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The History of the International System of Protected Area Management Categories
... Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) refers to the adverse interactions between humans and wildlife that result in harmful outcomes for both human and their livelihood, as well as wildlife and their natural habitat (Messmer, 2009;Peterson et al., 2010). HWC arises in areas where humans and wildlife coexist and vie for limited resources. ...
... There are four common types of HWC: crop raiding, livestock depredation, human attack, and property damage (Peterson et al., 2010). Crop raiding, which involves the intensive raiding of crops by wild animals, is the most frequently reported form of HWC and has implications for the food security of local communities. ...
... Although there is no global estimate of economic losses caused by crop raiders and livestock depredators, various studies have endeavored to calculate substantial losses in specific areas, directly impacting food insecurity among rural poor communities (Findlay and Hill, 2020;Lamarque et al., 2009;Raphela and Pillay, 2021). Human attacks are often instigated by large carnivores like lions, tigers, leopards, and crocodiles (Lamarque et al., 2009;Matseketsa et al., 2019;Ogra and Badola, 2008;Peterson et al., 2010;Sharma et al., 2021). Elephants are known to cause property damage to human structure such as houses and stores (Gross et al., 2021;Matsuura et al., 2024). ...
... • The development of IUCN system of protected area management categories (Phillips, 2002;Phillips, 2004;Phillips, 2007). ...
... Under the standardized typology used by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), most cultural landscapes would be regarded as Category Vi.e., Protected Landscape (Phillips, 2002;Phillips, 2004;Phillips, 2007). IUCN has also identified the following values within protected landscapes/seascapes: conserving nature and biodiversity; conserving human history in structures and land use patterns; maintaining traditional ways of life; offering recreation and inspiration; providing education and understanding; demonstrating durable systems of use in harmony with nature (Lucas, 1992;Phillips, 2007). ...
... This happens if the land is worked more intensively. Biodiversity may benefit from human intervention in form of traditional farming (Phillips, 2004;Phillips, 2007). The industrialization of farming over the last fifty years has led to a marked increase in agricultural productivity. ...
My Master's thesis research stems from the need to integrate a multidisciplinary view to conservation issues. The integration of a historical approach to the study of environmental systems (historical ecology), in addition to anthropological and sociological approaches, can offer relevant support for studies in the field of biodiversity protection and conservation. In the perspective of a new evaluation of a specific cultural landscape, a historical environmental analysis conducted at the local scale assumes a key role. Historical ecology is a tool for an accurate analysis of the cultural landscape over time and in its interrelation with local society and its productions. The aim is to develop historical ecology research in specific contexts related to the field of eco-gastronomy in collaboration with the University of Gastronomic Sciences in Pollenzo. An analysis of a case study of a product from the Ark of Taste Liguria catalogue of the Slow Food movement was therefore carried out, using the methodological approach of historical ecology. The integration of historical sources with the field analysis allowed a critical and improving reading of the selected Ark of Taste sheet: chestnuts dried in the “tecci” of Calizzano and Murialdo (SV). The cartographic sources taken into consideration are topographical maps taken between the 18th and 19th centuries, digitized on the web or stored at the IGM of Florence and available at the LASA of UniGe and UniSG. Both explicit sources such as historical and geographical dictionaries and statistics from the first half of the 19th century (De Volvic, 1824; Casalis, 1836; De Bartolomeis, 1840) and recent implicit sources (Balbis et al., 2012; Balbis et al., 2013; Balbis et al., 2015) were analysed as textual sources. The field survey included a relief to a chestnut grove located on the southern slope of Monte Camulera near Murialdo. With the testimony of the Olivieri family, a qualitative analysis of biodiversity was then carried out. A field sheet was drawn up with items relating to the structure and composition of the wood; the chestnut cultivars present in the area chosen for the survey were described and compared with textual sources. Using the Braun-Blanquet index, a survey of vegetation was carried out using the phytosociological method, while the method of sighting and/or presence of traces was used for animal species. A section on the presence of buildings related to chestnut drying was included in the field record. The field survey integrated with other sources allowed for an accurate historical reconstruction of the local product chestnuts dried in the“tecci”of Calizzano and Murialdo, complete with environmental, historical and social aspects. This integration may represent a starting point for subsequent studies on other products included in Slow Food's Ark of Taste Liguria catalogue. The close relation between food, local communities and environmental resources - highlighted by historical ecology research - is at the center of a research project that could be carried out not only by gastronomes and sociologists, but also by conservation biologists. These researchers would provide a scientific reading in a field that has so far been explored in depth by the humanities. Finally, the research aims to broaden knowledge of historical ecology in a university scientific context, reconnecting ecology with the historical processes that have affected and passed through it.
... The recognition of the landscape perspective, acknowledging the cultural, natural, and scenic values of rural areas, where it is still possible to find ecosystem goods and services alongside human activities, emerged in the context of natural heritage protection in 1978 with the IUCN's first Protected Areas System [29]. This system included categories considering cultural aspects and human activities, such as 'protected landscape', 'anthropological reserve', and 'multiple use management area'. ...
... In 1994, the IUCN updated this system with six categories for protected areas. Within that categorization, a 'protected landscape' (Category V) is defined as "an area where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced distinct character with significant aesthetic, ecological, and cultural value, often with high biodiversity" [29]. Management goals include maintaining environmental and cultural values through sustainable practices. ...
The eight member countries of the Central American Integration System (SICA)—Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, and the Dominican Republic—are signatories to the Convention for the Protection of World Heritage and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Both binding international instruments use the terms ‘cultural landscape’ and ‘protected landscape’, respectively. For this reason, the environmental/natural and cultural legislation of the SICA region has been analyzed to identify the legal frameworks that allow for the declaration of the categories mentioned above for the protection of landscapes. In five of the eight SICA member states, 38 ‘protected landscapes’ were found to exist under environmental law. No designation has been reported for cultural legislation in this region. In addition, the designations and management plans for ‘protected landscapes’ were reviewed, and it was noted that most of them were similar in denomination, but their protection objectives were not aligned with the binding instruments from which they were derived. Thus, we conclude that, given the particular natural and cultural wealth of the SICA region, it is necessary to identify and map landscapes and establish common guidelines for managing them to foster harmony between nature and mankind and according to the international conventions’ objectives.
