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A review of the history, geology and age of Burmese amber (Burmite)
... Beetles of the superfamily Cleroidea that include the melyrid lineage of families Melyridae, Dasytidae and Rhadalidae are well known from the Eocene Epoch, the second of three major worldwide divisions of the Paleogene. Beetles have already been described in Baltic and Rovno amber and from imprints in Florissant deposit [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. Detailed reviews of the composition of the amber faunas have been provided for the families Dasytidae [14,16] and Malachiidae [15,17]. ...
... Cleroidea fossil representatives of the Melyridae group are well known from Eocene deposits, i.e., in French, Baltic and Rovno ambers and in imprints of the Florissant deposit [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. These beetle records date from 66 to 23 million years ago, in the Eocene Epoch, and were the oldest for the Malachiidae family. ...
A new soft-winged flower beetle, Burmalachius acroantennatus gen. et sp. nov. belonging to the tribe Malachiini (Coleoptera: Malachiidae), discovered in mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber is described. The new genus differs from the congeners of the tribe Malachiini in possessing the following characteristics: anterior tibiae widened and slightly curved inwards and excavate near the apices, tarsomeres of anterior legs depressed, 1st to 3rd tarsomeres simple and almost of equal size, tarsal comb lacking, “clavate” antennae due to dilated three apical antennomeres, 1st and 2nd antennomeres enlarged and of identical size, head strongly elongate, sides of elytra with carinate margins and widened epipleurae. This is the first record of the family Malachiidae in Burmese amber. Illustrations of the newly described species are provided. Keys for the identification of Melyrid lineage families, subfamilies of Malachiidae, tribes of the subfamily Malachiinae and genera of the tribe Malachiini are also given.
... The origins of fossilized resins or amber have been extensively discussed in numerous publications, such as the comprehensive study by Zherikhin and Ross [54]. Since I am not an expert on both the botanical and geological aspects of resin production and fossilization, I will provide a summary based on the very didactical article recently authored by Matuszewska [55]. ...
... Defining the precise palaeoecological conditions of the original environments in which amber was formed may be a challenging task; in special in the cases where the amber has undergone reworking. This seems to be the case for both Baltic amber and Burmite [54]. It appears however that many amber samples are often found in river deltas and beach areas, suggesting a possible association with saltwater environments [55]. ...
Abstract This synoptic review aims to bring some general information on fossil scorpions, namely those trapped in amber - fossilized resin - ranging from Lower Cretaceous through the Palaeocene and up to the Miocene. The question to be addressed is how the study of these fossils can be connected with possible present scorpionism problems. A precise knowledge of these ancient lineages provides information about the evolution of extant lineages, including the buthoids, which contain most known noxious species. Among the Arthropods found trapped in amber, scorpions are considered rare. A limited number of elements have been described from the Late Tertiary Dominican and Mexican amber, while the most ancient Tertiary amber from the Baltic region produced more consistent results in the last 30 years, primarily focusing on a single limited lineage. Contrarily, the Cretaceous amber from Myanmar, also called Burmite, has yielded and continues to yield a significant number of results represented by several distinct lineages, which attest to the considerable degree of diversity that existed in the Burmese amber-producing forests. As in my previous similar contributions to this journal, the content of this note is primarily addressed to non-specialists whose research embraces scorpions in various fields such as venom toxins and public health. An overview knowledge of at least some fossil lineages can eventually help to clarify why some extant elements associated with the buthoids represent dangerous species while others are not noxious.
... This amber specimen originated from mines in the Hukawng Valley, Myitkyina District, Kachin State, Myanmar. Burmite is found in sedimentary facies, greenish-grey shale layers embedded in other sedimentary rocks like sand-and siltstones, micritic limestone and various organic materials, as well as thin layers of coal and amber bearing shale layers (Ross et al., 2000;Zherikhin & Ross, 2000;Cruickshank & Ko Ko, 2003;Kyaw Thu & Khin Zaw, 2017). Based on radiometric data, Burmese amber from this location is currently dated back to the earliest Cenomanian, Mid-Cretaceous, with an age of 98.79 ± 0.62 Ma (Shi et al., 2012). ...
... This amber specimen originated from mines in the Hukawng Valley, Myitkyina District, Kachin State, Myanmar. Burmite is found in sedimentary facies, greenish-grey shale layers embedded in other sedimentary rocks like sand-and siltstones, micritic limestone and various organic materials, as well as thin layers of coal and amber bearing shale layers (Ross et al., 2000;Zherikhin & Ross, 2000;Cruickshank & Ko Ko, 2003;Kyaw Thu & Khin Zaw, 2017). Based on radiometric data, Burmese amber from this location is currently dated back to the earliest Cenomanian, Mid-Cretaceous, with an age of 98.79 ± 0.62 Ma (Shi et al., 2012). ...
Sparedrus archaicus n. sp. (Coleoptera Oedemeridae) from Cretaceous amber from Myanmar is described and compared with congeners of the Recent.
... The second and third study specimens, holotypes No. MP/4449 (male) and No. MP/4509 (male), were preserved as inclusions in Kachin amber. These specimens originated from the Hukawng Valley, situated in the northern regions of Myanmar, Myitkyina, and Upper Chindwin districts (Myanmar) (Zherikhin and Ross 2000, Cruikshank and Ko 2003, Ross et al. 2010. The dating of the amber localities places it at approximately 98.79 ± 0.62 Mya, as determined by Shi et al. (2012) through the research of zircons from the amber-bearing bed. ...
This study presents novel findings that expand our understanding of the evolutionary history and diversity of the Limoniidae subfamily Limnophilinae, with a specific focus on the relict genus Chilelimnophila. The family Limoniidae is well documented in the fossil record, with many species considered relicts in the modern fauna. Our study is based on the discovery of the first fossil specimens of Chilelimnophila in both Cretaceous Spanish and Kachin amber. The new materials have allowed the establishment of a new subgenus Chilelimnophila (Ribeironia) Krzemiński, Kania-Kłosok et Arillo, subgen. nov. and three new species: Chilelimnophila (Ribeironia) amorimi Krzemiński, Kania-Kłosok et Arillo, sp. nov., Chilelimnophila (Chilelimnophila) wangi Krzemiński, Kania-Kłosok et Arillo, sp. nov., and Chilelimnophila (Chilelimnophila) parva Krzemiński, Kania-Kłosok et Arillo, sp. nov. This research also significantly extends the stratigraphic range of the genus, providing evidence of its existence dating back to the Early Cretaceous period. The morphology and phylogenetic analysis of Chilelimnophila and related genera within the Limoniidae subfamily Limnophilinae provide valuable insights into the evolutionary relationships of these organisms. Furthermore, our research highlights the unique environmental conditions of Cretaceous Spanish and Kachin amber formations, which differ significantly from the current habitat of these organisms.
... The mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber from Hukawng Valley in Kachin State contains diverse groups of protists, fungi, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates (Ross, 2019). An overview of the amber deposit and its geological setting was provided by Zherikhin & Ross (2000), Grimaldi (2002), Cruickshank & Ko (2003), and Ross et al. (2010). Fossil myriapods are rare but are abundant in Burmese amber, especially diplopods (Moritz & Wesener, 2018). ...
Two new species of the millipede family Siphonorhinidae, Siphonorhinus globosus sp. nov. and Siphonorhinus peculiaris sp. nov., are described from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. Detailed morphological characters are provided on the basis of 22 specimens, mainly using confocal laser scanning microscopy. The new species can be confidently placed in the extant genus Siphonorhinus based on the head lacking a beak-like rostrum, antennae stout and elbowed; antennomeres 5 and 6 each with a field of basiconic sensilla, and gonopods leg-like, with apical podomere of posterior gonopod divided to two branches. A detailed comparison between the new and extant species is given.
