry into external or internal factors (Yosta & Hunter, 2012), while research on age at entry into BDSM has not considered variation by BDSM role identity, gender, sexual orientation, and other demographic differences. In this mixed-methods exploratory study, we contribute to this literature by collecting and analyzing qualitative interviews with 96 self-described practitioners of BDSM to more fully describe distinct pathways into BDSM, adding nuance to prior descriptions of entry. We also collected and analyzed surveys with 2,017 self-described practitioners of BDSM to examine patterns of age at entry into BDSM practices and fantasies, and selection into older or younger age at practice and age at fantasy by BDSM role identity, gender, sexual orientation, and other demographic characteristics. Interview respondents told “constructionist sexual stories” describing introductions to BDSM via popular culture including pornography and other media, the Internet, or a sexual partner that awaked an inherent interest, along with “essentialist sexual stories” which described self-discovery solely attributed to an inherent personality characteristic. Survey data revealed that age at fantasy and onset of behavior varied by social–environmental factors. Pathways and patterns into BDSM behavior and fantasies therefore reflect a combination of idiosyncratic interests, exposure to ideas via the media or partners, and stratified social norms and opportunities related to sexual behavior.
... That Tinder is so widely popular among college students (ABODO 2017) may seem surprising as this is a population who arguably has easy access to potential romantic partners offline by virtue of their close proximity to and frequent interactions with same-age unmarried peers (Kuperberg and Padgett 2016;Laumann et al. 2004). What researchers have found is that Tinder is particularly appealing to college students, not purely because it is a way to meet prospective partners, but also because Tinder provides "confidence boosting procrastination" (Woodley 2017) that they treat like a game, or a "flirting app" (Carpenter and McEwan 2016). ...
... Relatively new to dating and sexual relationships, contemporary college students are embedded in what scholars and laypeople alike refer to as the cultural sexual script of hookup culture. This now ubiquitous term has been coined to refer to the new norm on college campuses where casual sex is the most conspicuous expression of sexual relations (Allison and Risman 2014;Bogle 2008;Bradshaw, Kahn, and Saville 2010;England, Fitzgibbons Shafer, and Fogerty 2008;Hamilton and Armstrong 2009;Kuperberg and Padgett 2016;Regnerus and Uecker 2011;Wade 2017). Scholarly research on hookup culture has documented the ways that it enables and requires a blasé approach to making sexual connections (Wade 2017). ...
... Mirroring prior research on college students and hooking up, women avoided risk more than men when searching for partners because they feared for their safety (Flack et al. 2007;Kuperberg and Padgett 2016). However, we did have nine heterosexual men and two gay men in our sample who expressed fears of being assaulted. ...
The popularity of Mobile Dating Applications has increased in recent years, with Tinder transforming the dating landscape for college students. Drawing upon 249 peer-facilitated interviews with college-age men and women, we explore how this population uses Tinder. Informed by social-psychological theory and research on impression management and stereotyping, we show how Tinder’s marketing strategy and game-like platform appeal to college students’ desires to reduce uncertainty and risk in forming romantic and intimate connections. However, by upending existing interaction norms, the Tinder environment creates new forms of ambiguity, which, in turn, incentivizes conformity to traditional heterogender norms and encourages racist and classist swiping behavior. Our study advances the literature on inequality and intimate marketplaces by generating insight about how contemporary dating and sexual scripts are constructed, accomplished, and negotiated when new technologies disrupt established patterns of interaction.
... Of the handful of hookup studies that included sexual minority women, findings indicate that sexual minority women hook up at rates similar to, if not higher than, their heterosexual peers (Galperin et al., 2013;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;Rupp et al., 2014). In a recent study designed to understand hookup experiences of sexual minority individuals, Watson, Shahin, and Arbeit (2019) interviewed 4 lesbian women and 3 bisexual women. ...
... However, we also hypothesized engagement in hookups to have positive effects, in that hookups would be associated with reduced minority stress as well as increased connection and involvement with the LGBTQ community. Finally, because age, relationship status, and sexual identity have been associated with hookup behaviors in past work (Galperin et al., 2013;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;Lewis et al., 2012), we included these demographic covariates in all analyses. ...
... Nearly half (47.3%) of all sexual minority women in the current sample reported at least one hookup in the past 3 months, which is similar to the hookup rates for predominantly heterosexual college students over a similar timeframe (46%; Napper et al., 2015). However, bivariate associations revealed no significant differences in hookup behavior based on sexual identity (i.e., self-identification as lesbian or bisexual) within our sample, consistent with prior work (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016) and supporting our examination of sexual minority women as a combined group (lesbians and bisexuals) rather than separately (lesbians vs. bisexuals) in this study. Overall findings revealed that alcohol use was associated with a greater likelihood of any subsequent hookups, and individuals reporting more minority stress subsequently hooked up with more partners. ...
Hooking up, which refers to a sexual encounter (ranging from kissing to penetrative sex) between individuals who are not in a committed relationship, is an increasingly normative form of sexual exploration among emerging adults. Past research has focused on hookups within a heteronormative context, and some of this work has examined hookups as a way to cope with distress. Building on this work, we examined the role of hookups as a means for lesbian and bisexual women to cope with minority stress through increasing connection and engagement with the LGBTQ (lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender/queer or questioning) community. A nationally recruited sample of 520 lesbian and bisexual women ages 18 to 25 years completed questionnaires regarding their hookup behaviors as part of a longitudinal study. Childhood sexual abuse, posttraumatic stress symptoms, alcohol use, minority stress, and involvement and connectedness with the LGBTQ community were also assessed. First, regression analyses were used to examine baseline predictors of hookup behaviors reported at a 12-month follow-up. Findings revealed that alcohol use was associated with a greater likelihood of any subsequent hookups, and individuals reporting more minority stress subsequently hooked up with more partners. Second, hookup behaviors at 12 months were examined as predictors of outcomes at a 24-month follow-up, after controlling for baseline variables. Findings revealed that hookup behaviors were associated with reduced minority stress as well as increased involvement with and connectedness to the LGBTQ community, suggesting hookups may serve a protective function. Overall, findings support the notion that, for sexual minority women, hookups may operate as a means of coping and connection.
... The past 50 years have seen various changes in traditional American sexual and romantic partnering with 'hookups' increasingly becoming an expected part of the 'college experience' (Bogle 2008;Wade 2017). Hookups are casual sexual encounters that can range from kissing to sexual intercourse (Bogle 2008;Kuperberg and Padgett 2016). The number of college students who have been found to hookup varies across time and population, from 40% of all women in older research (Glenn and Marquardt 2001) to 60% of all undergraduate students (Kuperberg and Padgett 2016) to 72% of all Seniors (England et al. 2008). ...
... Hookups are casual sexual encounters that can range from kissing to sexual intercourse (Bogle 2008;Kuperberg and Padgett 2016). The number of college students who have been found to hookup varies across time and population, from 40% of all women in older research (Glenn and Marquardt 2001) to 60% of all undergraduate students (Kuperberg and Padgett 2016) to 72% of all Seniors (England et al. 2008). Recent research finds students are now as likely to 'hookup' as they are to go on a traditional date, and report more hookup experiences than dates (Kuperberg and Padgett 2016). ...
... The number of college students who have been found to hookup varies across time and population, from 40% of all women in older research (Glenn and Marquardt 2001) to 60% of all undergraduate students (Kuperberg and Padgett 2016) to 72% of all Seniors (England et al. 2008). Recent research finds students are now as likely to 'hookup' as they are to go on a traditional date, and report more hookup experiences than dates (Kuperberg and Padgett 2016). Hookups are then a normative experience for most college students (England et al. 2008;Garcia et al. 2012;Kalish and Kimmel 2011;Reiber and Garcia 2010) despite them sometimes resulting in negative emotional and psychological outcomes, lack of satisfaction and enjoyment among college women, and even sexual assault (Eshbaugh and Gute 2008;Flack et al. 2007;Glenn and Marquardt 2001;Owen et al. 2010). ...
Hookups are a normative experience for college students with 72% of college students reporting hooking up by their Senior year. Although there is over a decade of research on hookups, what motivates college students to participate in hookups is not clear, with prior research focused mostly on psychological rather than social motivations, and differences by gender, but not exploring whether students differ in hookup motivations by other factors. This study explored whether students hooked up and hookup motivations among a random sample of 180 heterosexual college students at a Southeast university, and differences by demographic characteristics, marital age expectations, and parent and peers’ marital status. Results showed the majority of participants hookup up to feel sexual pleasure, with a significant minority motivated by relationship formation and the ‘college experience.’ Significant predictors of hookup motivations include gender, mother’s education, religiosity, parent’s coupled status, and friends’ marital status, while race and age differences were not significant. Results of a latent class analyses showed five distinct classes of social hookup motivations: older and younger abstainers, relationship seekers, pleasure pathway, and college scripts. Implications for future research are discussed.
... Developmentally, attending university or college is a time of great personal change for young people (Bryant, 2003) and their ideas regarding being a man or woman in an intimate heterosexual relationship are particularly open to influence during these years (Harris, 2010). This is not only because young adults prioritize and spend much of their time in the pursuit of, or being in, romantic relationships in this phase, but also because university/college may be the environment where students first encounter challenges to their own gender ideas and are closely confronted with gender equality ideas (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;Meier, Hull & Ortyl, 2009) that they have not been exposed to in earlier developmental phases (Hamilton, 2014;Hamilton & Armstrong, 2009). This is specifically relevant in South Africa where primary and secondary school settings have been identified as failing to effectively challenge harmful gender ideas (Shefer & Macleod, 2015), many university students come from communities where traditional gender roles predominate, and/or are the first in their families to attend university (Walker, 2018). ...
... Moverover, peer socialization is often intensified during the higher education years because students study and live in close proximity with one another. Peers who hold and practice different gender ideas may serve to challenge dominant masculinity and femininity ideas, but the majority of peers are likely to model and police traditional gender roles dictated by the broader society and thus maintain traditional gender roles (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). ...
... Our search for literature relevant to higher education and constructions of gender in intimate, hetersexual relationships resulted in the conclusion that literature in this area is mostly based on individual data generated from studies conducted with White, middle class, North American samples (e.g. Eaton & Rose, 2011;Hamilton, 2014;Hamilton & Armstrong, 2009;Lamont, 2015;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;Seabrook et al., 2016). This body of research shows that young adult men and women still tend to define themselves in terms of gender over other attributes and use heterosexual relationship scripts that are based on traditional conceptions of masculinity and femininity (Eaton & Rose, 2011;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;Seabrook et al., 2016). ...
Gender equality has been found to benefit individual and couple well-being. However, much of what is known about the uptake of gender equality ideas in intimate heterosexual relationships is based on individual data from tertiary educated groups in the global North. South African research has also relied on individual data, but has predominantly utilized low socio-economic status samples. Locally, research is therefore needed that employs dyadic data, and specifically targets higher socio-economic and tertiary educated couples who are more likely to have been exposed to and adopt gender equality ideas. Subsequently, using a feminist social constructionist framework, we explored gender constructions by interviewing 14 heterosexual university student couples about gender ideas and practices in their relationships. We used an inductive thematic analysis method to analyze the dyadic interview data. We found that the couples were aware and supportive of gender equality, and portrayed themselves as having transcended gender inequality. However, we identified restrictive traditional gender constructions which were unseen, or deemed chosen or harmless by the participants. We conclude that more needs to be done to create awareness of, and challenge these unproblematised gender ideas amongst higher socio-economic groups that may believe that they have transcended gender inequality in relationships.