... The global history of PAs begins over 2,000 years ago in India where land would be set aside by royal decree for the protection of natural resources (Phillips, 2004). In Europe, the protection of hunting grounds for the rich had been practiced for more than a thousand years (Moore, 2020). ...
... Additionally, the protection of sacred areas was a common practice globally for traditional and Indigenous communities (Moore, 2020). The first true national park (Yellowstone) protected under United States law was established in 1872 for the benefit and enjoyment of people (Moore, 2020;Phillips, 2004). The emergence of the Yellowstone National Park, and many others after it, gave rise to the Exclusive Model of PA planning and management, which dominated the conservation movement for the next century (Ghate, 2003;Mckay, 2001). ...
While Protected Areas (PAs) are essential for the preservation of biodiversity, conservation efforts should not impose injustices onto local communities. Using a qualitative case study that included document review, semi-structured interviews, participant observation and thematic analysis, the planning and management of a network of PAs in the Kullu District of Himachal Pradesh, India were examined. The study 1) describes the planning and management approach for PAs in Kullu, 2) explains how the planning and management approach has changed since the declaration of the first national park in 1984, 3) evaluates the integration of the four attributes of environmental justice (distributive, procedural, recognitional and restorative) in PA planning and management, and 4) identifies learning outcomes for those involved in or affected by PAs in the Kullu District and relates such outcomes to environmental justice. Overall, the data reveal that the planning and management of PAs in Kullu operates under an Exclusive Model that restricts local people from accessing and utilizing natural resources within PAs, while also excluding them from participating in planning and management activities. In terms of environmental justice, the data show that there is an uneven distribution of benefits from PAs and inequitable restrictions on resource use, a lack of early and ongoing consultation with locally affected communities, and uneven and inadequate compensation for loss of traditional rights. One important learning outcome identified by forest officers is a movement away from the practice of forced displacement of people. Although this suggests a transition toward a more inclusive model, much work remains to advance environmental justice in PA planning and management in the Kullu District. The data also indicate that inclusivity and advancement of environmental justice in PA planning and management could be achieved through: collaborative knowledge exchange between forest officers and community members; opportunities for community members to participate in planning and management activities; and the recognition of marginalized members of society in PA planning. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
... Les graphiques B-D proviennent de calculs personnels effectués à partir des données brutes de la WDPA, version de Janvier 2020 (UNEP-WCMC & IUCN, 2020). par la création du premier Parc National au Yellowstone (Phillips, 2004). ...
... Audelà de leur potentiel effet sur les activités humaines, les aires protégées peuvent également servir de cadre pour mettre en place d'autres mesures de conservation plus spécifiques, telles que l'installation de supports artificiels pour la nidification de la sterne néréis ou la mise en place de placettes d'alimentation contrôlées pour les vautours oricous.Une aire protégée est définie comme «un espace géographique clairement défini, reconnu, consacré et géré, par tout moyen efficace, juridique ou autre, afin d'assurer à long terme la conservation de la nature et des services écosystémiques et des valeurs culturelles qui lui sont associés» (UNEP-WCMC, IUCN and NGS, 2020).Bien que le concept de restrictions des usages d'espaces naturels existe depuis des millénaires (par exemple, lieux sacrés, réserves de chasse), les aires protégées telles que nous les définissons aujourd'hui trouvent leurs origines au XIX ème siècle(Watson et al., 2014). Les premiers à formuler le besoin d'aires protégées sont des artistes : le poète anglais William Wordsworth imagine en 1810 que le Lake District devienne «a sort of national property» et le peintre George Catlin en 1832 imagine protéger les espaces naturels et les populations indiennes menacés par les colons par le biais d'un «nation's park, containing man and beast, in all the wild and freshness of their nature's beauty»(Phillips, 2004). C'est ensuite en 1864 que la première aire protégée est créée par la signature du «Yosemite Grant Act», aux Etats-Unis et qui sera suivie quelques années plus tard ...
Les espoirs de stopper la crise actuelle de biodiversité reposent principalement sur les aires protégées, qui visent à écarter ou restreindre les activités humaines de ces sites. Malgré le rôle central que jouent les aires protégées dans les stratégies de conservation de la biodiversité, les études mesurant leur efficacité réelle à limiter la perte de biodiversité restent rares. Mesurer cette différence n’est pas si évident qu’il y paraît puisque cela nécessite de comparer la biodiversité de sites protégés et de sites témoins non-protégés (qui ne diffèrent que par leur statut de protection) et requiert donc l’utilisation de gros jeux de données, qui sont rares. Dans cette thèse, j’utilise plusieurs jeux de données publics, principalement issus de programmes de sciences participatives, pour mesurer l’efficacité des aires protégées. Dans le premier chapitre, j’utilise des données d’abondance d’oiseaux issues de la « North American Breeding Bird Survey » et je montre que les aires protégées n’ont pas d’effet sur la richesse spécifique ou l’abondance totale mais qu’elles favorisent les espèces spécialistes. Dans le second chapitre, je me concentre sur les forêts tropicales de huit points chauds de biodiversité et j’utilise les données eBird pour montrer que les aires protégées ralentissent les déclins d’espèces d’oiseaux dépendantes des forêts, endémiques et menacées. De plus, je montre que cet effet sur les oiseaux est induit par le double effet qu’ont les aires protégées sur la réduction de la déforestation et de la dégradation de la forêt. Dans le troisième chapitre, je modélise la sensibilité à la pression humaine de chaque espèce d’oiseaux se reproduisant en Amérique et j’explore la capacité du réseau d’aires protégées à conserver les espèces les plus sensibles. Je montre que les zones où les espèces sont très sensibles (principalement dans les tropiques) sont souvent trop peu couvertes par des aires protégées intactes, laissant de nombreuses espèces sensibles sans aucun habitat protégé intact sur l’ensemble de leur aire de répartition. Enfin, dans le quatrième chapitre, j’interroge l’effet que peuvent avoir les aires protégées sur les comportements humains, en montrant que les habitants de municipalités françaises qui sont proches de parcs naturels adoptent plus de comportements pro-environnementaux. Dans leur ensemble, ces travaux de thèse soutiennent que les aires protégées peuvent constituer un outil efficace pour conserver la biodiversité et soulignent l’importance et la complexité de mesurer leur efficacité.