... The study was based on 10 inclusions of the genus Trichoneura (Limoniidae: Limoniinae) preserved in Cretaceous Kachin amber, aged on 98.79 ± 0.62 Ma, (Upper Cretaceous, Cenomanian) 2,52,53 . The specimens were found as inclusions in the deposits located at the Hukawng Valley in the northern Myanmar, Myitkyina and Upper Chindwin districts (Myanmar) 27,54 (Fig. 1) and are housed in Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków (ISEA PAS) (eight specimens) and in State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China, coll. B. Wang (one specimen) ( Table 2). ...
New inclusions of Trichoneura preserved in Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian) Kachin amber allow the description of a new subgenus, Burmania subgen. nov., and four new species: Trichoneura (Burmania) burmitensis subgen. et sp. nov., Trichoneura (Burmania) chungkuni subgen. et sp. nov., Trichoneura (Burmania) sevciki subgen. et sp. nov. and Trichoneura (Burmania) wangi subgen. et sp. nov. The species differ mainly by the morphology of the hypopygium or wing venation but also the construction of the antenna. Based on a comparison of the wing venation and the morphology of the hypopygium it was possible to describe features which are characteristic of the new subgenus, especially the presence of vein R3+4. Moreover, it was possible to elucidate the evolutionary pattern of Trichoneura with two distinct extant and extinct branches. Trichoneura (Trichoneura) canadensis from Upper Cretaceous Canadian amber is transferred to the new subgenus Burmania.
... Type locality and horizon. Hukawng Valley, Kachin State, northern Myanmar; lowermost Cenomanian, Upper Cretaceous (age minimum 98.79 ± 0.62 Ma) (Zherikhin and Ross, 2000;Grimaldi et al., 2002;Shi et al., 2012). Etymology. ...
Although Kachin amber harbors a remarkably diverse and abundant spider fauna, species of Mygalomorphae have been conspicuously scant. Here we report the extant family Macrothelidae (Opisthothelae: Mygalomorphae) from these deposits, representing the first fossil occurrence for the family. It is represented by a new genus and species, established as Promacrothele polyacantha Tang, Engel, & Yang gen. et sp. nov., and based on a well-preserved adult female. The specimen nicely preserves the key diagnostic features for the family and is distinguished from the two extant macrothelid genera, Macrothele Ausserer and Vacrothele Tang et al. The new fossil discovery not only provides a first fossil occurrence of Macrothelidae, but refines existing calibration points for phylogenetic work on mygalomorph diversification as well as advances our understanding of the Cretaceous diversity of spiders in southern Asia
... Originating from mines in the Hukawng Valley, Kachin State in northern Myanmar, the age of this amber is estimated to be at the Albian/Cenomanian boundary in the Cretaceous with a maximum age limit of 98.79 ± 0.62 Ma in the early Cenomanian (Smith and Ross, 2016). A general description of Burmese amber can be found in Zherikhin and Ross (2000), Grimaldi et al. (2002) and Ross et al. (2010). This type of amber is interesting not only because it includes a plethora of arthropod fossils (Selden and Ren, 2017), but also because it is the only deposit that may have originated on the former supercontinent Gondwana (de Sena Oliveira et al., 2016;Harms and Dunlop, 2017;Poinar, 2018;Wriedt et al., 2021;De Francesco Magnussen et al., 2022). ...
... The specimen No. BA02-050 (male) was found as an inclusion in the Cretaceous Kachin amber which deposits comes from the Hukawng Valley in the northern Myanmar, Myitkyina and Upper Chindwin districts (Myanmar) [34][35][36][37] and are dated on 98.79 ± 0.62 Ma according to Shi et al. 38 (data received based on research of zircons from the amberbearing bed), therefore, the amber is likely to be of early Cenomanian age 39 . www.nature.com/scientificreports/ ...
Thanks to detailed studies of inclusions in Spanish and Kachin amber, it was also possible to study the morphology of insects belonging to the genus Gonomyia. A new material under investigation made it possible to establish two new nominative for science subgenera within the genus Gonomyia has been designated with unique set of characters of antenna, wing venation and genitalia. Two new species within two new subgenera have been described and documented by drawings and photographs, there are Gonomyia (Iberiana) penalveri subgen. et sp. nov. and Gonomyia (Cretagonomyia) burmitica subgen. et sp. nov. The new discovery is the first record of the genus Gonomyia (Diptera: Limoniidae) in Cretaceous Spanish amber and the second in Kachin amber. The new discovery adds to the knowledge of the crane fies’ diversity and evolution, especially its first stage in the Cretaceous.
... In 1999, a Canadian mining company obtained amber pieces from former miners for radiometric dating purposes that were eventually sent to colleagues at the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) 28,29 , kickstarting research on Myanmar amber and leading to the patterns that we observe today (Fig. 2). Myanmar amber, until this point was thought to be of Eocene age, but was ultimately confirmed to be mid-Cretaceous in age 30 . More amber was sold to the AMNH and some private collectors 27,31 , which resulted in several publications in the early 2000s (Fig. 2), mostly by researchers based in the US (Fig. 4). ...
Fossil material in amber from Myanmar can provide important insights into mid-Cretaceous forest ecosystems. However, Myanmar amber has been receiving increased international attention due to reported links between amber mining and the ongoing humanitarian crisis in northern Myanmar, as well as the legal issues associated with its exportation. Here, we conduct a bibliometric analysis of Myanmar amber publications (1990–2021) and demonstrate how research interest in Myanmar amber is explicitly linked to major political, legal, and economic changes. An analysis of the authorship networks for publications on amber inclusions reveals how current research practices have excluded Myanmar researchers from the field. In addition, the international trade of Myanmar amber with fossil inclusions falls into a legal ‘grey-zone’ which continues to be exploited. This case study vividly demonstrates that systemic changes, alongside an increased awareness of inequitable research practices amongst the broader scientific and allied communities, are urgently needed to curb illegal practices in palaeontology.
... The amber originates from the Noije Bum hill locality, in the Southwest corner of the Hukawng Valley in Kachin State, Northern Myanmar, South Asia. The amber locality was 'first' discovered (by Europeans) and intensively mined in the 19 th and 20 th century (Poinar 2019;Cruickshank and Ko 2003;Zherikhin and Ross 2000). It was assumed to be Eocene (33.9-56 million years old) (Chhibber 1934 in Grimaldi et al. 2002) to Miocene (3-23 million years old; Noetling 1893) in age, although Cockerell (1917aCockerell ( , 1917b already questioned this, given numerous insect inclusions representing exclusively Mesozoic (66-252 million years old) groups (also discussed in Cruickshank and Ko 2003;Shi et al. 2012). ...
Parasitism, a malignant form of symbiosis, wherein one partner, the parasite, derives benefits to the detriment of another, the host, is a widespread phenomenon. Parasitism sensu lato is understood here to include many phenomena, like parasitoidism, kleptoparasitism, phoresy and obligate parasitism. Insecta has many in-groups that have evolved a parasitic life-style; one of the largest in-groups of these is probably the group of Hymenoptera. Bethylidae, the group of flat wasps, is a smaller in-group of Aculeata, the group of hymenopterans with venom stings; representatives of Bethylidae are parasitic. They are more specifically larval ectoparasitoids, meaning that their immature stages are externally developing parasites that kill their host organism at pupation (end of interaction). They mostly parasitise immature representatives of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera. Female flat wasps search for a host for their progeny, paralyse it with their venom sting and then oviposit onto it.
Herein we describe one of the oldest findings of parasitic interactions of parasitoid wasps with their progenies’ hosts, specifically a flat wasp female grasping and (potentially) stinging a beetle immature in Cretaceous Kachin (Myanmar) amber (ca. 100 million years old). This finding indicates that this type of parasitic interaction existed since the Cretaceous, temporally close to the earliest findings of representatives of Bethylidae.