... In the U.S. one study found that 41.58% of college students reported at least one experience of romantic love (Jamison & Sanner, 2021). Additionally, findings from a study of 24,131 college students around the U.S. revealed that 51.26% of college students had experienced romantic love at least once in their lives (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). These studies also demonstrate how couples developed commitment over time. ...
... Hookups are sexual relations with another individual with no plans for a romantic or exclusive relationship (Hollis et al., 2022). Hookups are defined as "a casual sexual encounter between two individuals that occurs outside of a romantic relationship but that does not necessarily involve penetrative sex" (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016, p. 1070. Using tenets of Sternberg's (1986) Triangular Theory of Love, passion is high, while intimacy and commitment are low, reflecting infatuation. ...
A romantic trajectory that has received little attention in the literature is “situationships,” which is a colloquial term used in some Western cultures to describe a complex relationship situation. According to Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love, experiences of companionate and/or consummate love are often preceded by romantic love. However, situationships may be experiences of romantic love, without increases in commitment. The goal of this study is to describe situationships using a mixed-methods, exploratory approach. The first phase of this study involved 28 participants in one-on-one, semi-structured Zoom interviews regarding their entire relationship history, and then identifying if any of these experiences were situationships. For the second phase, 261 participants completed an online survey regarding their three most recent relationship experiences. The goal of the first phase (qualitative analyses) was to define situationships and describe how these relationships were different from other relationships. The goal of the second phase (quantitative analyses) was to differentiate situationships from non-situationships using empirical data based on results from the first phase of the study. Using reflexive thematic analyses, situationships were defined as romantic relationships with no clarity or label, low levels of commitment, but similar romantic behaviors as established couples by means of affection and sexual behaviors and time spent together. Independent samples t-tests using Bonferroni corrections provided some support for the prescribed definition as there were significant differences regarding relationship quality and similarities regarding affectionate and sexual behaviors between situationships and non-situationships. These results reflect that people in a situationship are, for the most part, emotionally and sexually invested even if they are not in a fully committed relationship.
... If religious Black students are more likely to regularly attend Black churches or Black mosques, it may be that they are encouraged to date from their congregations or individuals with similar religious backgrounds. Research has shown that religious attendance provides a social network of people with similar values (Lim & Putnam, 2010) and impacts practices common among college students like "hooking up" (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). Therefore, the combined social segregation as a result of religiosity and racism certainly would limit the potential partner pools for Black students. ...
... Furthermore, having dated interracially as college students does not mean that these students will enter long-term interracial partnerships. Although the term dating is not often defined in survey research (see Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016, or Miller et al., 2022, future research can explore whether there is an association between racial identity and different forms of interracial dating, including the race of partner (not just that they were a different race than the participant), length of relationship, and current relationships. For example, dating interracially for students of color can mean both relationships with White students and relationships with other students of color from different racial or ethnic backgrounds. ...
Objective
This study explores the relationship between racial identity and interracial dating patterns.
Background
We draw on multiple literatures, including research on race and interracial dating, and the importance of racial identity on well‐being and mental health outcomes.
Method
Utilizing data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Freshmen we assess how dimensions of racial identity predict likelihood of interracial dating for Black, Asian, and Hispanic students enrolled at elite, predominantly White institutions of higher education.
Results
Multiple dimensions of racial identity predict whether Black or Asian students have dated interracially, and Hispanic students were more likely to have dated interracially than either Asian or Black students. School‐level characteristics, like the percentage of students who are White at each school, are the most consistent predictors of interracial dating patterns.
Conclusions
Our findings contribute to broader work on how interracial dating practices (in this case, specifically for college students of color) are influenced not just by the race and gender of the individuals but specifically the salience of their racial identity.
Implications
This study expands the potential research utility of racial identity measures and adds greater nuance to analyses of interracial relationships among emerging adults.
... Throughout the university years, dating relationships are common and decisions that have potential for significant longterm impact are made (Arnett 2000, Scott et al. 2009, Chandra et al. 2011, Kuperberg and Padgett 2016. Recent trends, such as pervasive internet and social media use and changes in marriage choices, have contributed to an increased difficulty for emerging adults in successfully developing close relationships (Reed et al. 2002). ...
... In addition, how environments such as family relations and school environments can interact with these individual skills and characteristics can also be included in the programs at this level (Roberson et al. 2016, Shulman et al. 2019. At the macro-system level, it may be suggested to consider factors such as beliefs about romantic relationships, social norms, expectations of the culture and family system regarding the relationships of young people, and gender roles surrounding the culture in which young people live (Gala and Kapadia 2014, Mayseless and Keren 2014, Kuperberg and Padgett 2016. Thus, it will be possible to represent the autonomous-relational cultural elements that shape the meaning of close relationships in romantic relationship education. ...
Intimate relationships are the focal aspiration for human beings. Romantic relationship education is described as a road map for helping people to find strategies and solutions that fit their context, values and relationship goals. By using evidence-based skills training, people can learn techniques to navigate typical relationship challenges and safely express emotions. Being in a mutually satisfying committed relationship has proven to be associated with many positive outcomes including life satisfaction, physical well-being, better coping with major illness, as well as longer life expectancy and career achievement. Relationship education programs are developed by psychologists in Western countries as a preventive intervention for couples, adolescents and emerging adults before relationships reach crisis stage. There is, however, a lack of empirical studies to examine the effectiveness of relationship education within the Turkish cultural context. The overarching aim of this study is to review the relationship education programs within Turkish and international literature. This study provides an overview of the relationship education, and its scope, and theoretical foundations and also effectiveness of relationship education programs for couples, adolescents and emerging adults. The study further provides cultural, theoretical and practical recommendations for future directions in Turkish relationship education programs.
... While research on the exosystem and macrosystem levels is limited in number, they showed how attending to religious, cultural, and campus organizations are associated with selection into hookups, dates, and long-term romantic relationships (e.g., Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016), how EAs from an economically less-developed society tend to prefer long-term romantic relationships (Facio & Resett, 2014), and how EAs from a collectivistic society view the ultimate goal of romantic relationships as establishing a long-term relationship culminating into marriage (Gala & Kapadia, 2014). While not particularly focused on romantic relationship experiences, these studies informed us to further explore young people's normative romantic experiences with a cultural lens. ...
... While not particularly focused on romantic relationship experiences, these studies informed us to further explore young people's normative romantic experiences with a cultural lens. According to Kuperberg and Padgett (2016), social and cultural norms about romantic relationships shape EAs' expectations, values, and understanding of romantic relations and guide their behaviors. For example, in collectivistic cultures, young people's autonomy in romantic relations is restricted (Mayseless & Keren, 2014), and family is more involved in their romantic relations (Karandashevi, 2015). ...
For the current study, a grounded theory methodology was utilized to generate a substantive theory that illustrates Turkish emerging adults’ different romantic experiences. The study participants were 25 emerging adults (12 female, 13 male), ages ranging from 19 to 26 years. The data analysis revealed four romantic patterns namely, balanced intimacy, learning intimacy, high-dependent intimacy, and lack of intimacy. The findings of the current study contribute to research on romantic relationship models by suggesting that the romantic self-descriptions, connection with the family and the culture, and meaning of past romantic experiences conjointly generate the four different romantic patterns among emerging adults. Furthermore, results suggest that Turkish emerging adults’ romantic experiences show many developmental similarities with their western counterparts while maintaining unique cultural characteristics.
... Instead, the expectation is for a no-strings-attached sexual encounter, which could mean anything from kissing to penetrative sex (Bogle, 2008;Wade, 2017). Contrary to popular belief, though, exclusive dating is not dead on college campuses (Allison, 2019;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). Thus, while most college hookups do not lead to a committed relationship, they are now the dominant means by which college students form relationships (England & Thomas, 2006). ...
... In other instances, given the sense that men are especially reluctant to commit, women may also commit more quickly than they might otherwise prefer under the assumption that they have been presented with a rare opportunity (Hamilton & Armstrong, 2009). This narrative persists even though men are more likely than women to state they desire a long-term relationship (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). Thus, men have an easier time both keeping a hookup casual or transitioning to commitment. ...
The research on gendered dating demonstrates the remarkable staying power of the conventional norms that shape the practice. Heterosexual women and men rely on a proactive/reactive framework in which men take the lead and women respond. This is in spite of broad changes in patterns of relationship formation as well as increased commitment to egalitarian relationships which should conceivably shift how women and men date. Yet, as this review of the literature demonstrates, multiple challenges to these gendered expectations around dating, including a self‐development imperative and extended period of independence before marriage, hookup culture on college campuses, and online dating, have failed to sufficiently challenge these gendered scripts. Heterosexual men and women locked out of these normative practices by economic constraints and social inequalities continue to desire them and struggle to enact rather than transform them. Moving forward, research should focus on the conditions under which sustained change does occur given the implications for research on gender inequality more broadly.
... Stigma related to student debt may both influence and reflect norms regarding partnering with those with loans, or having children or marrying while in debt. Social norms, which can vary by gender and other social groups, guide desired partner and partnership types, as well as romantic relationship and marriage formation, childbearing timing, and sequencing intentions, decisions, and outcomes (Goldscheider, Kaufman, and Sassler 2009;Hagewen and Morgan 2005;Iacovou and Tavares 2011;Kuperberg and Padgett 2016;Liefbroer and Billari 2010;Mollborn 2009). Attending college may alter these social norms, influencing behavior (Blossfeld and Huinink 1991;Bryant 2003;Liefbroer and Billari 2010;Lottes and Kuriloff 1994;Milem 1998). ...
... They were also more likely to say they would delay moving in with a partner with $100,000 in loan debt, and delay marriage until some of that $100,000 debt was paid off. Although we did not collect information on sexual orientation, the large majority of college students are heterosexual (Kuperberg and Padgett 2016). Therefore, these findings may reflect broader social norms regarding men as primary providers. ...
Student loans are increasingly common among young adults, but implications for family formation patterns and childbearing circumstances have not been fully explored. We analyze the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 Cohort dataset to examine the relationships of student loans and college attendance and completion to family formation patterns, specifically marriage, parenthood, age at marriage, and age and marital status at first birth. Data examined were collected between 1997 and 2015, and we examine respondents ranging in age from 17-35 during those years, allowing for the consideration of effects across the life course. We find women who had children at early ages were more likely to take out loans to attend college, but at older ages loans were associated with lower parenthood rates among women. Women with loans had marginally lower marriage rates at older ages, were significantly younger on average when they did have children, and were significantly less likely to be married at first birth, even after accounting for differences in age at first birth and selection effects. Loans were not associated with differences in these trends among men, but education was related to distinct family formation trajectories for both men and women.
... Stigma related to student debt may both influence and reflect norms regarding partnering with those with loans, or having children or marrying while in debt. Social norms, which can vary by gender and other social groups, guide desired partner and partnership types, as well as romantic relationship and marriage formation, childbearing timing, and sequencing intentions, decisions, and outcomes (Goldscheider, Kaufman, and Sassler 2009;Hagewen and Morgan 2005;Iacovou and Tavares 2011;Kuperberg and Padgett 2016;Liefbroer and Billari 2010;Mollborn 2009). Attending college may alter these social norms, influencing behavior (Blossfeld and Huinink 1991;Bryant 2003;Liefbroer and Billari 2010;Lottes and Kuriloff 1994;Milem 1998). ...