... On the one hand, the arguments against Categories V and VI (often also referred to as ''multiple-use areas'') have been based for the most part on the assumption that those areas are less effective because they allow by design higher levels of human presence (Locke and Dearden 2005). On the other hand, the arguments in favor of those areas-and in general of the current IUCN classification system-have been based for the most part on the notion that the categories themselves have little to do with the effectiveness of the protected areas (Phillips 2007;Dudley and Stolton 2008), and that all categories must and can be effective in maintaining their levels of naturalness (Dudley and Stolton 2008;Mallarach et al. 2008). ...
... It must be recognized, though, that even those protected areas, which belong to the same IUCN category, they are likely to differ noticeably within and between regions (Phillips 2007). Countries across the globe have their own definitions of protected areas-and management objectives-which do not always match those specified by the IUCN (Table 1) (Dudley 2008;Muñoz and Hausner 2013). ...
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies protected areas into six categories, ranging from strict nature reserves to areas where multiple human uses are permitted. In the past, many researchers have questioned the effectiveness of multiple-use areas, fueling an unresolved debate regarding their conservation value. The literature so far has been inconclusive: although several studies have found that strictly protected areas are more effective, others have found the opposite, and yet others that the two types do not differ. To help resolve this debate, we reviewed the literature on protected areas and conducted our own analysis using > 19 000 terrestrial protected areas worldwide. We found that the differences between strictly protected areas and areas in which multiple human uses are permitted are often small and not statistically significant. Although the effectiveness of protected areas worldwide varies, other factors, besides their assigned IUCN category, are likely to be driving this pattern.
... Daha sonra jeopark gibi benzer amaçlara hizmet etmek için başka kategoriler de oluşturulmuştur (Zouros, 2004). Ancak zamanla bu sınıflandırma ile ilgili de temel sorunlar ortaya çıkmıştır ki bunların en önemli ikisi deniz alanlarının kategorilerde yer almaması ve yerel halklar ile ilgili son gelişmelerin kategorilere yansımamasıdır (Phillips, 2004 (Locke & Dearden, 2005). Ancak yine de korunan alanlarda kaynak kullanımının kısıtlanması ve yerel halkların geleneksel yaşamına müdahale edilmesinin sebep olduğu büyük problemleri göz önünde bulunduran uzmanlar, bu yeni kategoride ısrar etmiş ve bunda da başarılı olmuşlardır. ...
Natural areas on Earth are rapidly disappearing due to environmental harm caused by humans. However, a great deal of
effort has been made to protect the environment over the last 150 years. Why, how, by whom, and with what priorities nature
conservation should be done has always been discussed. This study investigates the fundamental paradigms, their eras, central
concepts, shortcomings, and critics that have impacted conservation efforts from their inception. The study’s foundation
was provided by publications from international nature conservation organizations, application manuals, guidelines, and
pertinent literature. While protecting wildlife and biodiversity was the primary objective of nature conservation at the
beginning, other concepts like ecosystem integrity, social justice, human rights, sustainable development, ecosystem services
and global warming, and preservation of cultural heritage have gained importance since the 1970s. Old beliefs and practices
were either abandoned or drastically changed when new ideas were introduced. As a result, the idea of nature conservation
has evolved from stressing biodiversity and completely ignoring human life in and around protected areas to placing a
strong focus on preserving nature in all its forms, both natural and cultural, leading to a biocultural paradigm.
Keywords: Paradigm Shifts in Nature Conservation; Conservation as Social Science; Nature Conservation; Environmental
Protection; Human-Environment Geography
... Accordingly, managers of protected areas and decision-makers linked to conservation and tourism must take especial attention in governing tourists' movement across protected areas boundaries. This requires turning conservation and tourism governance on aspects of mobility, which is particularly challenging considering the boundary-based forms of governance that have dominated nature conservation (see Phillips, 2004). ...
This thesis analyses how social networks, spatial boundaries, and mobilities are implicated in the production of terrestrial and marine frontiers. By analysing the encounter between global expansionary networks of extractive sectors and nature conservation, and place-based networks of actors, this thesis explores the ways in which processes of boundary formation and mobilities are shaped and challenged. The concepts of territorialisation and counter-territorialisation are used to frame processes of boundary formation and channelling of mobilities by global and place-based networks. Territorialisation refers to the attempts of global networks to assert spatial boundaries and patterns of mobility to expand form of extraction and nature conservation, while counter-territorialisation refers to the different ways in which place-based networks use boundaries and mobilities to shape and challenge original processes of territorialisation.
To meet this objective, concepts and frameworks from territoriality, mobilities, and networks are brought together and used as theoretical basis to analyse three case studies in the Chilean Southern Patagonia. The research developed in this thesis is based on data collected from interviews and participant observation developed in different periods of fieldwork between 2016 to 2019, and a review of secondary sources. The overarching research question of this thesis is: In what ways do interactions between spatial boundaries and mobilities shape existing and new forms of environmental governance in globally connected frontier spaces? This overarching question is divided into two sub-questions. The first sub-question is: In what ways are global networks implicated in processes of boundary formation and mobilities in frontier spaces?, and the second is: In what ways does counter-territorialisation by place-based networks incorporate boundary formation and mobilities in terrestrial and marine frontiers, and with what effect on prevailing forms of territorial control?
The thesis is organised in six chapters, three of them empirical. Chapter 1 opens with a general introduction. In this chapter the Chilean Southern Patagonia is introduced as a frontier space in which various sectors and networked actors including Indigenous people, nature conservation, nature-based tourism, and marine salmon farming, are disputing access and use of spaces and resources through strategies related to boundary formation and mobilities. Subsequently I present the research objective, research questions, and the research methodology.