... The amber originated from mines in the Hukawng Valley, Myitkyina District, Kachin State, Myanmar. Burmite is found in sedimentary facies, greenish-grey shale layers interbedded in other sedimentary rocks like sand-and siltstones, micritic limestone and various organic materials, as well as thin layers of coal and amber bearing shale layers (Ross et al., 2010;Zherikhin & Ross, 2000;Cruickshank & Ko, 2003;Kyaw & Khin, 2017). Based on radiometric data, Burmese amber from this location is currently dated back to the earliest Cenomanian, mid-Cretaceous, with an age of 98.79 ± 0.62 Ma (Shi et al., 2012). ...
This article describes and illustrates a new species of the genus Amberophytum Yu, Slipinski et Pang, 2019 of the family Cerophytidae from mid- Cretaceous Burmese Amber. The new species, A. maculatum s.n. differs from A. birmanicum Yu, Slipinski et Pang, 2019 in the smaller body size, shorter metatarsomere 1, and more convex body. A key to the species of the genus Amberophytum is presented.
... In 1999, a Canadian mining company obtained amber pieces from former miners for radiometric dating purposes that were eventually sent to colleagues at the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) (22,23), kickstarting research on Myanmar amber leading to the patterns that we observe today (Fig. 2). Myanmar amber, previously thought to be of Eocene age, was eventually confirmed to be Cretaceous of age around the same time (24). More amber was sold to the AMNH and some private collectors (25,26), which resulted in several publications in the early 2000s ( Fig. 2), mostly by researchers based in the US (Fig. 4). ...
Fossil material in Myanmar amber can provide important insights into mid-Cretaceous forest ecosystems, but has been receiving increased international attention due to reported links between amber mining and the ongoing humanitarian crisis in northern Myanmar, as well as the legal issues associated with its exportation. Here, we conduct a bibliometric analysis of Myanmar amber publications (1990–2021) and demonstrate how research interest in Myanmar amber is explicitly linked to major political, legal, and economic changes. An analysis of the authorship networks for publications on amber inclusions reveals how current research practices have excluded Myanmar researchers from the field. In addition, the international trade of Myanmar amber with fossil inclusions falls into a legal ‘grey-zone’ which continues to be exploited. This case study vividly demonstrates that systemic changes, alongside an increased awareness of inequitable research practices amongst the broader scientific and allied communities, are urgently needed to curb illegal practices in palaeontology.
... Tropical arachnid elements such as schizomids (Müller et al., 2019), ricinuleids (Wunderlich, 2015(Wunderlich, , 2017, whip spiders (Engel and Grimaldi, 2014), and whip scorpions (Wunderlich, 2015) are commonly preserved. General accounts of the amber and its geological setting can be found in Zherikhin and Ross (2000), Grimaldi et al. (2002), and Ross et al. (2010). A full list of Burmese amber inclusions is given in Ross ( , 2020. ...
Pseudoscorpions have a sparse fossil record although they are among the oldest terrestrial lineages with origins that go back to the Devonian (ca. 385 Ma). Amongst the 25 extant families of pseudoscorpions, only 14 are known from fossils, most of which are preserved in European ambers from the Eocene. Burmese amber from the Cenomanian (mid-Cretaceous) of northern Myanmar is an important source of Mesozoic pseudoscorpion fossils but only six species have been described from this amber to date. In this paper, we establish the first fossil record for the pseudoscorpion family Ideoroncidae Chamberlin, 1930, which is coequally the oldest record of the pseudoscorpion superfamily Neobisioidea. The new genus Proalbiorix is established for the two species P. gracilis sp. nov. and P. compactus sp. nov. which already show all diagnostic features of members belonging to this family to date. Interestingly, Proalbiorix shows morphological features that align the fossils with present-day fauna from the Americas and Africa rather than Asia, which has biogeographical implications. Overall, the description provides another example of relative morphological stasis of pseudoscorpions compared to other arachnid lineages such as spiders, and that all major clades of pseudoscorpions were established long before the Cretaceous.
... The amber originated from mines in the Hukawng Valley, Myitkyina District, Kachin State, Myanmar. Burmite is found in sedimentary facies, greenish-grey shale layers interbedded in other sedimentary rocks like sand-and siltstones, micritic limestone and various organic materials, as well as thin layers of coal and amber bearing shale layers (Ross et al., 2010;Zherikhin & Ross, 2000;Cruickshank & Ko, 2003;Kyaw & Khin, 2017). Based on radiometric data, Burmese amber from this location is currently dated back to the earliest Cenomanian, mid-Cretaceous, with an age of 98.79 ± 0.62 Ma (Shi et al., 2012). ...
A new species of the genus Amberophytum Yu, Slipinski et Pang, 2019 of the family Cerophytidae from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber is described and illustrated. The new species, A. maculatum n. sp., differs from A. birmanicum Yu, Slipinski et Pang, 2019 in the smaller body size, shorter metatarsomere 1, and more convex body. A key to the species of the genus Amberophytum is presented.
... Hukawng amber was assigned to the Early Cretaceous, Upper Albian, with a maximum age of 98.79 ± 0.62 Ma, based on UePb zircon dating (see Shi et al. 2012), which is equivalent to the earliest Cenomanian (Gradstein et al. 2004). For more information on these amber deposits and their geological history see also Zherikhin and Ross (2000), Grimaldi et al. (2002), and Ross et al. (2010). ...
The small, monophyletic mayfly family Vietnamellidae Allen, 1984 has so far only been known from a few extant species of the genus Vietnamella Tshernova, 1972, which are all distributed in the Oriental Realm (Vietnam, Thailand, China, and India). Herein we report the first fossil record of Vietnamellidae based on a male and female imago from Mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. We establish the new genus Burmella gen. nov. to accommodate these two new Mesozoic specimens. Their attribution to Vietnamellidae is supported by the rounded shape of the hind wings with arched outer margin, the course of thoracic sutures, and characteristics of venation, especially of MP and Cu of the forewings and associated intercalary veins of the cubital field. At the same time, Burmella gen. nov. clearly differs from Vietnamella by a diminished number of longitudinal and cross veins in the hind wings, and by the different shape of male genitalia. This first fossil record of Vietnamellidae supports an age of at least 100 Ma for this taxon.
... The first major insect fauna of Phase 3 is Myanmar Amber originating in Kachin State, in the Myitkyina and Upper Chindwin Districts along the Hukawng Valley of northern Burma (Cruikshank and Ko 2003). The lithostratigraphic context of Myanmar Amber is still poorly known, although the amber comes from lignite layers interbedded with thin strata of sandstones, siltstones, shale and micritic limestone (Zherikhin and Ross 2000). Source trees of most of Myanmar Amber are the gymnospermous Araucariaceae (Agathis) and angiospermous Dipterocarpaceae, which have yielded a lowermost Late Cretaceous radioisotopic date of approximately 99 Ma, equivalent to the early interval of the Cenomanian Stage (Shi et al. 2012) and approximately 23 million years more recent than the Jehol Biota. ...