... They were also more likely to say they would delay moving in with a partner with $100,000 in loan debt, and delay marriage until some of that $100,000 debt was paid off. Although we did not collect information on sexual orientation, the large majority of college students are heterosexual (Kuperberg and Padgett 2016). Therefore, these findings may reflect broader social norms regarding men as primary providers. ...
Social norms and expectations regarding marriage or childbearing while in debt—or with an indebted partner—may explain links between student loans and lower family formation rates. This study analyzes an original survey of college students (N = 2,990) at two universities examining how student loans will, would, or should affect romantic relationship and family formation decisions. A significant minority believed marriage should be delayed and nearly half believed childbearing should be delayed when people have student loan debt. Many reported they would hesitate to marry someone with high student debt, their loans would delay family formation, and they would form families earlier if their debt were forgiven. Those with loan debt and higher debt were more willing to partner with those who had high student debt. Women were less likely to believe people should delay childbearing and marriage because of loans, but more hesitant to marry a partner with high student debt. Findings suggest social norms underlie childbearing and marriage delays among those with loans, and student loan debt creates a class divide among the highly educated.
... Although popular media depictions have both lauded and lamented hookup culture as the end of romantic relationships on college campuses (for example, see Freitas, 2013;Rosin, 2012;Taylor, 2013), hookups and relationships are not incompatible with one another. Studies indicate both are common on college campuses (Fielder et al., 2013;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;Monto & Carey, 2014;Shukusky & Wade, 2012;Siebenbruner, 2013). In fact, a growing body of research indicates that hooking up may be a new pathway, rather than a roadblock, to romantic relationships among college students (Bogle, 2008;England & Thomas, 2006;Garcia & Reiber, 2008;Kalish & Kimmel, 2011). ...
... White eroticization of Asian and Hispanic womenas well as fetishization of Black men's perceived large penis sizemay make these particular groups desirable hookup partners to White college students (Allison & Ralston, 2018;Spell, 2017). Alternatively, perceptions of Asian men as being sexually passive and effeminate can make them less desirable hookup partners (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;Wade, 2017). ...
Contrary to popular media claims that college hookup culture has made romantic relationships obsolete, research indicates many college students see hookups as a pathway to relationships. However, relatively few college hookups actually produce relationships. This study used a sex market framework to explore correlates of college students’ interest in future hookups and relationships with hookup partners across other-sex and same-sex hookup markets. Using Online College Social Life Survey data (N = 10,141) we explored variables classified in the following contexts that may shape choices in a sex market: demographic characteristics, the hookup dyad, the hookup event, post-hookup reactions, attitudes toward hookup partners, and hookup opportunity structures. Logistic regression analyses indicated post-hookup reactions (e.g., satisfaction, emotional responses) explained the highest percentage of variance in interest in a subsequent hookup (56% to 61% across markets) and interest in a relationship (35% to 45% across markets). Although past research suggests there are different markets for other- and same-sex hookups, these findings suggest similarity in contexts that may shape interest in relationship formation among other-sex and same-sex hookup markets. Suggestions for fostering positive relationship development on campuses are discussed.
... These contextual ideological beliefs guide thoughts and actions, shape emotional experiences, and influence romantic expectations [3], and help identify appropriate objects of these feelings and behaviors [3] [4] and provide a lens for individuals to interpret and react to events related to romantic experiences [5]. Romantic experiences are formed from cultural expectations or can be called social norms, which are cognitive maps that provide a set of expectations that guide individual behavior in social interactions [6]. ...
... Values, norms, and expectations in romantic interactions form the background in which the relationship develops [7], Collectively over time, groups of individuals develop dispositions to act in certain ways in specific situations that align with these scripts during romantic encounters. Scripts are shaped by culturally based social norms, which are collective expectations, shared values, or cultural "rules" about how individuals should behave in a given situation and which are collectively reinforced through social sanctions, which are negative or positive reactions by others in reaction to conformity to these norms [6]. Norms are ideals and guide-but may not always describe-typical behavior. ...
... 23 Overall, 64% of first-year college students' hookups involved alcohol consumption. 24 Black college students are less likely to hookup than their White counterparts, 25 thus underscoring the importance of understanding Black college students' AOEs specific to sexual behaviors and perceptions of intimacy. This understanding is particularly crucial given the link between alcohol use and sexual risk behaviors, which can result in negative sexual health outcomes (e.g., STIs, HIV, unintended pregnancies). ...
... The low number of people who have engaged in these behaviors in the present sample supports previous research suggesting Black college students are less likely to engage in casual sex and hookups compared to their White peers. 25,51 As Black students tend to have lower rates of drinking, 15 it is crucial to reinforce the notion that alcohol does not enhance sexual experiences for students who do drink. The overall low mean score on the sexuality subscale could be attributed to the low number of students who participated in these specific sexual behaviors or it might be possible that students do not feel that they need alcohol to have pleasurable sexual experiences. ...
Background:
Alcohol outcome expectancies (AOEs) are associated with college students' varied alcohol consumption. Existing research on AOEs focuses primarily on heterosexual White students. Thus, it is important to explore how the intersection of multiple identities such as race, gender, and sexual orientation influence the endorsement of specific AOEs.
Purpose:
This paper examines AOEs among Black first-year college students, with specific attention to the influence of gender and sexual orientation.
Methods:
Participants were 307 Black students from four universities in the United States. We conducted bivariate analyses using the 2-factor and 4-factor B-CEOA scale.
Results:
Most students did not hold positive AOEs such as tension reduction and sexual enhancement. They were more likely to endorse negative AOEs such as behavioral and cognitive impairment and social risk.
Discussion:
Black first-year college students reported more negative expectations associated with alcohol use, including those related to negative social risks and consequences. Thus, AOEs may serve as a protective factor against alcohol use among Black college students.
Translation to health education practice:
Alcohol interventions should be tailored to focus on the intersection of race, gender, and sexual orientation. Culturally relevant alcohol interventions have the potential to reduce the immediate and long-term consequences of alcohol use.
... However, first-year students are having fewer hookups and drinking less alcohol highlighting the need to target interventions at these students to support the continuation of these lower risk behaviours. Although students of colour are less likely to engage in hookups than their White peers, the motivation to engage in penetrative sex may be related to the possibility of relationship formation (Hall and Tanner 2016;Kuperberg and Padgett 2016b). These differences may be due to contextual factors reinforcing sexual scripts; many of the universities in this sample were predominately White institutions, so students of colour who desire racial homophily were constrained to a limited number of potential partners. ...
... sexual satisfaction) than negative (e.g. regret or guilt) reactions to a hookup (Owen et al. 2010;Owen and Fincham 2011;Snapp, Ryu, and Kerr 2015;Kuperberg and Padgett 2016b). Sexual pleasure is an important and appropriate motivation for students to engage in hookups (de Jong, Adams, and Reis 2018). ...
This study used a sexual scripting framework to analyse data from the Online College Social Life Survey to examine the role of individual, (e.g. gender, race and alcohol use), relational (partner type, condom use behaviours), and contextual factors (sex ratios and fraternity/sorority affiliation) influencing 4,292 first-year college students’ hookup experiences. Results suggest that hookups are relatively “safe”, with the the majority involving non-penetrative sexual behaviour, condom use, and familiar partners. However, alcohol use affected hookup behaviours and lower levels of condom use were associated with heavy alcohol use, even with less well known partners. Findings point to the importance of interventions that reinforce first-year students’ positive behaviours and present them with protective behavioural strategies to use in the context of alcohol, and with repeat or well-known partners to reduce risk and have enjoyable, consensual sexual experiences.
... Recent research on sexual relationships has highlighted the frequency as well as the costs and benefits of engaging in casual sex, or hooking up, particularly among college students (Bendixen et al. 2017;Garcia et al. 2012;Lewis et al. 2012;Woerner and Abbey 2017). Over the past 10 to 20 years, the majority of college students have engaged in casual sexual relationships, some leading to longer term relationships (Kuperberg and Padgett 2016). The high frequency of casual sex in the college setting indicates engaging in casual sex has largely replaced dating as a means to establish and engage in sexual relationships. ...
... The high frequency of casual sex in the college setting indicates engaging in casual sex has largely replaced dating as a means to establish and engage in sexual relationships. Indeed, studies indicate that about a quarter of casual sexual relationships lead to long term ones (Kuperberg and Padgett 2016;Timmermans and Courtois 2018). Some researchers have suggested that such hooking up is a compromise between male and female sexual strategies such that males can obtain greater sexual access at low cost while females can obtain opportunities to assess potential long-term mates (Jonason et al. 2009). ...
Recently, much attention has been focused on understanding casual sex, or hooking up, among college students. The current study uses an adaptationist approach to go beyond sex differences in casual sex behavior, examining predictors of emotional reactions and including a community sample (39 females, 84 males) in addition to a typical college sample (103 females, 62 males). If males and females possess different emotional mechanisms designed to evaluate the consequences of sexual behavior, we would expect sex differences in emotional reactions as well as in motivations for engaging in casual sex. Individual differences in motivation may influence whether emotional reactions to casual sex are positive or negative. Early environmental cues of relationship stability may also have an impact on emotional responses. Results indicate that in addition to sex differences, factors such as early environmental cues of relationship instability, individuals’ motivation for engaging in casual sex, and the number of their casual sex partners contribute to the positive or negative nature of their response to casual sex experiences. In addition, results from the community sample suggest that there may be life stage-specific effects.
... Additionally, although we recruited college males to create dating profiles because of our interest in studying college females and the people they are most likely to date (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016), the males we recruited did not report high levels of aggression or IPV perpetration history, a trend in the literature (Kolivas & Gross, 2007), reducing the range in the sample. In future work it may be worth increasing the sample of males in the hopes of increasing the variability in aggression/IPV perpetration scores or recruiting a noncollege student sample to increase the range, although this may not be as generalizable. ...
Purpose
This study examined whether female college students could accurately detect unknown male students’ propensity for aggression/intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration in romantic relationships after viewing their online dating profile, as well as whether individual differences in women’s IPV victimization history or attachment orientation predicted their accuracy.
Method
Heterosexual adult males (N = 9, Mage = 23.40), selected from a larger sample of N = 41 males, created de-identifiable dating profiles and reported on their history of aggression and IPV perpetration within relationships. Participants (N = 453 heterosexual adult females, Mage = 21.87) then viewed all 9 dating profiles and rated their perception of each male’s level of aggression/IPV perpetration risk (naïve to all other information about the person), as well as reported on their own individual characteristics (attachment, IPV victimization history).
Results
Female participants were able to discriminate between males at high/medium/low levels of aggression, but were only able to discriminate between males with high/low levels of IPV perpetration history. Attachment orientation predicted the magnitude of participants’ ratings of male aggression: Specifically, females higher in avoidance and lower in anxiety perceived males to be less aggressive. Additionally, participants’ attachment orientation was associated with their accuracy of identifying aggression, such that females higher in attachment anxiety and lower in avoidance were found to overestimate males’ aggression. Participants’ IPV victimization history was unrelated to their ratings of males’ aggression/IPV perpetration risk.