Chapter 2 presents the theoretical framework of the thesis based on networks, boundaries, and mobilities. Tracing the advance of processes of territorialisation of frontier spaces from land to sea by global networks, the chapter proposes three possible interactions between boundaries and mobilities: boundaries shaping mobilities, mobilities shaping boundaries, and countering through boundaries. These three possible interactions are illustrated by taking the case of Chilean Southern Patagonia.
Chapter 3, 4 and 5 present the three empirical cases of the thesis. Chapter 3 analyses the mobility of nature-based tourism in the most iconic national park of Chilean Patagonia, Torres del Paine. By using routes, rhythms, and frictions as three elements of nature-based tourism’s mobility, the chapter analyses how the inherent mobile character of nature-based tourism challenges territorial forms of conservation governance based on the existence of fixed spatial boundaries.
Chapter 4, analyses three chronologically order processes of marine (counter)territorialisation in the Patagonian Archipelago, a marine space claimed by the Kawésqar Indigenous people. The chapter presents a typology of boundary-mobility relations in the context of marine territorialisation. It provides a novel understanding on the ways in which boundaries and mobilities relate in the marine space, especially exploring how imposed boundaries can be used to counter processes of marine territorialisation. by seemingly disempowered local groups in the face of the expansion of global industries such as marine salmon farming.
Chapter 5 delves into marine counter-territorialisation in the context of the global expansion of marine salmon farming, by analysing the case of the Beagle Channel and the organised resistance exerted by a network of actors led by the Yagán Indigenous community of Navarino Island. The chapter examines how this network, labelled as the Yagán Alliance, counters the establishment of marine enclosures by global salmon farming network in the Beagle Channel by creating connections and (re)programming the goals of environmental governance in the marine frontier of Chilean Southern Patagonia.
Finally, Chapter 6 provides the answers to the overarching research question and the two sub-questions of the thesis, synthetizing the findings of the three study cases of Chilean Southern Patagonia. I propose that the attempts at territorialisation by global networks in Chilean Southern Patagonia lead to the production of two type of frontiers: the nature frontier and the blue frontier. The first is characterised by different projects of nature conservation materialised through the establishment of protected areas in connection with the growing flows of nature-based tourists. The second entails the expansion and deepening of exploitation and extraction of marine resources by global industries such as marine salmon farming. I posit that nature and blue frontiers overlap producing different forms of conflict and collaboration among social networks involve in processes of territorialisation and counter-territorialisation.
... (3) Regarding the categorization of PAs, considering the complexity of China's PA classifications, simplifying them into IUCN categories could introduce inaccuracies. However, even within the same IUCN category, significant differences can exist between and within regions (Phillips 2007). Future studies should strive for a more comprehensive understanding of different management systems and classification standards to better comprehend their impact on conservation effectiveness. ...
Protected areas (PAs) are effective in mitigating human pressures, yet their future pressure alleviating effects remain unclear. In this study, we employed the ConvLSTM model to forecast the future human footprint and analyzed human pressure trends using Theil-Sen median and Mann-Kendall tests. We further evaluated the mitigating effects of PAs within their buffer zones (1-10 km) and the contributions of different IUCN categories of PAs to mitigating human pressure using linear regression models. The results indicate that by 2035, the average human pressure value is expected to increase by 11%, with trends exhibiting a polarized pattern. Furthermore, PAs also effectively mitigate human pressure within their 1 km buffer zones. Different categories of PAs vary in their effectiveness in mitigating human pressure, and stricter conservation areas are not always the most effective. This study can offer insights for evaluating the effectiveness of PAs in reducing human pressure and advocate for their targeted management in urban areas.
... A key moment was the 1933 London Conference where France and eight other countries promised to conserve fauna and flora, including in their colonies. This resulted in an increase in the creation of PAs, including in Central Africa (Phillips 2004), which were added as a form of territorialisation to the existing forestry and rubber concessions. However, not all colonies reacted in the same way; we next focus on the Congo Free State (Democratic Republic of Congo -DRC) and French Equatorial Africa (AEF). ...
... In resistance to the occupation and deforestation of areas being used to extract resources, the rubber-tappers, under the leadership of Wilson Pinheiro, Chico Mendes, and others, created a movement that led to the proposals of extractive reserves (called reservas extrativistas-RESEX) and ecosystem-friendly agrarian reform settlements [101][102][103][104][105]. Besides the definition in the World Parks Congress in Caracas in 1992, the revised RESEX model was considered in the current definition of the category VI (in 2008) [16,31,106]. In Brazil, starting with some cases of RESEX from around the time of the death of Chico Mendes, these are now numerous, and are concentrated at the federal level in the Amazon and on the Atlantic coast. ...
Protected and conserved areas (PCAs) are increasingly recognized as essential tools for their effectiveness in conservation and the benefits they provide. However, their challenges are still significant. The concepts, legislation, and governance surrounding PCAs are the results of social contexts. Due to the evolution of scientific knowledge, human rights, and diversified demands, new approaches are necessary to fulfill their functions. To better understand the context and possibilities, a study group was established to evaluate the current research, exchange experiences, guide dialogues, and identify lessons from experiences. The core of the experiences and cases considered and the reflections developed focused on the Brazilian context. This article analyzes the collected information and reflections related to several themes associated with challenges. The results reinforce the importance of PCAs but warn about the limitations of current conservation strategies to respond to social actors’ expectations, the needs of the vulnerable social groups, and evolving demands. The complexity of PCA systems is evident in view of the multiplicity of interests, potential contributions, and possibilities for participatory arrangements. There is a need to improve management and governance conceptions to promote the reconnection between society and nature. Therefore, the concept of collaborative conservation is proposed as an instrumental approach to advance towards inclusive and effective conservation strategies.
... Within this system national parks became relegated to Category II, consisting by defi nition of 'large natural or near natural areas set aside to protect large-scale ecological processes, along with the complement of species and ecosystems characteristic of the area, which also provide a foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible spiritual, scientifi c, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities. ' 46 Designed to overcome national peculiarities, the IUCN scheme actually created further confusion, as areas with the national denomination of a 'national park' became distributed over all IUCN categories (see Table 0.2), whereas areas that met the criteria were included in Category II although they do not bear the name 'national park' (see Table 0.3). As the organization has few instruments to enforce its categories, the reform still stands to prove if it can enhance the concept's worldwide coherence and further a universally shared meaning of the national park, or if it will ultimately reduce its transnational purchase and just add to conceptual confusion. ...