Insect parasites and parasitoids are a major component of terrestrial food webs. For parasitoids, categorization is whether feeding activity is located inside or outside its host, if the host is immobilized or allowed to grow, and if the feeding is done by one or many conspecific or heterospecific individuals, and other features. Fossil evidence for parasitism and parasitoidism consists of taxonomic affiliation, morphology, gut contents, coprolites, tissue damage and trace fossils. Ten hemimetabolous and holometabolous orders of insects developed the parasite condition whereas seven orders of holometabolous insects evolved the parasitoid life habit. Modern terrestrial food webs are important for understanding the Mid Mesozoic Parasitoid Revolution. The MMPR began in late Early Jurassic (Phase 1), in which bottom-to-top regulation of terrestrial food webs dominated by inefficient clades of predators were replaced by top-to-bottom control by trophically more efficient parasitoid clades. The MMPR became consolidated in Phase 2 by the end of the Early Cretaceous. These clades later expanded (phases 3 and 4) as parasitoids became significant ecological elements in terrestrial food webs. Bottom-to-top food webs explained by the resource concentration hypothesis characterize pre-MMPR time. During phases 1 and 2 of MMPR (Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous), a shift ensued toward top-to-down food webs, explained by the trophic cascade hypothesis, exemplified by hymenopteran parasitoid clades Stephanoidea and Evanioidea. Clade-specific innovations spurring the MMPR included long, flexible ovipositors (wasps), host seeking, triungulin and planidium larvae (mantispids, beetles, twisted-wing parasites, flies), and extrudable, telescoped ovipositors (flies). After the MMPR, in phases 3 and 4 (Late Cretaceous to Recent), parasitoids increased in taxonomic diversity, becoming integrated into food webs that continue to the present day.
... Burmese amber (locality in the southwest corner, Noije Bum hill) of the Hukawng Valley in Kachin State, Myanmar has first been assigned to the Eocene (Chhibber 1934;Grimaldi et al. 2002;Cruickshank and Ko 2003;Shi et al. 2012) to Miocene (Noetling 1893;Cruickshank and Ko 2003) due to its embedding in probably Eocene clay, calcite and pyrite rock matrix (compare also Zherikhin and Ross 2000). However, this assumption was questioned already by Cockerell (1917). ...
Larvae of lacewings (Neuroptera) are known to be fierce predators. According to the morphology of fossil forms thisseems to have been the case already in the Early Cretaceous. While being predators, lacewing larvae are also food itemsfor other organisms. Here we report two pieces of amber from Myanmar providing instances of such cases. In one amberpiece several isolated stylets of lacewing larvae are preserved closely associated together. The most likely interpretationis that a predator preying on lacewing larvae has regurgitated or defecated these non-digestible pieces, yet the identityof the predator remains unclear. The other amber piece preserves a larva resembling modern day larvae of split-footedlacewings (Nymphidae). The larva has projections on its trunk, allowing it to wear a camouflaging cloak. In the headregion, a mite (Acari) is attached to the larva; more precisely, the entire anterior body region of the mite is apparentlyinserted into the lacewing larva. The mite is smaller than the larva. It is known from the modern fauna that stage 1 larvaeof Ascalaphidae can be attacked also by rather small predators, such as ants. The mite can therefore well be interpretedas a true predator instead of a parasite, especially considering the unusual mode of attachment. We briefly review interactionsof lacewing larvae with other organisms represented in amber from Myanmar and add two new pieces to thepuzzle of reconstructing the trophic interactions in the 100-million-year old amber forest.
... Burmese Cretaceous amber of the Albian/Cenomanian boundary (e.g. Zherikin and Ross, 2000;Grimaldi et al., 2002;Cruickshank and Ko, 2003;Shi et al., 2012), has turned out to be a very rich source of extinct species of insects and other groups, and the pace of studying amber fossils has distinctly accelerated since this fossil site was rediscovered (e.g. Grimaldi et al., 2002;Ross, 2019aRoss, , b, 2020. ...
Burmese amber and amber from other periods and regions became a rich source of new extinct insect species and yielded important insights in insect evolution in the dimension of time. Amber fossils have contributed to the understanding of the phylogeny, biology, and biogeography of insects and other groups, and have also gained great importance for dating molecular trees. Another major potential is the documentation of faunal, floral and climatic shifts. Evolutionary transitions can be well-documented in amber fossils and can reveal anatomical transformations and the age of appearance of structural features. Here, using a new stem group species of Strepsiptera from Burmite, we evaluate this potential of amber insect fossils to assess the current phylogeny of Strepsiptera, with the main emphasis on the early splitting events in the stem group. Amber fossils have greatly contributed to the understanding of the evolution of Strepsiptera in the late Mesozoic and the Cenozoic. †Heterobathmilla kakopoios Pohl and Beutel gen. et sp. n. described here is placed in the stem group of the order, in a clade with †Kinzelbachilla (†Kinzelbachillidae) and †Phthanoxenos (†Phthanoxenidae). †Phthanoxenidae has priority over †Kinzelbachillidae, and the latter is synonymised. The superb details available from this new fossil allowed us to explore unique features of the antennae, mouthparts, and male copulatory apparatus, and to provide a phylogenetic hypothesis for the order. The younger †Protoxenos from Eocene Baltic amber was confirmed as sister to all remaining extinct and extant groups of Strepsiptera, whereas the position of the Cretaceous †Cretostylops in the stem group remains ambivalent. While the value of Burmite and amber from other periods has a recognized impact on our knowledge of the evolution in various lineages, this new fossil does not fundamentally change our picture of the phylogeny and evolution of early Strepsiptera. However, it offers new insights into the morphological diversity in the early evolution of the group.
... Amber from pits near Tanai/Danai in Kachin State is called as Kachin amber, or Burmese amber sensu stricto (Zheng et al., 2018). The geological age of Kachin amber is considered to be the earliest Cenomanian (Zherikhin and Ross, 2000;Grimaldi et al., 2002). The zircon UePb dating of tuffaceous siltstones in the amber-producing bed indicated an age of 98.79 ± 0.62 Ma (Shi et al., 2012), which is supported by an ammonite inclusion (Mao et al., 2018;Yu et al., 2019). ...
A new genus and species of fossil whip spider (Chelicerata: Amblypygi), Burmacharon dunlopi gen. et sp. nov., is described from mid-Cretaceous Kachin (Burmese) amber of Myanmar. The new genus can be distinguished from the genus Kronocharon by the anterior margin of the carapace being slightly procurved (projected forwards and slightly rounded), and the opisthosoma is rather elongate, almost twice as long as wide. Burmacharon dunlopi is the fourth species of Cretaceous amber whip spider. Our find adds some novel information to the knowledge of the morphological and taxonomic palaeodiversity of Mesozoic whip spiders.
... The Myanmar Central Basin is an approximately 100-km-wide syncline ( Fig. 1C; e.g., Bender, 1983;Zherikhin and Ross, 2000) that contains Cretaceous and Cenozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks (Cruickshank and Ko, 2003). The Noije Bum mine that hosts the Hukawng amber biota in the basin exposes a variety of clastic sediments, which are interbedded with thin limestone beds and carbonaceous rocks, suggestive of a nearshore marine depositional environment (Cruickshank and Ko, 2003). ...
Hkamti amber contains exquisite fossils, but the age of the amber biota is unclear. In this study, we documented the characteristics of fossils hosted in the amber, and we present zircon UPb ages of tuff layers from the Kachin and Hkamti sites (i.e., the “new mine”). We also present a compilation of arthropod and echinoderm syn-inclusions from the mid-Cretaceous Hkamti amber of Myanmar, indicating a humid tropical or subtropical forest paleo-environment. Zircon analyses (n = 143) of four tuff samples that host the amber deposit in different pits yielded a weighted-mean age of 109.7 ± 0.4 Ma. Zircon rare earth element data demonstrate the zircons are of igneous origin. Therefore, the age of the Cretaceous amber biota from Hkamti is ca. 110 Ma. This means that the Hkamti assemblage should be treated as distinct from other Burmese amber collections, as it represents a significantly older source within a different depositional environment. The commercial sources of Burmese amber are variable and encompass multiple mining regions, which makes maintaining distinctions between deposits important if their faunal contents are to be studied in a proper temporal or ecological context. The refined understanding of amber deposits in Myanmar highlights the importance of distinguishing sources, but it also offers an opportunity to study a series of deposits from ~110 to ~72 Ma, instead of just one snapshot of terrestrial ecology around ~99 Ma.