Conclusion
Attachment, but not IPV perpetration history, impacts females’ perceptions of propensity for IPV risk.
... Mating opportunities are also considered to be more numerous among these particular age groups in comparison to later stages in life, and women generally have a larger pool of potential partners at their disposal than men (Eckhard & Stauder, 2019). However central romantic relationships may be to adolescent and emerging adult development, opportunities to interact with potential romantic partners vary widely according to peer involvement (Cavanagh, 2007), cultural context (Tang & Zuo, 2000), racial background (Feliciano et al., 2009), and gender (Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). Likewise, depending on sociocultural characteristics, there is substantial variation within these age groups in terms of expectations regarding the desired presence, timing, and nature of romantic relationships. ...
Despite the relevance of loneliness to family scholarship, an attempt to integrate various perspectives on loneliness with relevant insights from loneliness research for understanding contemporary families has not yet been made. Although quantitative researchers have developed measures that have been fruitful in broadening insights about loneliness, they have failed to grasp its multidimensional and dynamic nature. Due to a shift in emphasis from lived experiences to correlational variables, loneliness research has been confronted with two particular problems. First, endeavors to refine previous conceptualizations of loneliness have stagnated. Second, research questions are scattered across a variety of disciplines. This article provides an integrated multidisciplinary theory from which it becomes clear that a family focus is of great importance to all disciplines concerned with loneliness, because opportunities for social interaction, relational standards, and sources of loneliness depend on familial and developmental histories and the cultural orientation of the families in which individuals live.
... Today, the dominant cultural script dictates that genital contact is not appropriate on a date, but it is unclear if this is also true in practice given the changing circumstances of respectability in contemporary America with the rise of a hookup culture around the turn of the twenty-first century. Hookup culture encompasses a set of values, ideals, norms, and expectations that are part of the system that accepts casual sexual interactions (i.e., hookups) as a feature of, not replacement for, courtship (Heldman & Wade, 2010;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;Monto & Carey, 2014;Wade, 2017). ...
Despite increasing egalitarian values expressed among college students, dating is still characterized by traditional gender roles. Because traditional dating scripts are predominantly recited and enacted to the extent that men initiate and pay, there are assumptions that the sexual processes have not changed. This study investigates the sexual processes of male-initiated and female-initiated dates among college students in the US. Using data from the Online College Social Life Survey, we ask whether traditional components of the dating script explain traditional sexual outcomes (non-genital contact), as well as whether alternative dating scripts explain nontraditional sexual outcomes (genital contact). Using multivariate logistic regression models, we found that violations of the traditional script are associated with higher odds of genital contact for male- and female-initiated dates; however, the predictors of genital contact for female-initiated dates are not the same as those for male-initiated dates. This study highlights the variability of sexual scripts in dating practices, suggesting that the sexual scripts associated with dates are not as homogenous as we have previously believed.
... Intrasexual competitiveness may influence students' ability to gain status, as people use specific strategies when competing with same-sex peers for status (Benenson & Abadzi, 2020). Furthermore, intrasexual competitiveness may be important for achieving status among first-year college students because these students often live in dormitory suites or halls with same-sex peers and tend to be invested in romantic relationships, which can promote competition specifically with same-sex peers (e.g., Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). ...
Although many emerging adults feel lonely and struggle to gain status during the college transition, it remains unclear whether certain personality traits facilitate this transition. Using a longitudinal design, we investigated whether status‐related traits—namely, entitlement, intrasexual competitiveness, and dominance—related to the development of status in 91 first‐year college students (Mage = 18.15, SD = 0.44) transitioning to a novel college environment. We also examined whether status‐related personality traits moderated the degree to which status related to loneliness. As hypothesized, only students high in intrasexual competitiveness experienced increases in subjective dorm status across the year. In addition, students exhibiting average or low entitlement experienced decreases in loneliness over time, whereas high entitlement was related to consistently low loneliness. Finally, higher subjective dorm status was related to lower loneliness only for less dominant students, as assessed by both self‐ratings of trait dominance and raters’ judgments of facial dominance from photographs. Using a real‐world context of status development, these results suggest that status‐related personality traits may influence students’ ability to experience higher status and modulate the relation between subjective status and loneliness.
... The study revealed that American young adults reported higher levels of romantic loneliness when not in a romantic relationship and a greater degree of closeness in romantic relationships than Korean young adults. In a separate study comparing Greek and American cultures also showed that culture impacts social desirability and shapes partnering norms and romantic behaviors (25). Thus, the social etiquette associated with developing and maintaining romantic relationships appears to be culturally sensitive and requires further investigation in the cross-cultural validation of social skills intervention. ...
Evidence-based social skills interventions for young adults are limited, despite social difficulties in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) persisting after transition to adulthood. The Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills for Young Adults (PEERS®-YA) is an evidence-based intervention found to be effective in improving relational skills in young adults with ASD. To translate the original American version of the PEERS®-YA treatment manual into Korean, intensive interviews were performed. Based on results from interviews, several rules of dating etiquette and social activities were modified to be culturally sensitive and linguistically appropriate. Next, young adults diagnosed with ASD (18–35 years of age; IQ > 70) and their social coaches were recruited for the randomized controlled trial (RCT). Participants were randomly assigned either to a treatment group (TG; n = 19) or a delayed treatment group (DTG; n = 18). In the analysis of group differences in the TG and DTG, social skills knowledge was improved. The within group analyses showed positive effects of improving social skills knowledge on reducing depression and anxiety symptoms. After modest cultural adaptations focusing on dating and social activities, the implementation of the PEERS®-YA-K was found feasible for the Korean community. This is one of only a few cross-cultural validation trials establishing evidence-based treatment in young adults with ASD.
Clinical Trial Registration: This trial was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT03310775.
... In HEI settings, perpetrators can include classmates, friends, housemates, and acquaintances, as well as sexual partners and boyfriends (Flack et al., 2016). Existing research shows that the majority (60%) of young adults at HEIs in the United States have engaged in sexual acts with people they are not in a committed relationship with (Duval et al., 2018;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016;Monto & Carey, 2014). Further, evidence suggests that these casual sexual encounters or "hookups" are increasing at HEIs and that most committed romantic relationships at HEIs begin with a casual hookup (England et al., 2008;Garcia et al., 2012;Lambert et al., 2003). ...
Sexual violence among higher education institution (HEI) students is a growing public health concern. To date, there is little evidence on how to effectively prevent sexual violence among this demographic. This study is the first systematic review to meta-analyze all available evidence for risk and protective factors of sexual violence perpetrated by men at HEIs. We searched four electronic databases and multiple gray literature sources. We screened studies using prespecified selection criteria for the sample (HEI students who identify as men), outcome (sexual violence perpetration against peers), and study design (quantitative and longitudinal). Longitudinal studies provide the most rigorous available evidence on risk and protective factors. We identified 16 studies and meta-analyzed eight different risk factors: alcohol consumption, hostility toward women, delinquency, fraternity membership, history of sexual violence perpetration, rape myth acceptance, age at first sex, and peer approval of sexual violence. We deemed included studies to have a varied risk of bias and the overall quality of evidence to range from moderate to high. History of sexual violence perpetration (perpetration prior to entering an HEI) emerged as the strongest predictor of sexual violence perpetration at HEIs, complicating the notion that HEI environments themselves foster a culture of sexual violence. Peer support for sexual violence predicted perpetration while individual rape-supporting beliefs did not. Our findings suggest that interventions targeting peer norms (e.g., bystander interventions) and early sexual violence prevention and consent interventions for high school and elementary school students could be effective in reducing and preventing sexual violence at HEIs.
... In fact, Bay-Cheng (2019) argues that white women often have the default status as being sexual agents, while women of colour and sexual minorities are often not included in the discourse and representations of sexual agency (Diamond, 2005;Fahs & McClelland, 2016). White women are more likely to participate in hook-up behaviours than women of colour because they face fewer social constraints and stereotypes (Armstrong & Hamilton, 2013;Hall & Tanner, 2016;Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). Since women of colour are more likely to be religious than white women, future research should explore how changes in women of colour's religious commitment over time impacts their sexual exploration and sexual attitudes. ...
Sexual double standards tend to marginalize women and restrict their sexual expression in comparison to men. Sexual attitudes can heavily influence women’s propensity to engage in sexual risk behaviours. One’s sexual attitudes, whether more conservative or liberal have been shown to influence differing experiences of power and assertiveness in sexual relationships. Religiosity is often linked to an individual’s sexual decision-making and practices. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine if sexual attitudes meditated the relationship between women’s religious commitment and their sexual risk behaviours while in college. The study consisted of 155 college-aged women (ages 18–25) who completed an online survey. The results suggested that religious commitment was significantly related to sexual risk behaviours. Additionally, sexual attitudes did not mediate the relationship between religious commitment and sexual risk behaviours. These findings provide researchers with relevant information about women’s sexual attitudes and their corresponding behaviours. This study adds to the literature by focusing on the relationship between college-aged women’s sexual practices and their religiosity.
... Prior research on hookups has focused on college student samples that are predominantly (93% to 98%) heterosexual Fielder et al., 2013Fielder et al., , 2014Flack et al., 2007Flack et al., , 2016Owen et al., 2010;Paul, McManus, & Hayes, 2000). Although very little is known about hookups outside of a heteronormative context (see Watson, Snapp, & Wang, 2017), the few studies that do exist suggest a greater percentage of SMW engage in hookups than heterosexual women (Galperin et al., 2013;Rupp et al., 2014; see for exception, Kuperberg & Padgett, 2016). Hookups may allow young women questioning their sexual identity to engage in sexual exploration (Rupp et al., 2014), and because there have traditionally been fewer ways for sexual minorities to meet dating partners, hookups may serve as a way for SMW to explore potential romantic relationships (Watson et al., 2017). ...
Sexual minority women (SMW), including lesbian and bisexual women, are at greater risk for heavy drinking and sexual victimization than heterosexual women. Risk factors for alcohol-related sexual victimization, such as incapacitated rape (IR), include frequent heavy drinking and hookups among heterosexual women, but it is less clear whether these risk factors extend to SMW. This current study was designed to address this gap. In a national sample of SMW (N = 1,057), logistic regressions were used to test whether heavy drinking and hookups in the first year of the study were risk factors for IR during the second year. After controlling for history of prior sexual victimization, subsequent IR was predicted by an interaction between heavy drinking and the number of male hookup partners. Specifically, more frequent heavy drinking was associated with increased risk for subsequent IR, but only among SMW who reported more than one male hookup partner, indicating exposure to more potential perpetrators. When examined separately, this finding held for bisexual women, but was not significant for lesbian women, likely because they reported fewer male hookup partners. Overall, findings from this longitudinal study highlight that in combination, heavy drinking and hookups with multiple men elevate risk for IR.
... Additionally, women are more concerned with safety and avoiding risk when searching for male hookup partners (e.g., fear of sexual assault; aggressiveness; Kuperberg and Padgett, 2015). Women are also concerned when a man is drinking and their concern is not only for themselves as they are also concerned with safety when the group of women who they are out with is also all drinking (Lindgren et al., 2009). ...