... Historically, protected areas emerged due to concern over human-made environmental changes and the loss of wilderness [1]. They served as a refuge for wildlife and natural features [2]. In addition, conservation areas protect culturally important places such as many different areas in Egypt [3] or Aboriginal cultural heritage in Tasmania [4]. ...
Artificial Light at Night (ALAN) significantly threatens protected areas from urbanization. As urbanization continues to grow, there is a need for forecasting future light pollution and ALAN for the protected areas in Indonesia. This study proposes a four-step computational model for forecasting spatial–temporal light pollution in nine protected areas in Indonesia via spatiotemporal modeling and linear models. The four steps for predicting spatial–temporal light pollution are (i) data collection, (ii) data pre-processing, (iii) model and prediction of population, and (iv) model and prediction of light pollution. Two critical data must be provided: population data from the review area and light pollution data generated by the Earth Observations Group (EOG) at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI). We are using nine conservation areas in Indonesia, including the Kuningan Botanical Gardens, Bosscha Observatory, Timau Kupang National Observatory, Sermo Reservoir, Mount Batur Geopark, Sewu Mountains Geopark, Mount Rinjani Geopark, Lake Toba Geopark, and Belitong Geopark. The developed model involves a linear model to predict ALAN with spatial–temporal modeling. We present long-term predictions for the next 20 years.
... Modern conservation concerns and efforts have mostly been restricted to wild populations living in forests and in other wild habitats. Such efforts are usually based on isolating these populations of wild species and their habitats from human interference as much as possible (Kothari 2000(Kothari , 2008Phillips 2004). But India has rich and long traditions of coexistence between wildlife and humans (Gadgil 1992(Gadgil , 1995. ...
Contrary to popular belief, rural ecosystems have been reported to harbor a rich spectrum of wildlife. Water Monitor Lizard (Varanus salvator) a Schedule I species (Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972) are commonly found in villages of West Bengal (especially in Lower-Gangetic Flood Plain and Coastal-estuarine area) but its actual population size and distribution was not properly known. Hence this study was conducted in few selected villages of these regions to estimate its population size and to understand how they co-exist within densely populated human settlements. Exclusive time-space count method was adopted to estimate the density of the animal. Result shows its density ranges from 77.78 to 111.54 individuals/ km 2 in different village areas containing healthy amount of their potential habitats and it acts as an effective bio-130 controlling agent keeping abundance of venomous snakes under control. Therefore it can be concluded that healthy extent of V. salvator population sustains within village area and ecological values lead to its survival.
... Although NCPs and ES are not fully interchangeable terms 9 , for sake of clarity we adopt here the terminology of the common international classification of ES (CICES 10,11 ) as basis to select the NCPs for our study. However, whereas protected areas were established worldwide to preserve endangered species or habitats 12,13 , they were not necessarily designed to preserve associated ecosystem services and cultural values, despite being included in the definition of protected areas proposed by the IUCN 12,14 . There is thus a need to map NCPs spatially, e.g. to include them in spatial conservation prioritization 15 . ...
Since the late 1990s, Nature’s Contributions to People (NCPs; i.e. ecosystem services) were used as a putative leverage for fostering nature preservation. NCPs have largely been defined and mapped at the landscape level using land use and cover classifications. However, NCP mapping attempts based directly on individual species are still uncommon. Given that species shape ecosystems and ultimately deliver NCPs, mapping NCPs based on species distribution data should deliver highly meaningful results. This requires first establishing a census of the species-to-NCP relationships. However, datasets quantifying these relationships across several species and NCPs are rare. Here, we fill this gap by compiling literature and expert knowledge to establish the relationships of 1816 tracheophyte and 250 vertebrate species with 17 NCPs in the Swiss Alps. We illustrated the 31,098 identified species-NCP relationships for the two lineages and discuss why such a table is a key initial step in building spatial predictions of NCPs directly from species data, e.g. to ultimately complement spatial conservation planning.
... The USA, the UK, and Australia contributed the most to the PAs of the two countries (excluding the home countries themselves). This may be attributed to the key role of these countries in the modern PA movement, thus generating further experience in PAs [40]. The degree of collaboration in IPAP between countries/regions is higher than that of CPAP. ...
Protected areas (PAs) are key to biodiversity conservation. As two highly populous and biodiverse countries, China and India are facing similar socioenvironmental pressures in the management of PAs. A comparative analysis of studies of PA policies in these two countries provides an objective assessment of policy concerns. This study involved a bibliometric analysis of studies of PA policies in China and India. Relevant publications were retrieved from the Web of Science and Scopus. The analysis was carried out using the Bibliometrix R Package, CiteSpace, and VOSviewer. The results indicate that PA policies studies in China are growing at an exponential rate, while Indian studies were cited significantly more often. “Environmental protection” was the main focus of the Chinese studies, with top keywords including “forest ecosystem” and “strategic approach”. In India, research was mainly focused on “wildlife management”, and the top keywords were “climate change” and “ecosystem service”. Studies from both countries were concerned with natural resource conservation and endangered species. Studies in India began relatively earlier and were more developed. India focused on people-related themes, while China emphasized strategic approaches. China is improving its system of PA and should learn from India to consider the relationship between environmental protection and people.
... Historically, protected areas emerged due to concern over human-made environmental changes and the loss of wilderness (Worboys L. et al., 2015). They served as a refuge for wildlife and natural features (Phillips, 2004). In addition, conservation areas protect culturally important places such as many different areas in Egypt (Osman, 2018) or Aboriginal cultural heritage in Tasmania (Jones, 2007). ...