... Burmese Cretaceous amber of the Albian/Cenomanian boundary (e.g. Zherikin and Ross, 2000;Grimaldi et al., 2002;Cruickshank and Ko, 2003;Shi et al., 2012), has turned out to be a very rich source of extinct species of insects and other groups, and the pace of studying amber fossils has distinctly accelerated since this fossil site was rediscovered (e.g. Grimaldi et al., 2002;Ross, 2019aRoss, , b, 2020. ...
... Instead, they largely belong to H. scimitarus Barden & Grimaldi (2012), more rarely to H. zigrasi Barden & Grimaldi (2012), the two other species described more recently (Barden and Grimaldi, 2012). A reason for this could be that the type specimen of H. cerberus, although described in 1996, originated from an early collection of Burmese amber that was sent to Cockerell by Swinhoe in 1920 (Ross and York, 2000;Zherikhin and Ross, 2000). Thus, the holotype might have been collected from a locality and/or geological stratum that was potentially distinct from the current localities from where Burmese amber were mined for the last decade. ...
†Zigrasimecia Barden & Grimaldi, 2013 is easily identified among the total diversity of the Formicidae by the unique form of the mandibles, presence of an antennal scrobe, and the massive, blocky cranium. Two species from mid-Cretaceous Burmese (Myanmar) amber are currently attributed to the genus, one is a dealate gyne and the other a worker. Herein, we describe two new species from Burmese amber based on workers: †Zigrasimecia hoelldobleri sp.n. and †Protozigrasimecia chauli gen.n. sp.n., which display a suite of plesiomorphies which are retained relative to †Zigrasimecia. We also illustrate and provide a descriptive sketch of an unplaced alate. With the new morphological characters from the two new taxa, we provide a key to the genera of the †Zigrasimeciini. The remarkable preservation of †Z. hoelldobleri sp.n. sheds considerable light on the functional morphology of zigrasimeciine mouthparts. Due to the ferocious function of the mouthparts of †Zigrasimecia and †Protozigrasimecia, we colloquially dub these the iron maiden ants. Furthermore, we discuss wing venation of Mesozoic Formicidae and evolution of mesosomal form. Our work constitutes a contribution to a better understanding of the Mesozoic Formicidae and documents diversity for the phylogeny of the family.
... M yanmar is a major source of Asian amber (e.g. Figure 1), and Burmese amber (or Burmite) has the longest geological history (about 98 million years old: Shi et al. 2012) and most complicated formational patterns compared to material from other localities around the world (Edwards et al. 2007;Dutta et al. 2011;Zong et al. 2014). For millennia, Burmese amber has been highly valued for producing art objects and jewellery (Zherikhin & Ross 2000), and according to the authors' research it currently represents 10%-20% of China's amber market. Burmese amber is also well known for its diversity of inclusions, including invertebrates and plant materials (Laurs 2012;Lu et al. 2014), which have multidisciplinary importance to fields such as geology, biology and palaeontology (e.g. ...
... The exact collection locality of this specimen is unknown. However the majority of Burmese amber is collected in the Hukawng Valley in Kachin State, Myanmar and it is likely this specimen was mined there as well (Zherikhin & Ross, 2000). The estimated age of Burmese amber is approximately 98.72 ± 0.62 Ma (earliest Cenomanian) (Shi et al., 2012;Mao et al., 2018), thus the age of this specimen is early Late Cretaceous. ...
Cylindrical bark beetles (subfamily Colydiinae) have a long and convoluted taxonomic history which has led to much confusion in their nomenclature and phylogeny (summarized in Ivie et al., 2016). In the past they have been treated as a separate family within the superfamily Tenebrionoidea. However, taxonomic studies have placed them as sister to the Zopherinae within the Zopheridae (Ślipiński & Lawrence, 1999). Phylogenetic analyses are inconclusive on this relationship with some supporting (McKenna et al., 2019) and others providing evidence against (Hunt et al., 2007; McKenna et al., 2015; McKenna et al., 2019) this hypothesis (although low taxon sampling may play a role in this discordance). Even the monophyly of the Colydiinae within the Zopheridae is suspect (Lawrence et al., 2011; Ivie et al., 2016) as they possess no convincing morphological synapomorphies. The tribe Synchitini in particular is the largest in the Colydiinae with 115 genera of mainly mycophagous or detritivorous beetles inhabiting rotting wood, under bark, or leaf-litter habitats (Ivie, 2002). This tribe may be paraphyletic with respect to the other colydiine tribes, and as with the broader subfamily, requires much phylogenetic work to clarify these relationships (Ivie, 2002).
... L'ambre était exploité industriellement, tant pour son contenu paléontologique que pour la joaillerie, l'art décoratif et de prétendues vertus médicinales (Cruickshank et Ko, 2003;Ross et al., 2010). L'âge de l'ambre de Myanmar, connu aussi sous le nom de « Burmite », fut longtemps considéré comme Cénozoïque (Noetling, 1893;Cockerell, 1917), mais l'étude des inclusions fossiles a ensuite suggéré un âge Crétacé supérieur (Zherikhin et Ross, 2000;Grimaldi et al., 2002). Puis une étude géologique du gisement de Noije Bum (Hukawng Valley) se basant sur les palynomorphes et la macrofaune associés à l'ambre dans les sédiments, a permis d'attribuer un âge Albien supérieur (Cruickshank et Ko, 2003). ...
Les travaux de cette thèse portent sur la caractérisation chimique des ambresprovenant de plusieurs gisements d’âges et d’origines géographiques variés, dont certains sontinédits. Des protocoles identiques à tous les échantillons et combinant les analysesspectroscopiques (IR et RMN 13C) et chromatographiques (THM-CPG-SM) ont été appliqués,permettant d’identifier l’origine botanique des ambres et fournissant des indices pour lareconstitution des paléoenvironnements terrestres.La caractérisation chimique des gisements d’ambre du Jurassique supérieur(Kimméridgien) jusqu’au Crétacé supérieur (Santonien) du Liban, de Jordanie, du Congo,d’Equateur et de France, permet de proposer des biomarqueurs pour les résines deCheirolepidiaceae, une famille exclusivement mésozoïque de Conifères. Une évolution dessources botaniques des résines produites durant le Mésozoïque et le Cénozoïque est alorsdiscutée. Une production dominée par les familles de Conifères Araucariaceae etCheirolepidiaceae est remarquée au Jurassique supérieur et Crétacé inférieur. La productionau Crétacé supérieur est plutôt dominée par des Cupressaceae. Au Cénozoïque, les originesbotaniques des ambres sont plus variées, et des familles d’Angiospermes sont à l’origine denombreux gisements, dont l’ambre du Pérou produit par une Fabaceae. La production par desConifères reste toutefois importante au Tertiaire, à l’exemple des ambres de Nouvelle-Zélande qui ont pour origine les Araucariaceae.Les données obtenues ont permis une ré-évaluation de la classification des ambres parPy-GC-MS. Ainsi, une nouvelle molécule dont la structure est inconnue encore, a étéidentifiée dans les chromatogrammes d’ambres de classe Ib et Ic, ajoutant un caractèrediscriminant entre ces deux sous-classes.Enfin, la relation âge / maturation des résines fossiles est discutée, qui dépend avanttout des conditions d’enfouissement des résines.Une large base de données moléculaires est ainsi établie pour un grand nombre degisements d’âges et d’origines botaniques variés, qui permettra une comparaison globale dansles travaux futurs.