Hookups are uncommitted sexual encounters that range from kissing to intercourse and occur between individuals in whom there is no current dating relationship and no expressed or acknowledged expectations of a relationship following the hookup. Research over the last decade has begun to focus on hooking up among adolescents and young adults with significant research demonstrating how alcohol is often involved in hooking up. Given alcohol’s involvement with hooking up behavior, the array of health consequences associated with this relationship, as well as its increasing prevalence from adolescence to young adulthood, it is important to determine the predictors and consequences associated with alcohol-related hooking up. The current review extends prior reviews by adding more recent research, including both qualitative and experimental studies (i.e., expanding to review more diverse methods), research that focuses on the use of technology in alcohol-related hookups (i.e., emerging issues), further develops prevention and intervention potentials and directions, and also offers a broader discussion of hooking up outside of college student populations (i.e., expanding generalization). This article will review the operationalization and ambiguity of the phrase hooking up, the relationship between hooking up and alcohol use at both the global and event levels, predictors of alcohol-related hooking up, and both positive and negative consequences, including sexual victimization, associated with alcohol-related hookups. Throughout, commentary is provided on the methodological issues present in the field, as well as limitations of the existing research. Future directions for research that could significantly advance our understanding of hookups and alcohol use are provided.
... In part, these patterns reflect racial/ethnic and classed residential locations, with privileged students more able to live independently from their families. The existence of these patterns adds further support to arguments that regardless of similar age and educational social locations, heterosexual college students' sexual and romantic relationship experiences bifurcate along the lines of gender, race, and class, whether due to differences of material resources, partner preferences, campus compositions, tokenism, or other mechanisms (Allison and Risman 2014;Bogle 2008;Brimeyer and Smith 2012;Hamilton and Armstrong 2009;Kuperberg and Padgett 2016). Again, if present-day relationship experiences shape desires and expectations for future sex and romance, then the varied pathways into college relationships for students by race and class have consequences for racial and class divisions in patterns of future relationship formation. ...
The cultural dominance of non-relational sexual scripts for short-term sexual encounters on college campuses, combined with the persistence of gendered practices for heterosexual relationship formation, complicates students’ interest in committed, monogamous, and gender egalitarian relationships. This paper draws on interviews with 56 heterosexual undergraduates ages 18–23 at the University of Illinois at Chicago to examine how students perceive and experience committed relationships and the role of gendered practices in their formation. I find that relationships begin with “hanging out” and then follow either date (“asking out”) or hookup (“sliding in”) pathways into exclusivity. The dating pathway is characterized by “symbolic gendering” (Lamont, 2014) but presents clear progression into commitment. In contrast, “sliding in” is less characterized by gendered practices but also generates ambiguity in its lack of direct verbal communication. This ambiguity is particularly challenging for women, given perceptions and realities of their greater interest in relationships than men and the operation of a sexual double standard. Students face some trade-off between gender egalitarianism and definitional clarity in forming committed relationships.
Reproductive coercion is any behavior that limits a person’s reproductive decision-making and can lead to negative health and safety outcomes. Previous research has explored reproductive coercion prevalence rates in clinical samples, as well as demographic risk factors for experiencing reproductive coercion. The purpose of this study is to assess the prevalence rates of two specific forms of reproductive coercion, pregnancy coercion and condom manipulation, in an ethnically and racially diverse sample of young females. We also explore the association between relationship health knowledge and skills with reproductive coercion. We used a sample of 143 females with previous sexual activity. Participants were diverse in terms of race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and family immigration status. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analyses were used to determine prevalence rates of pregnancy coercion and condom manipulation and the likelihood of experiencing reproductive coercion based on participants’ knowledge and skills related to relationship health. Results revealed that 16.1% of the sample had experienced reproductive coercion, with all participants in this group reporting lifetime experiences of pregnancy coercion. Lifetime experiences of condom manipulation were reported by 6.3% of the sample. The most common form of reproductive coercion experienced by participants was being told by a partner not to use any birth control. Furthermore, results indicate that higher relationship health knowledge may be a protective factor for pregnancy coercion and condom manipulation. Likewise, higher decision-making skills in relationships and higher confidence in relationships may also protect against condom manipulation. Results from this study suggest implications for sexual and relationship health programming that expands education around consent, choice, decision-making, and communication around the use of contraception.
Background
The main aim of this study is to examine the relationship between addiction in romantic relationships and attachment styles of young people. In addition, another aim of this study is to reveal whether dependency in romantic relationships and attachment styles differ according to the sociodemographic characteristics of young people.
Methods
A total of 456 university students participated in this descriptive, cross-sectional and correlational study. Demographic Information Form, Addiction in Romantic Relationships Scale and Three Dimensional Attachment Style Scale were used as data collection tools.
Results
As a result of the study, the mean dependency in romantic relationships of young people was determined as x̄=2.03. The mean of self-commitment in romantic relationships was found to be low (x̄=1.79) and the mean of obsession was found to be high (x̄=2.29). In addition, the findings show that the majority of young people have a secure attachment style. In terms of gender, women had higher levels of anxious-ambivalent attachment. Young people in romantic relationships had higher levels of dependency, self-commitment, deprivation and obsessive-compulsive attachment in romantic relationships. It was also found that young people in romantic relationships had a secure attachment style, while young people without romantic relationships had an anxious-ambivalent attachment style.
Sexual violence (SV) experienced by higher education students is a prevalent public health problem. Collecting data on SV through self-report surveys in higher education institutions (HEIs) is essential for estimating the scope of the problem, the first step to adequately resourcing and implementing prevention and response programming and policies. However, in the United Kingdom, data is limited. We used data from the cross-sectional Oxford Understanding Relationships, Sex, Power, Abuse and Consent Experiences survey, administered to all students at a university in the United Kingdom in May 2021 ( n = 25,820), to estimate the past year prevalence of SV. We analyzed data from respondents who answered at least one question on SV ( n = 1,318) and found that 20.5% of respondents experienced at least one act of attempted or forced sexual touching or rape, and 52.7% of respondents experienced at least one act of sexual harassment (SH). We found that women experienced the highest rates of SV. Attempted forced sexual touching was far more common than forced sexual touching, or rape. Sexist remarks or jokes were the most common act of SH. Most acts of SV took place at the university. These findings reveal that the prevalence of SV in HEIs in the United Kingdom could be far higher than what is experienced in the general population. While this study reflects the context in only one institution, it underlines the need for continued monitoring to develop rigorous, evidence-based, and targeted prevention and response strategies.
Sexuality researchers wrestle with the question of how power both generates options for sexual behaviors while also constraining them, but the potential for creation and agency among minority groups remains underexamined. Based on in-depth interviews with 40 LGBTQ and racial minority college students, this article makes two core contributions. First, I document their experiences of fetishization; their concerns over safety and the potential for violence; and the invalidation of their identities in campus hookup culture. Second, I show how in response they create “community-based party cultures,” differentiated from hookup culture by four major features: (1) Differentiated access to resources, (2) varying emphases on casual sex, (3) varying expectations of anonymity, and (4) emphasized trust/safety in these spaces. Findings update research assumptions that racial minority and/or LGBTQ students passively avoid hookup culture by illuminating how they organize spaces for themselves.
The present study describes changes in young adults' sexual behaviors during the early COVID-19 pandemic. Latent class growth analyses (LCGAs) conducted with four waves of data collected between July 2019 to May 2020 in N = 775 college students (Mage = 18.61, SD = 0.33; 50.3% female, 90.2% White) revealed the presence of high- and low-risk classes in separate models for oral, vaginal, and anal sexual risk taking. As anticipated, vaginal and oral risk taking declined in spring 2020. Membership in high-risk trajectories was attributable to high COVID-19-related financial problems, early sexual debut, low self-control, and being in a romantic relationship. Other COVID-19 factors and demographic control variables were not linked to trajectory membership. Thus, while many young adults' sexual risk taking changed during the early pandemic, their perceptions of and experiences with COVID-19 were not predictive of sexual risk trajectory membership.
The experience of love plays an integral role in human development as adolescents transition into adulthood. However, little is known about whether early adults have a shared understanding about indicators of love in daily life in this transitional phase. Using Cultural Consensus Theory informed by developmental theory, this study examined whether college-attending early adults in the United States reach a consensus on what makes people feel loved. One hundred sixty-six college-attending early adults ages 18 to 22 responded to 60 items on everyday scenarios and decided whether they thought most people would think each scenario was loving or not. Bayesian cognitive psychometric analysis revealed that college-attending respondents converged on a shared belief on love that included a wide range of everyday scenarios. Moreover, we found those higher conscientiousness and extraversion scores were more knowledgeable about the consensus on felt love. We expand on the developmental implications of these findings.
Research on hookups established that they are facilitated by alcohol consumption, interpreted as meaningless fun, and couched in ambiguous communication to avoid intimacy. In the United States, hookup culture is associated with a life course stage called “emerging adulthood.” This stage allows college students to suspend longer term relationships, parenthood, and the dictates of domesticity that will organize normative adult lives while establishing the careers that will help fund such goals. Hookups allow a mode of sexual engagement that buffers them from the burdens of serious intimacy and normative life course milestones. Scholars examined how the hookup scripts differ for queer hookups and the centrality of heternormativity in the enactment of hookup culture (e.g., Lamont et al. 2018). Less has been said about differences between straight and queer hookups from a life course perspective; this paper takes up this perspective, drawing on 28 interviews with queer participants about their college hookups. Participants' expectations about post‐college intimacy, love, and sex are less fixed, and they are therefore open to more expansive possibilities of intimacy in college than their straight peers. By taking a life course perspective, this paper shows how queer temporalities reveal and challenge the heteronormativity that governs hookup culture.
Romantic partnership is associated with fewer depressive symptoms; however, it is unclear whether this association varies by age among young women. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979–Young Adult Sample (N = 2,403) was used to compare depressive symptoms among partnered – married, cohabiting, or dating – and unpartnered women (ages 18–29). Multilevel regression results show that differences in depression symptoms between partnered statuses and singlehood are moderated by age. Compared to singlehood, cohabitation was most consistently related to lower depression symptoms (ages 20–25) while marriage (ages 22–25) and dating (ages 21–22) were associated with lower depression symptoms at fewer ages.
Exchanging sexually explicit messages has become an increasingly common form of interaction for both adolescents and adults. Although sexting has been identified as a risk factor for a variety of negative outcomes, this research has generally been conducted without attention to the relationship context of the communicators. This chapter will examine the prevalence of sexting in the context of existing romantic relationships, and how sexting may relate to features of the relationship. The authors will review existing research examining motivations for sexting with romantic partners, pressure to engage in sexting, and associations between sexting and romantic attachment styles and relationship satisfaction. The chapter will conclude with discussion of important future directions for research.
A prominent feature of mainstream television, especially reality programming, is a heterosexual script that outlines women’s and men’s traditional courtship roles. Although frequent media use is believed to produce greater acceptance of this script, existing analyses have not fully delineated contributions of scripted versus reality programming or tested these notions using a holistic heterosexual script scale. We addressed these limitations in two studies. In Study 1, 466 undergraduate women indicated their support of the heterosexual script and their consumption of popular reality programs, sitcoms, and dramas. Heavier viewing of reality programming predicted greater support for the heterosexual script, and heavier viewing of sitcoms predicted weaker support. In Study 2, we used longitudinal data to explore relations between viewing reality television, acceptance of the heterosexual script, and acceptance of sexualized aggression during undergraduate women’s first 2 years in college ( N = 244). We found that reality television consumption was not a direct predictor of acceptance of sexualized aggression but was a significant, indirect predictor through endorsement of the heterosexual script. These studies contribute to our understanding of unique media contributions to endorsement of the heterosexual script and illuminate one process by which women may come to normalize sexual mistreatment. Campus educational programming on sexuality, sexual assault, and healthy relationships may be able to intervene in this normalization through critique of the heterosexual script and media portrayals of dating and relationships.