Artificial light at night is one significant threat to protected areas from urbanization (ALAN). As urbanization continues to grow in Indonesia, there is a need for forecasting future light pollution and ALAN for the protected areas in Indonesia. To fulfill this need, we are aimed to design a computational model and its implementation to forecast light pollution in nine protected areas in Indonesia via spatiotemporal modeling using linear models. In this study, in general, there are four steps to predict spatial-temporal light pollution, namely (i) data collection, (ii) data pre-processing, (iii) model and prediction of population, and (iv) model and prediction of light pollution. Two critical data must be provided: population data from the review area and light pollution data generated by the Earth Observations Group (EOG) at NOAA/NCEI. We are using nine conservation areas in Indonesia, namely the Kuningan Botanical Gardens, Bosscha Observatory, Timau Kupang National Observatory, Sermo Reservoir, Mount Batur Geopark, Sewu Mountains Geopark, Mount Rinjani Geopark, Lake Toba Geopark, and Belitong Geopark. The developed model involves a linear model to predict artificial light at night with spatial-temporal modeling. Through the fitting stage, the average RMSE in 2020, 2021, and 2021 was obtained, namely 0.079, 0.097, 0.071, respectively. Moreover, long-term predictions for the next 20 years have been conducted as well.
... Efforts to conserve forests and other ecosystems started a long time ago using the figure of protected areas (PA). The origins of "modern" PA are to be found in the nineteenth century, with significant growth in number and extent throughout the twentieth century (Phillips, 2004). ...
The development of reliable tools to predict deforestation risk is key to demonstrate efficiency and additionality when targeting protected areas or designing programs of payments for environmental services (PES). It is also important to have a multidisciplinary approach that combines biophysical and socioeconomic sciences when analyzing the effect of environmental policies. In this research, a predictive model of deforestation risk using machine learning techniques was developed for a study site in Costa Rica based on the analysis of historical deforestation patterns throughout the period 2000-2018. Historical and predicted deforestation patterns were analyzed within protected areas and farms participating in the national PES program. The interpretation of the predictive model and drivers of deforestation was completed with socioeconomic information collected through semi-structured interviews from 67 farmers participating and not participating in the PES program. Finally, a methodological analysis of the remote sensing techniques employed to monitor vegetation revealed how topography is an important factor that may have implications when it comes to monitoring forest cover changes throughout time.The historical vegetation loss rate in the area was low (-0.14% y-1) compared with countries with the highest deforestation rates in the same period. Besides, most of the vegetation loss observed occurred outside protected areas. Regardless of whether the farms participated or not in the PES program, historical vegetation loss rates were very low as well. 94% of their forest remained undisturbed throughout the period 2000-2018. In general, deforestation was higher for farms not participating in the PES program and occurred due to small forest adjustments around productive areas, instead of land cover change due to extensive agricultural transformation. The results indicate that the low deforestation rates found in farms participating in the PES program could be explained because forest lands would be spatially biased towards lower pressure, where opportunity cost is low.The predictive model showed an accuracy of 0.89 in predicting vegetation loss in the study site. Additionally, it provides biophysical and spatially explicit information to understand the drivers of forest loss, and the locations where this is likely to occur, which can improve decisions taken when designing environmental policies. Topography and accessibility were the main factors influencing deforestation in the area due to the mountainous nature and irregular terrain where cloud forests are located. In general, forests are located far from main roads in complex terrain and they are under low threat of deforestation. Protected areas and farms that received PES are generally located in remote areas where the model predicts a low risk of deforestation and this should be used to question the efficiency and additionality of focusing economic resources on these areas. The interviews showed that the opportunity cost of transforming forests into a more profitable land use might be very low in remote areas and emergent forest uses such as ecotourism might also be preventing forest clearing.Finally, it was also found an important effect of the topography on the satellite sensors employed to monitor vegetation in mountainous areas, which can bias the estimates of important environmental services derived from the vegetation throughout time. A novel approach was developed to use Landsat temporal series to evaluate changes in the illumination conditions and vegetation indices in forested areas in irregular terrain.
... Η ιδέα για την ανάπτυξη ενός παγκόσμια αποδεκτού συστήματος ταξινόμησης των προστατευόμενων περιοχών προέκυψε μετά τον 2 ο Παγκόσμιο Πόλεμο και την εκρηκτική αύξηση του ενδιαφέροντος για τη διατήρηση της φύσης. Ανάλογες προσπάθειες είχαν γίνει ήδη από τη δεκαετία του 1930 αλλά σε περιορισμένο γεωγραφικό πλαίσιο, ενώ οι πρώτες ιδέες για τον χαρακτηρισμό κάποιων περιοχών ως προστατευόμενων για τη διατήρηση της φύσης διατυπώθηκαν το 1810 (Phillips 2004). ...
... Furthermore, the 'natural' state of ecosystems, vegetation communities and faunal 'nativeness' was (and still is) assumed to be the 16th century, before the environmental impacts of European colonialism.These baseline natural states informed the development of the IUCN's influential protected area management categories. These are based on a scale of human intervention and embed the assumptions that early Holocene human activities had not impacted areas of remaining 'natural' vegetation and that the absence of human intervention led to a more 'natural' environment(Phillips, 2004). The new science of rewilding is challenging to these assumptions. ...
The UN Decade of Ecosystem Restoration signifies the ambition to move beyond a defensive focus on biodiversity protection towards a proactive agenda of restoring ecosystems to generate value for people and nature.
The international nature regime, based on the linked concepts of biodiversity and sustainable development, has achieved much. However, its institutions are built on a ‘compositional’ approach to ecology that ‘locks in’ arbitrary ecological baselines and constrains an ambitious approach to ecosystem restoration.
Rewilding and the wider field of restoration ecology foreground the dynamic nature of ecosystems, the need to consider system function and the importance of trophic networks for ecosystem recovery. Rewilding science extends these new directions with a focus on restoring the functional effects of large megafauna and random biotic and abiotic disturbance.
I argue that historic processes of institutional reductionism, which enabled the construction of a strong protective biodiversity regime, have created institutions that lack the flexibility and innovation culture needed to create new policy and practice to support the recovery of ecosystem integrity and open‐ended restoration processes such as rewilding.
Given this, we need to initiate ordered and effective processes of institutional redesign. To this end, I have proposed five actions for discussion, namely: (a) adopt and embed a positive, hopeful and empowering narrative of nature recovery; (b) create ‘nature recovery innovation zones’, where existing policy and regulations are relaxed and new approaches are developed and tested; (c) develop functional classifications of nature to support the design of ‘new generation’ policy instruments; (d) create markets for ecosystem recovery based on units of ecosystem change to support the emergence of a nature recovery land economy; and (e) introduce programs of professional training in the science, principles and opportunities of ecosystem recovery at all levels in government and non‐government conservation agencies.