... Here, we describe a second species of yEorhopalosoma which does have these setae, increasing the complexity of rhopalosomatid evolution during the Cretaceous and underpinning the need for further study of this group. The new fossil species is from Cenomanian burmite excavated from the historied and contentious Kachin mine in Myanmar (Zherikhin & Ross, 2000;Grimaldi et al., 2002;Zhang et al., 2018). ...
The Rhopalosomatidae is a clade of parasitoid aculeates which consists of four extant genera and two extinct species. Its phylogenetic position has been debated, but now appears stable as sister to the Vespidae, a clade which contains eusocial wasps. Here, we describe a new species of Rhopalosomatidae from mid-Cretaceous burmite, †Eorhopalosoma lohrmanni. Contrary to the only other rhopalosomatid described from burmite, †E. gorgyra, †E. lohrmanni has paired setae at the apices of various antennomeres, a synapomorphic condition of the Rhopalosomatidae. The new species contributes to the growing knowledge of Cenomanian biodiversity provided by Kachin burmite fossils from Myanmar. Future studies combining fossil and genomic data may reveal important morphological transformation series, which will be useful for revising the definition of the Vespoidea.
... A recent study by Smith and Ross (2018) on bivalve borings in the amber suggested that it was buried relatively soon after deposition, such that an age estimate of ca. 100 Ma seems reasonable. General accounts of the amber and its geological setting can be found in Zherikhin and Ross (2000), Grimaldi et al. (2002) and Ross et al. (2010). For a full list of Burmese amber inclusions see Ross (2018) and for a discussion of biogeography see 4.2. ...
Arachnids are an ancient lineage of arthropods and orders such as scorpions, harvestmen and mites have their fossil origins in the Silurian or Devonian. Another order with potentially old origins is the short-tailed whipscorpions, or schizomids (Arachnida: Schizomida). These animals have a fragmentary fossil record with species either described or documented from Dominican amber (Miocene: Chattian), drill core sediments from the Oligocene in China, and the upper Pliocene (Zanclean) of Arizona. Here, we describe the first named example of a short-tailed whipscorpion from Late Cretaceous amber (Myanmar: Hukawng Valley) based on male morphological features. Mesozomus groehni gen. et sp. n. cannot be assigned to any Recent genera of schizomids and preserves a unique mix of plesiomorphic (e.g. the retention of eyes) and apomorphic characters (e.g. enlarged femur IV) that merit future evaluation within a phylogenetic context. We extend the fossil record of schizomids by ca. 65 million years, from the Paleogene to the Mesozoic, and add the twelfth order of arachnids to the diverse arachnid biota documented from Burmese amber.
... Instead, they largely belong to H. scimitarus Barden & Grimaldi (2012), more rarely to H. zigrasi Barden & Grimaldi (2012), the two other species described more recently (Barden and Grimaldi, 2012). A reason for this could be that the type specimen of H. cerberus, although described in 1996, originated from an early collection of Burmese amber that was sent to Cockerell by Swinhoe in 1920 (Ross and York, 2000;Zherikhin and Ross, 2000). Thus, the holotype might have been collected from a locality and/or geological stratum that was potentially distinct from the current localities from where Burmese amber were mined for the last decade. ...
The type species of the genus Haidomyrmex Dlussky, 1996 is revised. Haidomyrmex cerberus was originally described based on a partial worker specimen only, which was later re-figured with some erroneous characters. Two worker specimens assignable to this species were recently discovered in the collection of Burmese amber from the Capital Normal University of Beijing. A revised description and comparison with the two other known species of Haidomyrmex are provided, and the diagnoses of the genus and species are emended.
... 99 Ma based on U-Pb dating of zircons ( Shi et al. 2012). For a detailed review of the history and geology of Burmese amber deposits, see the pertinent literature ( Zherikhin and Ross 2000;Grimaldi et al. 2002;Cruickshank and Ko 2003). The history of the study of inclusions in Burmese amber since 1916 is summarized by Ross (2019). ...
Millipedes have been inhabiting the earth for more than 400 my and show a great diversity regarding their morphology and ecology. For a better understanding of the timing and pattern of millipede evolution, Burmese amber offers a unique window into the Cretaceous period, ca. 99 Ma. Here, we describe the first known fossil of the colobognathan order Platydesmida, the species Andrognathus burmiticus n. sp. based on 15 specimens from Cretaceous Burmese amber. We combine classical light-microscopy and modern micro-computer tomography (μCT) with computer aided 3D-reconstructions. These non-invasive techniques allow us to describe the fossil millipedes as detailed as is general practice for extant species, and to grant the scientific community open access to the deposited “Cybertypes”. Based on the combination of unique morphological characters such as surface structures, body type, the unique size and shape of tergite 5, the absence of a hypoproct at the anal segment, and detailed gonopod characteristics, the studied fossils can be placed in the family Andrognathidae and the extant genus Andrognathus, which nowadays is restricted to the eastern USA and Mexico with three extant species. Therefore, the minimum age of the genus Andrognathus is pushed to the Cenomanian, 99 Ma. It can be assumed that the genus was much more diverse and wider distributed in the past and migrated between Asia and America via one of the once existing land bridges. These unique fossils prove the unusual relictual distribution of Andrognathus and can serve as key-fossils for the dating of the diplopod phylogeny.
... So far there is no described non-amber fossil which can be definitely placed in the order Callipodida, but Shear et al. (2009) (Shi et al. 2012) and has a long history of exploitation. For a review of its history and geology see Zherikhin and Ross (2000), Grimaldi et al. (2002), and Cruickshank and Ko (2003). Burmese amber has proven to be an important source of arthropod fossils, containing no less than 849 described species of arthropods (Ross et al. 2010;Ross 2018). ...
The entire Mesozoic Era is rather poor in millipede (class Diplopoda) fossils, with less than a dozen species being taxonomically described. Here, we describe the first fossil millipede of the order Callipodida, Burmanopetalum inexpectatum gen. nov. et sp. nov., found in early Cenomanian amber of Burma, 98.79±0.62 Mya. The species possesses a number of morphological traits that exclude it from all extant suborders, and Burmanopetalidea suborder nov. and Burmanopetalidae fam. nov. are here erected to accommodate it. The new suborder can be recognized by the following unique characters: pleurotergal setae absent; telson with a specific spatulate shape twice the size of the penultimate body ring; hypoproct devoid of setae; and eyes composed of five well-separated ommatidia. While the callipodidan habitus seems to have remained generally unchanged for at least 99 million years, pleurotergal and hypoproctal setation, as well as the complexity of eyes in ground-dwelling forms may have evolved recently in the order. As B. inexpectatum gen. nov. et sp. nov. is the first true callipodidan in the fossil record, the minimum age of Callipodida is thus at least 99 Mya.
... Fossil-bearing amber was collected from the Hukawng Valley in northern Myanmar (formerly known as Burma) with nearly 1200 species described (Ross, 2019 in press). For an overview of the amber deposit and its geological setting see, e.g., Zherikhin and Ross (2000), Grimaldi et al. (2002), Cruickshank and Ko (2003), Ross et al. (2010), and Mao et al. (2018). ...
Babinskaiidae is an extinct lacewing family of the superfamily Myrmeleontoidea. Hitherto, ten species of seven genera are described from the Lower and mid-Cretaceous periods. Here Pseudoneliana makarkini gen. et sp. nov., a new genus and species of Babinskaiidae from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber is characterized, described, illustrated and its taxonomic position discussed. Based on the known palaeo-distribution of the family in Brazil and Myanmar of Gondwanian origin, and Siberia of Laurasian origin, we suggest that this family appeared much earlier than the Barremian period, its oldest fossil record.