Romantic relationships are a special type of relationship that affect happiness and wellbeing, but little is known about how romantic couples use the built environment to perpetuate their bond. We conducted a survey of 124 geolocated individuals in romantic relationships in State College, Pennsylvania, and used a mixed-method geographic information systems (GIS)/qualitative research framework to show how couples use the built environment. We illustrate their favorite places, the characteristics of these places, and how the town’s amenities and design helps their bond. Our results show that pedestrian and transportation infrastructure and a variety of proximal, affordable activities, (primarily restaurants and nature/outdoor spaces) are important for couples. We also find that on-campus attractions, not just those of the town, play an important role for romantic outings. We use these findings to encourage and recommend infrastructure for supporting romantic relationships in the future.
Romantic relationships are a central component of life and are linked to well‐being, making adaptive functioning critical. Yet, there are few theory‐driven, systematic efforts to prepare young people to function skillfully. This study reports the results of a randomized controlled trial of a two‐session relationship education program based on Davila and colleagues' construct of romantic competence. Participants were 154 (68 relationship education, 86 waitlist) emerging adult college students. They completed questionnaires initially, posttest, and at follow up. Compared to the waitlist, relationship education participants reported increases in workshop‐relevant knowledge, perspective taking, and adaptive decision making, all targets of the program. Qualitative data from relationship education participants at follow up indicated behavioral changes reflective of workshop material. This provides preliminary support of the program's efficacy.
Studies examining college dating violence to date have focused exclusively on university settings where White students are overrepresented and Black students are limited. Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), which have traditionally matriculated Black American students, present a compelling case for study as empirical evidence has shown that Black females experience a higher rate of violence compared to their White counterparts. Using data from the Historically Black College and University Campus Sexual Assault (HBCU-CSA) Study, this study examined contextual and individual factors that were associated with partner violence victimization and perpetration among female undergraduate students attending HBCUs in their emerging adulthood. In sum, our study found a constellation of contextual factors (i.e., residence on campus, community engagement) and individual factors (i.e., depressive symptoms, adverse sexual experience, substance use, condom use, drug use before sex, ever been married) that were associated with partner violence among female undergraduate students attending HBCUs.
Casual sexual relationships and experiences (CSREs) are common and emotionally significant occurrences. Given the uncommitted, often emotionally complicated nature of CSREs, researchers have asked whether these experiences may have positive and/or negative emotional consequences. We reviewed 71 quantitative articles examining emotional outcomes of CSREs, including subjective emotional reactions (e.g., excitement, regret) and emotional health (e.g., depression, self-esteem). Overall, people evaluated their CSREs more positively than negatively. In contrast, CSREs were associated with short-term declines in emotional health in most studies examining changes in emotional health within a year of CSRE involvement. Emotional outcomes of CSREs differed across people and situations. Women and individuals with less permissive attitudes toward CSREs experienced worse emotional outcomes of CSREs. Alcohol use prior to CSREs, not being sexually satisfied, and not knowing a partner well were also associated with worse emotional outcomes. These findings suggest directions for prevention/intervention related to CSREs. For example, skill-building related to sexual decision-making may help individuals decide whether, and under what circumstances, CSREs are likely to result in positive or negative emotional outcomes. In addition, the limitations of extant research suggest directions for future inquiry (e.g., examining whether verbal and nonverbal consent practices predict emotional outcomes of CSREs).
Objective:
To examine how specific aspects of a hookup are related to feelings of regret among college students, and how these patterns vary by gender and college context. Participants: Freshmen and sophomore men (n = 92) and women (n = 283) from a Midwestern university and community college. Methods: Participants answered questions about their most recent hookup and feelings of regret. Results: Frequency of engaging in a hookup was similar across gender and college context. Men and women were more likely to regret hookups with strangers and when alcohol was involved. Women had fewer regrets when their last hookup occurred with a partner they had also hooked up with in the past than when the hookup occurred only once with that partner. University students reported more regret when the hookup occurred with a stranger, occurred only one time, and when alcohol was used, but this was not found for community college students. Conclusions: Future research should examine hookup experiences through a developmental lens.
Objective: This study aims to examine factors related to emotional abuse, an understudied type of intimate partner violence (IPV), among a sample of college students. Participants: 601 undergraduates from one large public university in the Midwestern United States (Spring 2017) and 756 undergraduates from one large public university in the Southern United States (Fall 2019) participated in the study. Methods: Participants completed an online survey measuring demographic information, behavioral variables (viewing porn, alcohol consumption, and hooking up), and history of violence (witnessing a father abuse his spouse, emotional abuse history). Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression analyses predicting emotional abuse victimization were conducted. Results: Results indicate female, white, older students were more likely to report emotional abuse. Also, students witnessing their father abuse his spouse, frequent pornography use, increased alcohol use, and frequent hookups increased odds of emotional abuse. Conclusion: College campuses should consider emphasizing emotional abuse in IPV programing.
The current study surveyed 530 college students to investigate perceptions of victim responsibility or blame in heterosexual stalking situations using a vignette design. The vignettes manipulated the gender of the victim and offender, as well as the prior relationship between the victim and offender. Regression results revealed that while perceived victim blame was low overall among the sample, victims of known offenders received the most blame, especially if they engaged in casual sex practices. Gender of the victim and offender in the vignette did not significantly affect the perceptions of victim blame. Contrary to previous literature, male respondents were significantly less likely than female respondents to assign blame to the victim, particularly when the victim was a male being pursued by a female stalker. Also, white respondents were significantly less likely than nonwhite respondents to attribute blame to the victim. Implications for educational programs or other campus initiatives to address victim-blaming attitudes and stalking are discussed.
Most youth desire to marry, and often around a certain age, but many individuals marry earlier or later than originally desired. Off-time marriage could have consequences for subsequent relationship stability and mental health. Whereas barriers to marriage goals in the short term have been studied extensively, predictors of meeting marital timing expectations over the life course are less well understood. This study examined possible barriers, including socioeconomic characteristics and family experiences, both background and formation, to meeting marital timing desires by age 40 using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 cohort (NLSY79). Multinomial logistic regression revealed that greater education, religiousness, cohabitation, and premarital childbearing were associated with delayed or forgone marriage, but associations varied by gender and the age at which respondents stated their expectations.
While the collegiate hookup literature identifies the prevalence and conditions under which women engage in same-sex sexual behaviors, less is understood about the macro- and mesolevel features of universities predictive of women’s engagement in these behaviors. How do predictors of same-sex contact differ for women who report engagement in nongenital versus genital sexual acts? Using the Online College Social Life Survey (OCSLS), this study examined 5,069 women from 21 U.S. colleges and universities who reported at least one same-sex encounter in their lifetime to empirically evaluate how same-sex sexual histories are predicted by university structure and membership in student subcultures. Results find subcultural participation to have a regulative effect on what types of sexual behaviors women engaged in with other women. While Greek-affiliated women were significantly more likely to have engaged in solely nongenital sexual behavior, women in team-based athletics were more likely to report a genital sexual history with women. This study’s focus on women’s sexual behaviors as opposed to sexual identity affirms the influence of institutional contexts, subcultural dynamics, and their variability across U.S. campuses in producing the conditions and opportunities for varied forms of sexual interactions among college women.
Considerable attention has been paid to the academic achievements of Asian Americans because there is convergent evidence that this population has attained high educational mobility. In trying to explain the achievement patterns, researchers have largely limited their investigations to one of two contrasting hypotheses involving (a) hereditary differences in intelligence between Asians and Whites and (b) Asian cultural values that promote educational endeavors. Research findings have cast serious doubt over the validity of the genetic hypothesis. Yet, there has been a failure to find strong empirical support for alternative hypothesis concerning cultural values. It is proposed, under the concept of relative functionalism, that Asian Americans perceive, and have experienced, restrictions in upward mobility in careers or jobs that are unrelated to education. Consequently, education assumes importance, above and beyond what can be predicted from cultural values. Research and policy implications of this view are noted.
Background: A significant portion of premarital sexual activity is casual rather than in relationships, and commentators disagree on whether this is what women prefer. Objective: We examine gender differences in attitudes toward casual sex. We also assess whether there is a double standard whereby women are judged more harshly for casual sex. Methods: We use a large online survey of U.S. university students to examine gender differences with regard to attitudes and reports of sexual behavior. Results: While distributions overlap, the average man looks more favorably on casual sex than the average woman. Both sexes show substantial openness to relationships. We find evidence of a double standard: men are more judgmental toward women than toward men who have casual sex. Men appear to over-report and/or women to under-report intercourse and fellatio, suggesting that men see these acts as enhancing and/or women see them as diminishing their status. Conclusions: Women face more negative judgment than men when they are known to engage in casual sex, and they also report less interest in casual sex than men. Our analysis does not permit us to assess whether the double standard we find evidence of explains why women have less interest in casual sex, but we hypothesize that this is the case.
Using the Online College Social Life Survey, we examine whether the sex ratio of the student body of a college or university affects whether heterosexual students hook up, have relationships, have intercourse, or have attitudes favorable toward casual sex. The gendered dyadic power model predicts that, if men are more interested in having sex than women, as the ratio of women to men goes up, men will increasingly have the upper hand and more sex will occur. Consistent with the prediction, we find that where the ratio of women to men is higher, students of both sexes hook up more and accumulate more sexual partners, but inconsistent with it, students are no more likely to have intercourse in a given hookup where the ratio of women is higher.
To acquire in-depth understanding of meanings attributed by young men to sexual
health care, the similarities and asymmetries present in a corpus of 60 reports of
men from two different generations were analyzed regarding this type of care. A
process of in-depth hermeneutics was undertaken under the theoretical sociological
perspectives of sexual scripts, male habitus and generation. Fifteen analytical
categories were grouped together into the three dimensions of sexual scripts
(intra-psychic, interpersonal and cultural). Some findings indicate the presence of
provisions which were not enduring and have not been transposed to the next
generation. However, striking cultural similarities or habitus around male sexuality
were also found in the two different socio-historical contexts, allowing for an
interpretation on the as yet inconstant use of condoms among the young.
This study examined 13,976 dates and 12,068 hookup encounters at 22 colleges in the United States reported by students surveyed between 2005 and 2011 in the Online College Social Life Survey (OCSLS) to determine differences between dates and hookups in partner meeting context and sex during the encounter. Students most often met date and hookup partners through institutional settings or bars and parties, with approximately two-thirds of partners met in these venues. Those who had fewer potential partners on campus (women) were less likely to find partners in campus locations and less likely to find male sexual or dating partners but more likely to date women. Men and women engaging in same-sex encounters had higher rates of meeting partners through Internet sources. Hookups were associated with partners met in bars, parties, nightclubs, and college dormitories, and were twice as likely as dates to include sex. Students were more likely to go on dates with partners met on the Internet, which we theorize is a result of low levels of trust associated with that context. Patterns found are related to the association of meeting contexts with hookup scripts, risk and trust, and local partnering markets.