The world of 2050 will be very different from that of today. We have extremely well‐educated and skilled younger generations, with the motivation and ability to redesign nature institutions. It is time to act and empower them.
Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
... Wave users could thus be an important funding reservoir. In some ways, wave reserves also have similarities with the first protected areas in the modern era, whose implementation was also driven by user needs (hunting reserves, wood reserves, protected landscapes for artistic claims) [12]; these ancient 'user-led' movements then laid the foundations of modern area-based conservation. What is new, however, is that the private sector is now interested in wave reserve projects. ...
Wave reserves, initially aimed at protecting surf ‘spots’, are becoming a way to ensure the conservation of coastal areas that are of great ecological and economic value. They foster local development and contribute to countries’ achievements toward international objectives. Several projects to implement large wave reserves are on their way.
... Since the first formal protected area in 1864, the number of protected landscapes and seascapes has grown dramatically to accomplish more and more complex objectives (Watson et al. 2014). Beginning with the mission to protect spectacular natural features and wildlife (Phillips 2004), protected areas, especially in developing countries, are more recently expected to be not only the solution for local socio-economic development (Naughton-Treves et al. 2005;Ferraro and Hanauer 2011) but also the supplier of ecosystem services (Lubchenco et al. 2003;Postel and Thompson 2005;Soares-Filho et al. 2010). Acknowledging the critical roles of protected areas for biodiversity conservation and related issues, expanding the coverage of protected areas to 10% of coastal and marine areas and 17% of terrestrial and inland water areas is considered Target 11. ...
Context
Tourism plays a critical role in biodiversity conservation with at least 12 of the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets being directly or indirectly related to tourism.
Aims
As Target 19 aims to raise the generation, transfer and application of knowledge on biodiversity, the objective of this study is to evaluate the impact of Aichi Biodiversity Targets on the interdisciplinary research output, quality, and collaboration at the national scale regarding biodiversity and tourism.
Methods
The Hamiltonian Markov Chain Monter Carlo technique, incorporating the bibliometric analysis, was performed on 1176 documents extracted from the Web of Science database.
Key results
The current investigation revealed two prominent findings. First, the Aichi Biodiversity Targets positively affected scientific productivity, quality and international collaboration at the national level. Still, more than half of the countries on Earth (53.41%) had not acquired any interdisciplinary publication on the topic of biodiversity and tourism. Second, international collaboration was found to be an effective measure to improve scientific quality and quantity in both periods before and after the Aichi Targets. Although the impact of international collaboration on scientific output was similar between the two periods, its impact on scientific quality during 2011–2020 was lower than during 1991–2010.
Conclusions
Thus, we argue that international cooperation cannot be used as a ‘silver bullet’ strategy for advancing knowledge in the interdisciplinary field between biodiversity and tourism due to the trilemma between quantity, quality and cost.
Implications
We recommend policymakers, funding evaluators and researchers put culture into perspective to lessen the cost of interdisciplinary research.
... Ray a suggéré que l'accent mis sur les besoins des espèces individuelles n'était pas une approche optimale et a recommandé que les zones marines protégées soient sélectionnées pour protéger une mosaïque d'écosystèmes (Ray & McCormick-Ray, 1995). Cette approche, partagée par de nombreux auteurs (Christensen et al., 1996;Robertson, 1992;Schwartz, 1999;Sherman and Duda, 1999), est à l'origine à partir des années 70 d'une expansion marquée des aires protégées, dont les premières virent le jour au XIXème siècle avec la création du Parc Yellowstone en 1872 (Phillips, 2004). Les aires protégées ont aujourd'hui une place cruciale dans les stratégies de conservation, à terre comme en mer, même si le développement des aires marines protégées (AMPs) a été moins rapide et plus tardif (Watson et al., 2014) L'IUCN définit les AMPs comme « Toute zone du terrain intertidal ou subtidal, ainsi que les eaux qui la couvrent, la flore, la faune et les caractéristiques historiques et culturelles associées, qui a été réservée par la loi ou par d'autres moyens efficaces pour protéger tout ou partie de l'environnement s'y trouvant » (Kelleher, 1999). ...