... Most of his career was spent at the university of Colorado, where he became fascinated by the vast deposits of Eocene fossil insects from the Green river Formation and at Florissant, Colorado. He undertook the first comprehensive studies of insects preserved in burmese amber (e.g., Cockerell, 1916;Cockerell, 1917;Cockerell, 1919;Zherikhin and ross, 2000), a deposit that is of intense interest for researchers worldwide, and a major focus of the present paper. Though modern systematists may be dismissive of these early descriptive works, Cockerell's insight was remarkable. ...
... The amber mines are located around the Noije Bum Hill (Grimaldi et al., 2002;Kyaw Thu and Khin Zaw, 2017). The Hukawng Basin is mainly comprised of sedimentary rocks with mines that exhibit various clastic sedimentary rocks, micritic limestone's, thin layers of coal and the amber bearing shale layers (Zherikhin and Ross, 2000;Cruickshank and Ko, 2003;Kyaw Thu and Khin Zaw, 2017). Burmese amber from this location is currently dated, based on radiometric data, back to the earliest Cenomanian mid-Cretaceous, with an age of ca. ...
A new net-winged beetle, Burmolycus compactus gen. et sp. nov. (Coleoptera, Elateroidea, Lycidae), is described from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber and the new tribe Burmolycini trib. nov. is erected for this species in Dexorinae Bocak et Bocakova, 1989. B. compactus is the oldest amber inclusion of a net-winged beetle. The discovery suggests the start of Lycidae diversification at least in the Mid-Cretaceous. The fossil was discovered in the area of the highest phylogenetic diversity of extant net-winged beetles, in deposits with a rich beetles fauna. The species is a member of the putative early radiation of this family and shows relationships with Afrotropical Dexorinae from which it differs in the dilated apical palpomeres, serrate antennae, and fully metamorphosed females. Burmolycus compactus shares 10-segmented antennae with several genera with proved or hypothesized neotenic females. The general appearance of Cretaceous B. compactus is surprisingly similar to extant net-winged beetles and may represent the example of their long-term morphological stasis.
... 1; Chen et al., 2019). Although Kachin amber has been mined and traded for thousand years (Laufer, 1906;Zherikhin and Ross, 2004;Poinar et al., 2008), most organismal inclusions with valuable scientific significance were described in recent years (Guo et al., 2017;Ross, 2018). With many new groups of plants, fungi, invertebrates and even vertebrates reported in Burmese amber, this amber biota, as one of the most diverse Mesozoic palaeobiotas, is now recognized as a significant window to the mid-Cretaceous ecosystems (Cruickshank and Ko, 2003;Poinar et al., 2008;Shi et al., 2012;Kania et al., 2015;Szwedo and Nel, 2015). ...
As the most diversified organismal group, insects evolved countless structural innovations, and some unique ones have vanished in their geological history. We herein report a new true hopper family
Minlagerrontidae Chen, Szwedo and Wang fam. nov. with two new species (Minlagerron griphos Chen, Szwedo and Wang gen. et sp. nov. and Minlagerron onyxos Chen, Szwedo and Wang gen. et sp. nov.) in
mid-Cretaceous Kachin amber from northern Myanmar. The new family, tentatively attributed to Hylicelloidea (Clypeata), shares a series of plesiomorphies with ancient Clypeata, and also bears some
extremely unusual or even grotesque morphological characteristics, never recorded in other Clypeata, Hemiptera, or even all fossil and living insects. This family possesses a greatly specialized head with tylus extremely broad, compound eyes produced, postclypeus almost transversely rectangular in the middle, with basal half having a deep longitudinal groove medially, and rostrum stout. The anterior part of
minlagerrontid prothorax is sharply constricted, forming a unique ‘neck’ and ‘shoulder’ structures, and the prothoracic legs are also highly modified with strengthened femora with several lateral teeth and tibiae deviantly club-shaped. The female pygofer of the new family is completely wrapped by tergite VIII and its ovipositor is short and reduced. Additionally, minlagerrontids possess unique tegmina with C5 almost closed, surrounded by terminal branches of CuA, and thick venation reticular with multiple ambient veins ending at anterior margin and crossveins ir and rp-mp diploid. The new highly specialized family erected herein suggests that in the Mesozoic, to reduce mutual competition, ancient Clypeata had diversified multi-dimensionally and so possibly evolved with high disparity to occupy a wide range of ecotypes.
A new species of millipede from the family Heterochordeumatidae, Heterochordeuma liae sp. nov., is described from mid-Cretaceous Burmese (Kachin) amber. The detailed morphological characteristics of this species are provided based on the examination of 14 specimens, primarily utilizing confocal laser scanning microscopy. This new species can be confidently assigned to the extant genus Heterochordeuma due to its extended and polydesmidan-like paranota, 32 body rings in male and distinctive curved anterior gonopods, modified coxites 9, and leg-pair 10. A comprehensive comparison with extant species is also presented.
A new species of the ‘flat-backed’ millipede family Polydesmidae, Propolydesmus cretaceus sp. nov., is described from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. Detailed morphological characters are provided on the basis of 3 well-preserved adults (2 males and 1 females), 2 female subadults, and 14 additional specimens, using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and X-ray micro-computed tomography (μCT) with computer-aided 3D-reconstructions. The new species can be placed in the extant genus Propolydesmus. It majorly differs from other congeners due to the stronger gonopod acropodite and the presence of a bipartite gonopod exomerite.
Amber first became relatively abundant and widespread in the geological record during the Cretaceous period. It originated often as copious resin production by a variety of incompletely understood coniferous trees, generally under humid climates, but not excluding seasonal aridity. Study of insect and other organic inclusions only commenced in the twentieth century, but has expanded considerably since then, with several thousand taxa now described. Cretaceous amber insects can be exquisitely preserved in three dimensions, although tend to be biased towards smaller individuals that lived in the local forest environment. They are therefore complemented by the Cretaceous rock record, which sampled larger insects and other habitats. As well as the fine morphological detail exhibited by the amber insect inclusions, various behaviours and interactions unlikely to be otherwise preserved can be found frozen in time, such as brooding behaviour and the entrapment of insects in spiders' webs. Insects in amber also provide important information about evolutionary changes over the course of the Cretaceous, including the rise of eusociality and angiosperm pollination.
A new genus Amphignokachinia Brysz & Szwedo, gen. n. and species Amphignokachinia subversa Brysz & Szwedo,sp. n. of Achilidae (Hemiptera) planthoppers of the tribe Amphignomini are described. It is the second genus and first fossil rep-resentative of the tribe Amphignomini coming from the Cenomanian amber in Kachin State, Myanmar. Diagnosis of the tribe isrevised and its position in respect of fossils in the family Achilidae is discussed.
Dryinus carsteni sp. nov. (Hymenoptera: Chrysidoidea: Dryinidae) is described from mid-Cretaceous Kachin (Burmese) amber. The new species is close to D. taron Martynova, Zhang, Olmi, Müller, Perkovsky, 2020, but it can be distinguished for the shorter body (about 2 mm), antennomere 3 about 5 × as long as broad and protarsomere 2 produced into hook (in D. taron, the body is longer more than 5 mm, antennomere 3 is about 20 × as long as broad and protarsomere 3 is produced into hook).
The study of terrestrial arthopod fossils preserved with microscopic fidelity in amber and as permineralized replicas has been revolutionized by CT scanning. Fine preservation facilitates phylogenetic interpretation of fossils, but molecular divergence-time models still commonly use insufficient fossil calibrations, skewing estimates away from the direct (i.e., fossil, morphological) evidence. Interactions among terrestrial arthropods (predation, parasitoidism; phoresy, social symbionts) are briefly reviewed from the fossil record. Predation is the oldest and most widespread, originating with arachnids since probably the Silurian. The first phoretic arthropods were probably mites (Acari). Parasitoidism extends to the early Jurassic ~200 mya, with four main episodes proposed by [1•]. 100-myo Burmese amber, the most diverse Cretaceous paleobiota, is unique for our understanding of insect eusociality and interrelationships among terrestrial arthropods. Eusocial insect colonies are ecological sinks for thousands of symbiont species; ages of the major eusocial groups and some of their nest symbionts are discussed. Fossilized arthropod interrelationships in Miocene Dominican amber are presented as visual exemplars.