This article has two goals, an intellectual history of gender as a concept and to outline a framework for moving forward theory and research on gender conceptualized as a structure of social stratification. The authors’ first goal is to trace the conceptual development of the study of sex and gender throughout the 20th century to now. They do this from a feminist sociological standpoint, framing the question with particular concern for power and inequality. The authors use a modernist perspective, showing how theory and research built in a cumulative fashion, with empirical studies sometimes supporting and sometimes challenging current theories, often leads to new ones. The authors then offer their theoretical contribution, framing gender as a social structure as a means to integrate the wide variety of empirical research findings on causal explanations for and consequences of gender. This framework includes attention to: the differences and similarities between women and men as individuals, the stability of and changing expectations we hold for each sex during social interaction, and the mechanisms by which gender is embedded into the logic of social institutions and organizations. At each level of analysis, there is a focus on the organization of social life and the cultural logics that accompany such patterns.
Using the 1987-1988 and 1992-1994 waves of the National Survey of Families and Households, the authors measure the association between Wave 1 responses to 12 questions on whom respondents would be “most willing to marry” and the likelihood of marriage by Wave 2. Preliminary analysis indicated that some questions about partner preferences are more predictive of marriage than others. Two hypotheses are developed to explain the pattern of effects. One is that being more willing to marry someone with characteristics that are less desirable to one’s same-sex peers increases the likelihood of marriage. The second hypothesis takes into account the preferences of the opposite sex. Both men and women are most willing to marry someone with more education or who earns more than they. Supporting the second hypothesis, analyses show that men who are willing to marry women with less education or who earn less are more likely to marry.
Current work on hooking up—or casual sexual activity on college campuses—takes an individualistic, “battle of the sexes” approach and underestimates the importance of college as a classed location. The authors employ an interactional, intersectional approach using longitudinal ethnographic and interview data on a group of college women’s sexual and romantic careers. They find that heterosexual college women contend with public gender beliefs about women’s sexuality that reinforce male dominance across both hookups and committed relationships. The four-year university, however, also reflects a privileged path to adulthood. The authors show that it is characterized by a classed self-development imperative that discourages relationships but makes hooking up appealing. Experiences of this structural conflict vary. More privileged women struggle to meet gender and class guidelines for sexual behavior, placing them in double binds. Less privileged women find the class beliefs of the university foreign and hostile to their sexual and romantic logics.
Regret and anticipated regret enhance decision quality by helping people avoid making and repeating mistakes. Some of people's most intense regrets concern sexual decisions. We hypothesized evolved sex differences in women's and men's experiences of sexual regret. Because of women's higher obligatory costs of reproduction throughout evolutionary history, we hypothesized that sexual actions, particularly those involving casual sex, would be regretted more intensely by women than by men. In contrast, because missed sexual opportunities historically carried higher reproductive fitness costs for men than for women, we hypothesized that poorly chosen sexual inactions would be regretted more by men than by women. Across three studies (Ns = 200, 395, and 24,230), we tested these hypotheses using free responses, written scenarios, detailed checklists, and Internet sampling to achieve participant diversity, including diversity in sexual orientation. Across all data sources, results supported predicted psychological sex differences and these differences were localized in casual sex contexts. These findings are consistent with the notion that the psychology of sexual regret was shaped by recurrent sex differences in selection pressures operating over deep time.
Research has demonstrated ambiguity about the definition of hooking up among college students. The current research examined whether there were multiple definitions of hooking up among college students and how different definitions might be associated with the participant's own hooking up behavior and normative perceptions of peer hooking up behavior. A random sample (N = 1,468) of undergraduates (56.4% female) completed a Web-based survey composed of measures of drinking and sexual behavior. Open-ended definitions of hooking up were content-coded and analyzed using a mixture model to explore discrete definitions of hooking up among college students. Findings indicated three clusters of student definitions of hooking up: Cluster 1 had the broadest definition, referring to sex in general, not specific sexual acts, and to making out. Cluster 2 placed an emphasis on interpersonal and social aspects. Cluster 3 defined hooking up as sex with notable references to specific sexual acts. Results further indicated that hooking up behavior and normative perceptions differentiated these three groups of definitions. Clinical implications regarding the inconsistency of student definitions of hooking up and how they may impact negative consequences associated with hooking up are discussed.
One of the most salient demographic trends in the U.S. landscape in recent decades has been the pronounced increase in age at first marriage. This paper examines the implications of women's delayed entry to marriage for marital stability using data from the 2006-2008 National Survey of Family Growth. The main finding is that the association between age at marriage and marital instability without holding constant the couple's characteristics at marriage is negative up to the late twenties, with the curve leveling off thereafter. Women who marry in the late twenties and thirties generally enter unconventional matches (e.g., the husband is more likely to have been married before, and to be younger than the wife by three years or more), suggestive of a "poor match" emerging as the biological clock begins to tick. However, the flattening out of the curve beyond the late twenties suggests that the stabilizing influence associated with greater maturity at older ages is strong enough to cancel out the poor match effect.
In light of rising averages in the age of first marriage for men and women, as well as changes in attitudes regarding marriage and family life in young adults, the study of marital timing has received increased attention in recent years. Marital timing has been known to be associated with various aspects of marital satisfaction and stability, yet most research has focused on limited variables to assess perceptions of the ideal timing of marriage. This study explored the association of demographic, current and background socioeconomic (SES) factors, and religiosity with various measures of perceived ideal marital timing in a sample of 385 unmarried young adults. Overall, results indicate that religiosity and ethnicity have an impact on perceived ideal age and timing of marriage. Also, less pronounced associations were found between SES factors and perceived marital timing. Implications and future directions for family practitioners and researchers are discussed.
Women's participation in slut shaming is often viewed as internalized oppression: they apply disadvantageous sexual double standards established by men. This perspective grants women little agency and neglects their simultaneous location in other social structures. In this article we synthesize insights from social psychology, gender, and culture to argue that undergraduate women use slut stigma to draw boundaries around status groups linked to social class-while also regulating sexual behavior and gender performance. High-status women employ slut discourse to assert class advantage, defining themselves as classy rather than trashy, while low-status women express class resentment-deriding rich, bitchy sluts for their exclusivity. Slut discourse enables, rather than constrains, sexual experimentation for the high-status women whose definitions prevail in the dominant social scene. This is a form of sexual privilege. In contrast, low-status women risk public shaming when they attempt to enter dominant social worlds.
The college hookup scene is a profoundly gendered and heteronormative sexual field. Yet the party and bar scene that gives rise to hookups also fosters the practice of women kissing other women in public, generally to the enjoyment of male onlookers, and sometimes facilitates threesomes involving same-sex sexual behavior between women. In this article, we argue that the hookup scene serves as an opportunity structure to explore same-sex attractions and, at least for some women, to later verify bisexual, lesbian, or queer sexual identities. Based on quantitative and qualitative data and combining queer theory and identity theory, we offer a new interpretation of women’s same-sex practices in the hookup culture. Our analysis contributes to gender theory by demonstrating the utility of identity theory for understanding how non-normative gender and sexual identities are negotiated within heteronormatively structured fields.
IntroductionIndividual studiesThe summary effectHeterogeneity of effect sizesSummary points
Rates of STIs, HIV, and pregnancy remain high among adolescents in the US, and recent approaches to reducing sexual risk have shown limited success. Future expectations, or the extent to which one expects an event to actually occur, may influence sexual risk behavior. This prospective study uses longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (n = 3,205 adolescents; 49.8 % female) to examine the impact of previously derived latent classes of future expectations on sexual risk behavior. Cox regression and latent growth models were used to determine the effect of future expectations on age at first biological child, number of sexual partners, and inconsistent contraception use. The results indicate that classes of future expectations were uniquely associated with each outcome. The latent class reporting expectations of drinking and being arrested was consistently associated with the greatest risks of engaging in sexual risk behavior compared with the referent class, which reported expectations of attending school and little engagement in delinquent behaviors. The class reporting expectations of attending school and drinking was associated with having greater numbers of sexual partners and inconsistent contraception use but not with age at first biological child. The third class, defined by expectations of victimization, was not associated with any outcome in adjusted models, despite being associated with being younger at the birth of their first child in the unadjusted analysis. Gender moderated specific associations between latent classes and sexual risk outcomes. Future expectations, conceptualized as a multidimensional construct, may have a unique ability to explain sexual risk behaviors over time. Future strategies should target multiple expectations and use multiple levels of influence to improve individual future expectations prior to high school and throughout the adolescent period.
Drawing on extensive surveys and interviews with Chicago adults, Edward O. Laumann and his colleagues show that the city is, in the face of pop culture evidence to the contrary, a place where sexual choices and options are constrained. From Wicker Park and Boys Town to the South Side and Pilsen, the editors observe that sexual behavior and partnering are significantly limited by such factors as the neighborhood you live in, your ethnicity, your sexual preference, and the circle of friends to which you belong. In other words, the social and institutional networks that city dwellers occupy potentially limit their sexual options by making different types of sexual activities, relationships, or meeting places less accessible.
Students at a mid-size state university in the Southeast were surveyed to examine religion, race, social class, and gender differences in dating and hooking up. Our analyses revealed that dating and hooking up coexist on campus and most students defined hooking up as a sexual encounter. Race impacted dating but the other demographics, social class and gender were not significant for either dating or hooking up. Conservative Protestants hooked up less than Catholics and other Protestants. Seniors have dated and hooked up more than other students, especially freshmen. How students define hooking up impacts their probability of hooking up and their feelings after hooking up also have an effect.
This article uses new data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing study to examine the reasons why white, Mexican American, and other Hispanic parents are approximately 2.5 times more likely than African American parents to marry within the 30 months after a nonmarital birth. Combining Fragile Families microdata with 2000 U.S. Census data shows that marriage market conditions exert a large influence on marriage decisions, even among couples that already have formed a romantic relationship and had a child together. The findings also show that an undersupply of employed African American men can explain a large portion of the racial and ethnic differences in marriage after a nonmarital birth. The current findings support the theory that marriage markets are influential not only during the search for romantic partners but also in determining whether romantic relationships, once formed, will lead to marriage.
In this article we assess the literature on cultural explanations for ethno-racial differences in K–12 schooling and academic performance. Some cultural arguments problematically define certain ethno-racial identities and cultures as subtractive from the goal of academic mobility while defining the ethnic cultures and identities of others as additive and oriented toward this goal. We review two prevailing schools of thought that compare immigrant and native minority students: cultural–ecological theory and segmented assimilation theory. Second, we examine empirical research that highlights the complexity of culture, focusing on four domains: (a) the school’s cultural environment; (b) variation in identities and cultural practices within ethnic and racial groups; (c) the multidimensional nature of culture and its variable impact on students; and (d) the intersections of race, ethnicity, class, and gender. This literature—when synthesized—suggests that a coherent theory of culture’s impact on ethnic and racial differences in schooling outcomes must unpack the multiple influences of identity and context more deliberately than previous literature has done. Finally, we call for studies that employ comparative research across groups and understand race and ethnicity contextually, not as mere dummy variables, thereby equipping researchers with the tools to better explain how culture influences schooling and achievement.
One of the most prominent features of the current college campus environment is the casual sex practice of the hookup. Hookups are defined as a sexual encounter between two people who are brief acquaintances or strangers, usually lasting only one night without the expectation of developing a relationship (Paul, McManus, & Hayes, 2000). Although there is a vast literature on college students' casual sexual attitudes and behavior, there is little attention to (a) subjective or experiential elements of and (b) the heterogeneity of casual sexual experiences. The goal of this study was to explore the varied phenomenology or experiential reality of college students' casual sexual hookup experiences. A structured questionnaire soliciting open responses regarding college students' views of a typical hookup and reports of their best and worst hookup experiences was administered to 187 college students. Responses were microanalytically content analyzed and globally thematically analyzed. College students' accounts of hookup experiences included behavioral, situational, cognitive, and emotional elements. As expected, although there was relative uniformity in college students' descriptions of a typical hookup, there was wide variation in college students' descriptions of their best and worst hookup experiences. Moreover, whereas there were few differences between males' and females' descriptions of what transpired, there were some sex differences in descriptions of what was felt after actual casual sexual experiences and in interpretations of why experiences were good or bad.
Asian American men have distinct histories and experiences within the context of masculinity. In considering gender role conflict, a concept that examines the negative impact of prescribed gender roles on both men and women (O'Neil, Helms, Gable, David, & Wrightsman, 1986), it is important to note that Asian American men are situated within the United States' White hegemonic masculinity while also negotiating their racialized minority status. Asian American men, as do other racial minorities, experience gender role conflict in relationship to and interaction with their racial identity. The purposes of this manuscript are to provide an overview of how Asian American masculinity has been shaped and challenged by U.S. society, present existing literature on racial identity and gender role conflict with particular attention to intersections of identity, and address the implications of gender role conflict on Asian American men.
This article presents a marital horizon theory of emerging adulthood that posits that young people's perceptions of marriage are central factors in determining subgroup differences in the length of emerging adulthood as well as the specific behaviors that occur during this period in the family life cycle. The model was tested with a sample of 813 emerging adults who were recruited from six college sites across the country. Results demonstrated that there are significant differences between young people who have relatively close marital horizons (i.e., those who desire marriage in their early 20s) and those who have more distant marital horizons (i.e., those who desire marriage in their mid-20s or later) in the areas of substance use patterns, sexual permissiveness, and family formation values. Results suggest that changes in lifestyle patterns previously assumed to be associated with the transition to marriage may in fact be initiated when young people anticipate marriage in their near future.
This article investigates the determinants of orgasm and sexual enjoyment in hookup and relationship sex among heterosexual college women and seeks to explain why relationship sex is better for women in terms of orgasm and sexual enjoyment. We use data from women respondents to a large online survey of undergraduates at 21 U.S. colleges and universities and from 85 in-depth interviews at two universities. We identify four general views of the sources of orgasm and sexual enjoyment—technically competent genital stimulation, partner-specific learning, commitment, and gender equality. We find that women have orgasms more often in relationships than in hookups. Regression analyses reveal that specific sexual practices, experience with a particular partner, and commitment all predict women’s orgasm and sexual enjoyment. The presence of more sexual practices conducive to women’s orgasm in relationship sex explains some of why orgasm is more common in relationships. Qualitative analysis suggests a double standard also contributes to why relationship sex is better for women: both men and women question women’s (but not men’s) entitlement to pleasure in hookups but believe strongly in women’s (as well as men’s) entitlement to pleasure in relationships. More attention is thus given to producing female orgasm in relationships.
Similar to other Asian American students, Southeast Asian American students are often stereotyped by the popular press as hardworking and high-achieving model minorities. On the other hand, Southeast Asian American youth are also depicted as low-achieving high school dropouts involved in gangs. The realities of academic performance and persistence among Southeast Asian American students are far more complex than either image suggests. This article explores the various explanations for the struggles, successes, and educational experiences of Southeast Asian students. To highlight differences across ethnic groups, we review the literature on each Southeast Asian ethnic group separately and examine the successes and continuing struggles facing first- and second-generation Vietnamese American, Cambodian American, Hmong American, and Lao American students in the United States.
Theorists have posited that investment in production has a radical impact on women's gender-role attitudes, whereas investment in reproduction exerts a conservative influence. Informed by an interactive approach to understanding the effects of racism and sexism, this article explores the commonalities and differences in Black and White women's gender-role attitudes, and assesses the applicability to Black women of the investment-in-production and investment-in-reproduction hypothesis. The data in part supported the contention that this hypothesis would be more valid for White than Black women. The article concludes that the exclusion of race (and class) from our analyses impedes and distorts the development of feminist theory.
LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender) resource centers are campus spaces dedicated to the success of sexual minority students. However, only a small handful of American colleges and universities have such spaces. Political opportunity and resource mobilization theory can provide a useful framework for understanding what contextual factors contribute to the presence of these centers. Independent variables’ effects on the likelihood of a campus having an LGBT resource center are measured using logistic regression. Results indicate that public schools with more prestige in liberal political contexts are more likely to have LGBT resource centers, suggesting that both resource mobilization and political opportunity are useful conceptualizations.
Journal of Asian American Studies 9.1 (2006) 27-54
This study examines interracial rrelationships between Asian Ameri-cans and white Americans. The goal is to understand how the social construction of sexual desire is shaped by race and gender. This study begins with the argument that racialized images and discourses on "Asian women" and "White men" have been produced within the hierarchies of local and global structures of race, gender, and nation. Through an examination of life-history interviews, this study addresses how Asian American women married to or partnered with white men have strategically participated in the re-generation of these discourses. My goal is to understand how and why Asian American women submit to, resist, and identify with hegemonic white masculinity.
Several previous studies have found that Asian American women are almost twice as likely to outmarry as are Asian American men. This gender gap is unique to Asian Americans' intermarital pattern, since in other racial groups men outmarry more than women. However, the gap is only speculatively identified to result from general factors rather than from specific racial and gender structures. In these studies, racial and gender hierarchies, such as the link between mainstream stereotypes and the high rate of Asian American women's outmarriage with white men, have remained unexplored. I argue that to explore how racialized desires contribute to particular patterns of intermarriage, we need to study the "social discourses of race," which individuals experience diversely even within the same racial group. In my study, I address how a variety of Asian American women differently engage in and negotiate with the social discourse of racialized femininity and masculinity.
Scholars have discussed racial stereotypes as significant components of racialized desires. A few studies have pointed out the role played by "controlling images" in Asian American women's hypergamy with white men. Such images of Asian Americans include the commonly used "Madam Butterfly" theme in Hollywood films, in which Asian American women have been portrayed as "alluring, provocative, and mysterious as well as passive, yielding, and vulnerable." Images of Asian American women as overly feminine, exotic, and sexual—and of Asian American men as sexually undesirable—"uphold white masculine hegemony." Thus, the Asian American woman "is marrying 'up' (and therefore 'out' of) the racial/gender hierarchy in which white males occupy the superordinate position," and these women often perceive Asian American men as undesirable partners in romance.
I conducted interviews in Austin, Texas in 2000 and 2001, with fifteen racially mixed couples and twelve singles who had previously dated interracially. Nine out of the fifteen couples were married. The respondents' ages varied from early twenties to mid-sixties. All of the respondents were citizens or permanent residents of the United States. They included Filipino, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Cambodian Americans as well as white Americans. The sample did not include any biracial or multiracial Asian Americans or Asian Americans with non-heterosexual orientations.
The main purpose of this diverse ethnic and national sampling was to look at Asian Americans' different and complex engagements in racialized femininity. Mainstream society views Asian American women as over-feminine and submissive. My aim is not to characterize different Asian American women's experiences as immutable or to impute fixed characteristics to "Asian" woman-ness. Rather, I want to examine the multiplicity and heterogeneity in these women's strategies for accommodating and resisting the hegemonic essentializing of "Asian" femininity.
The justification for my considering the vastly different groups of women in my study as one category, "Asian and Asian American," is twofold. First, the white American men in my interviews displayed a general desire for Asian and Asian American women, rather than a specific desire, say, for first-generation Filipina American women or second-generation Chinese American women. Secondly, the focus of my study is the desire for certain white American masculinities among a very broad group of Asian and Asian American women. While I do consider differences between the various groups of women included in the study, the main concerns of my article center around the white masculinities they desire.
I interviewed each partner in the respective couples twice, both...
Casual sex is often associated with the young adult stage in the life course. Most recent research on the prevalence, motives, and consequences of heterosexual casual sex has relied on samples of college students, yet students are only a small and advantaged subset of the young adult population. The current study drew on the Toledo Adolescent Relationships Study, which was collected in 2006-2007 and included young adults (ages 18-24 years) whose trajectories reflected a wider spectrum of educational experiences (N = 1,023). We moved beyond prior work by examining both frequency and type of heterosexual casual sex: lifetime vaginal, lifetime oral, and recent vaginal sex. We found that young adults enrolled or who graduated from 4-year educational institutions reported fewer casual sex partners on all three measures compared to participants without a high school degree and those with some college experience. Sexual attitudes were key factors mediating the association between educational status and casual sex behavior. These results indicate that programs aimed at encouraging healthy sexual behavior should target individuals who are at risk of not graduating high school because they are at greatest risk of frequent casual sex partners.
This study focused on a specific risky practice common among contemporary college students: the hookup. Hookups are defined as a sexual encounter which may or may not include sexual intercourse, usually occurring on only one occasion between two people who are strangers or brief acquaintances. The aim of this study was to determine the relative importance of a variety of social and psychological predictors in understanding differences among undergraduate students who had never hooked up, those who had hooked up without sexual intercourse, and those who had hooked up with sexual intercourse. Analyses revealed that, as predicted, social, individual, and relational psychological variables helped to explain the variance among college students' varied hookup experiences. By examining the full range of sexual involvement characteristic of the casual sexual phenomenon of hooking up within a multivariate model, we were able to achieve a more differentiated understanding of college students' casual sexual experimentation.
As the author researched further and consulted with colleagues studying family life around the world, she came to believe that the current rearrangement of both married and single life is in fact without historical precedent. When it comes to any particular marital practice or behavior, there may be nothing new under the sun. But when it comes to the overall place of marriage in society and the relationship between husbands and wives, nothing in the past is anything like what we have today, even if it may look similar at first glance. The forms, values, and arrangements of marriage are indeed changing dramatically all around the globe. Almost everywhere people worry that marriage is in crisis. The United Nations kicked off the twenty-first century with a campaign to raise the age of marriage in Afghanistan, India, and Africa, where girls are frequently wed by age twelve or thirteen, often with disastrous effects on their health. On the other hand, in Singapore the government launched a big campaign to convince people to marry at a younger age. In Spain, more than 50 percent of women aged twenty-five to twenty-nine are single, and economic planners worry that this bodes ill for the country's birthrate and future growth. In the Czech Republic, however, researchers welcome the rise in single living, hoping that will reduce the 50 percent divorce rate. Each region also blames its marriage crisis on a different culprit. Reviewing the historical trends behind these various concerns, the author began to see some common themes under all these bewildering differences. Everywhere marriage is becoming more optional and more fragile. Everywhere the once-predictable link between marriage and child rearing is fraying. And everywhere relations between men and women are undergoing rapid and at times traumatic transformation. In fact, the relations between men and women have changed more in the past thirty years than they did in the previous three thousand, and the author suspects that a similar transformation was occurring in the role of marriage. The author now thinks that there was a basic continuity in the development of marriage ideals and behaviors from the late eighteenth century through the 1950s and 1960s. In the eighteenth century, people began to adopt the rad