A new genus and species of fossil lacewing larva (Neuroptera: Chrysopoidea), Acanthochrysa langae gen. et sp. nov., is described from mid-Cretaceous Kachin (Burmese) amber from Myanmar. This lacewing larva bears extremely elongate setose tubular tubercles (TTs) and is therefore a debris-carrying (camouflaging) morphotype. The new genus can be distinguished from Myrmeleontiformia mainly based on the presence of an apical antennal receptor (specialized terminal seta) and setiferous tubercles, and it can be distinguished from other chrysopids mainly due to the well-defined, long cervix and presence of one pair of TTs on the first segment of the thorax. The discovery of this new specimen adds novel information to our knowledge of the morphological and taxonomic palaeodiversity of Mesozoic lacewing larvae, and provides a new sample for further research on the evolutionary history of camouflage and mimesis strategy and related morphological adaptations in chrysopoids.
A new genus belonging to the cucujoid family Helotidae, Trihelota gen. nov., is described from mid-Cretaceous (ca.99 million years old) amber from Kachin State, northern Myanmar, containing a single species T. fulvata sp. nov. The minute fossil was documented using fluorescence microscopy and X-ray microtomography to reveal fine morphological details. Trihelota is characterised by its transverse head, antennal club about 1.5 times longer than wide, pronotum almost parallel-sided, and elytra not costate. Notably, each elytron possesses three coloured spots, a character unique within Helotidae. The new genus considerably expands the known morphological disparity of Cretaceous helotids. A key to extinct and extant genera of the family Helotidae is provided along with a checklist of fossil species.
A new genus and species, Burmorussus mirabilis, is described based on two specimens from the mid-Cretac-eous Burmese amber, and considered to be a specialized parasitic wasp of wood-living hosts. The new taxon is characterized by an orussid-like ocellar crown, big eyes, antennae attached well above the clypeus, and antennal grooves or ventral transverse frontal carinae absent. Additionally , all legs carry a prominent lanceolate lobe on the third tarsomere. A similar structure is found, but organized differently, in Recent Orussidae and Stephanidae, serving as part of a vibration analyser. Although sharing some characters with families Karatavitidae, Orussidae and Paroryssidae, this new taxon cannot be assigned to any of these families. We propose a new monotypic family Burmorussidae and assign it to the superfamily Orussoidea. A phylogenetic analysis confirms the monophyly of Orussoidea, which occurs a sister group to Apocrita.
Two new species of the bristle millipede family Polyxenidae, Pauropsxenus extraneus sp. nov. and Pauropsxenus extraneus sp. nov., are described from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. They can be confidently placed in the extant genus Pauropsxenus (Polyxenidae) based on a set of critical characters. In additions, the morphological similarity of hooked caudal trichomes shared by the new species and extant counterparts may suggest a similar defensive function. Our discovery indicates that a prey-predator relationship between polyxenids and other soil animals has already been established in the Cretaceous period.
The oldest Nabidae, Cretanazgul camillei gen. et sp. nov., is described from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber and attributed to the extant subfamily Prostemmatinae. This new record is in accordance with the emergence of the Nabidae between 150 and 130 Ma. This new fossil should help to precise future dating of this family. As the amber area of Myanmar was probably an island of the Thetys Ocean during the mid-Cretaceous, originating from the Gondwana, it is possible that the Nabidae have a Gondwanian origin. Cretanazgul possibly practiced traumatic insemination as all extant Prostemmatinae, but it was not possible to find the male internal organ linked to this behavior in this fossil despite 3D reconstruction with CT-scan data and fluorescence imaging.
A new Cretaceous fossil beetle Mysteriomorphus pelevini gen. et sp. nov. is described from Burmese amber and a new family Mysteriomorphidae fam. nov. is proposed to accommodate this new taxon. The new monogeneric family is characterised by a combination of characters present in different lineages of Elateroidea and Byrrhoidea (Ptilodactylidae) and is therefore placed as incertae sedis in the series Elateriformia.
A list of all known taxa described or recorded from Burmese amber from the published literature up to the end of 2018 is given, along with a comprehensive bibliography. The history of the study of inclusions is summarised, and demonstrates that the number of species has risen exponentially over the past two decades. The first three species were named in 1916 and by the end of 1920 a total of 42 species had been named by T.D.A. Cockerell. Only three more species were named by 1999 though by the end of 2018 the total had risen to an incredible 1,192 species, of which over half were named in the past three years. Some 320 species were named in 2018, the highest number described from one type of amber in any one year in the entire history of amber studies.
The ants from Burmese amber were not known before. Three ants from this amber were found out in the collection of the Natural History of Museum in London. Burmomyrma rossi sp. nov. (fig. 3) differs from other known ants by the combination of reduced wing venation (absence of closed cells), the presence of sting, one segmented waist and absence of constriction between 1 and 2 gastral segments. The holotype of B. rossi has no head, so it is impossible to determine precisely taxonomic position of new genus. Haidomyrmex cerberus sp. nov. (fig. 1) is the extraordinary specialised Sphecomyrminae ant with L-shaped mandibles and unusual structure of cranio-mandibular system. All known ants with trap-like mandibles have increased back part of the head, while H. cerberus have extended genae. The fragments of other ant (gaster, legs and deformed petiolus and propodeum) are present in the same piece of amber (fig. 26). The poor preservation state of specimen does not permit to make species description. The presence of sting and absence of constriction between 1 and 2 gastral segments in this ant and in B. rossi definitely indicates that they belongs to subfamilies Aneuretinae, Nothomyrmeciinae, or Sphecomyrminae.
Phylogenetic hypotheses are designed and tested (usually in implicit form) on the basis of a set of presumptions, that is, of statements describing a certain order of things in nature. These statements are to be accepted as such, no matter whatever evidence for them exists, but only in the absence of reasonably sound evidence pleading against them. A set of the most current phylogenetic presumptions is discussed, and a factual example of a practical realization of the approach is presented. A comparison is made of the three main taxonomic approaches hitherto developed, viz., phenetics, cladistics, and phylistics (= evolutionary systematics). The latter term denotes an approach that tries explicitly to represent the basic features of traditional taxonomy and particularly its use of evidence derived from both a similarity and the relatedness of the taxa involved. The phylistic approach has certain advantages in the answering of the basic aims of taxonomy. Taxonomic nomenclature is found to rely ultimately on a few basic principles. Nine of these principles are formulated explicitly: six of them are taxonomically independent, and three are taxonomically dependent, that is, they are only compatible with particular taxonomic concepts. Judging from current taxonomic practice, a taxon is neither a class nor an individual, but a continuum (a notion combining some features of both the class and the individual) of subtaxa that is delimited by a gap separating it from other such continua. The type concept is found to be the best available tool to operate within the concept of the taxon-continuum.
IT is not customary for an author to reply to his reviewers, but I trust you will permit me to depart from that usage. Captain A. T. Gage, superintendent of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, stands, to my recent work ``The Commercial Products of India,'' in an entirely different position from an anonymous reviewer, and his opinion, as expressed in certain passages of the notice published in NATURE of December 17, 1908, therefore seems to me to call for a reply.
The amber from Burma continues to yield interesting insects, those now reported including the largest and finest yet discovered. Mr. Swinhoe has presented the collection to the British Museum, but for obvious reasons it is retained for the present in this country.
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