La sous-population méditerranéenne de Grand dauphin (Tursiops truncatus) est classée comme vulnérable par l'Union internationale pour la conservation de la nature. Cette espèce est strictement protégée en France et la désignation de zones spéciales de conservation (ZSC) est requise par la directive européenne Habitats Faune Flore (DHFF, 92/43/CEE). Cependant, peu d'informations sont disponibles sur la population dans les eaux méditerranéennes françaises.L’objectif de cette thèse est d’apporter des éléments pour l’élaboration d’une stratégie de conservation du Grand dauphin en Méditerranée française, en améliorant la connaissance de la population présente et en évaluant le potentiel du réseau d’aires marines protégées (AMPs) pour sa conservation.Afin d’étudier la distribution, l’abondance et la structure de la population, nous avons analysé des données de photo-identification collectées tout au long de l'année sur l'ensemble du plateau continental méditerranéen français entre 2013 et 2015 dans le cadre du projet GDEGeM.Nous avons observé 151 groupes de grands dauphins, ce qui a permis la photo-identification de 766 dauphins. La distribution des taux de rencontre a montré la présence de grands dauphins sur l'ensemble du plateau continental tout au long de l'année. Nous avons estimé pour la première fois, à l'aide de méthodes de capture-recapture, la taille de la population de grands dauphins fréquentant le plateau continental de Provence et du Golfe du Lion à 2 636 individus (IC 95% : 2 051-3 514). Nos résultats ont été utilisés pour appuyer la désignation d'un nouveau Site d’Importance Communautaire (SIC) dédié à l’espèce dans le golfe du Lion et fournissent une base de référence pour la surveillance du Grand dauphin dans les eaux méditerranéennes françaises dans le contexte de la Directive Cadre Stratégie pour le milieu marin (DCSMM, 2008/56/CE) et de la DHFF.L’étude de la structure sociale de la population fréquentant le plateau continental méditerranéen français à l'aide d’analyses de réseaux a mis en évidence 4 clusters sociaux le long des côtes continentales. L’évaluation des domaines vitaux a montré que 3 clusters utilisaient préférentiellement le Golfe du Lion, alors que le 4ème cluster utilisait préférentiellement les côtes de Provence. Aucune association n'a été observée entre les dauphins observés en Corse et les dauphins observés dans le Golfe du Lion et en Provence, suggérant une communauté sociale indépendante dans cette zone. Ces résultats appellent à considérer 3 unités régionales pour le suivi et la conservation du grand dauphin dans les eaux méditerranéennes françaises.Une trentaine d’aires marines protégées est répartie tout le long du littoral du Golfe du Lion, de Provence et de Corse. Afin d’évaluer le potentiel de ce réseau pour la conservation de la population de Grand dauphin, nous avons évalué la couverture du réseau d’aires marines protégées (AMPs) dans les 3 régions en comparant les taux de rencontre et les abondances relatives de grands dauphins à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur des AMPs. Les résultats montrent qu’en Corse et dans le Golfe du Lion, le réseau devrait être complété, alors qu’en Provence, il apparait adéquat. Nous avons également évalué la prise en compte du Grand dauphin dans les AMPs à travers un questionnaire soumis aux gestionnaires. Les réponses ont montré que, bien que le Grand dauphin soit présent dans toutes les AMPs ayant répondu (90%), pratiquement aucune n’effectue de suivi, ni de mesures de conservation en place pour l’espèce. Les réponses ont également permis de mettre en évidence des besoins des gestionnaires en termes de connaissance, de moyens d’action et de collaborations.Les résultats de cette thèse constituent une base solide et fournissent des recommandations pour permettre l’élaboration et la mise en œuvre d’une stratégie de conservation de la population de Grand dauphin à l’échelle de la façade de Méditerranée française en valorisant le réseau d’AMPs.
... O primeiro parque nacional criado no mundo nos moldes que conhecemos atualmente foi o Parque Yellowstone, nos Estados Unidos, em 1872. Esta área foi estabelecida na época principalmente em função de seus atributos cênicos e potencial para atividades de lazer (Phillips, 2004). Desde então, inúmeras áreas protegidas têm sido criadas no mundo todo, com diferentes objetivos, dimensões, tipos de governança e formas de manejo (Dudley et al., 2010;Watson et al., 2014). ...
A identificação e proteção de áreas prioritárias para conservação é uma das principais ferramentas utilizadas atualmente para a conservação e uso sustentável dos recursos naturais. A estratégia, amplamente ancorada na Biologia da Conservação, envolve princípios de diferentes áreas do conhecimento, mostrando-se bastante interessante como tema interdisciplinar de ensino. No presente artigo, é apresentada uma proposta de exercício prático de ensino que envolve a análise e priorização de áreas para a conservação da biodiversidade regional. A proposta, além de explorar conceitos fundamentais relacionados à conservação e manejo da fauna e flora brasileira, permite desenvolver importantes habilidades necessárias para a tomada de decisão envolvendo temas socioambientais, os quais muitas vezes podem ser controversos. A atividade foi desenvolvida originalmente como parte de uma disciplina do curso de Mestrado Profissional em Ambiente e Sustentabilidade da Universidade Estadual do Rio Grande do Sul, entre 2016 e 2020, mas a possibilidade de simplificação e adaptação local permite que seja também utilizada como tema gerador de processos educativos ambientais nos níveis fundamental e médio de ensino. Considerando que a extinção de espécies da fauna e da flora regional pode ter um significado concreto para alunos de diferentes regiões do país e que este tema envolve um conteúdo problematizador, a adaptação desse exercício para diferentes realidades locais pode permitir reflexões mais amplas sobre o uso sustentável dos recursos naturais e a conservação da biodiversidade brasileira. Desta forma, o presente artigo busca estimular a difusão e o debate desse tema em diferentes níveis de ensino, visando o desenvolvimento do senso crítico e formação de cidadãos socioambientalmente responsáveis e que compreendam a importância e os desafios da implementação de áreas protegidas.
... There are over 100,000 protected areas (PAs) covering 11.7% of the Earth's surface, from less than 1 million km 2 in 1970 to 18.8 million km 2 in 2003 (Phillips, 2004;Sheppard, 2004). Two thirds of these PAs are located in less developed countries (Zimmerer, 2006). ...
... There are over 100,000 protected areas (PAs) covering 11.7% of the Earth's surface, from less than 1 million km 2 in 1970 to 18.8 million km 2 in 2003 (Phillips, 2004;Sheppard, 2004). Two thirds of these PAs are located in less developed countries (Zimmerer, 2006). ...
This chapter explores the status quo of China’s Protected Areas (PA) network and the challenges faced in an era of rapid increases in tourism. PAs encapsulate the sustainable tourism debate not least due to their rapid recent increase. China’s 3,392 Forest Parks are designated in theory for their significant landscapes and ecology, but in reality forest tourism tends to prioritize regional development over conservation. With 30% of all domestic trips derived from visits to national forest parks, escalating visitor numbers have imposed great pressure on the natural resource base, although significant economic benefits have ensued. To tackle the challenge of resource management, China’s central government initiated a new integrated system of national parks in 2015, aiming to reinforce conservation in these forest parks. As one of the ten pilot sites selected for the new policy, Pudacuo National Park has introduced a wide range of sustainability initiatives while Huangshan (the Yellow mountains) offers an alternative paradigm for scenic areas by adopting a seasonal pricing strategy and visitor limits based on carrying capacity rationale. Having discussed these two case studies, and tourism development issues during the transition from the Forest Park system to the National Park network, this chapter highlights the barriers that impede nature conservation in Chinese park management.
... The original idea of preserving special natural landscapes for future generations emerged as early as the beginning of the 19th century. In 1810, the British poet William Wordsworth demanded that the Lake District region be declared a kind of "national property" [37]. The world's first national park was Yellowstone National Park in the United States and was established in 1872 [38]. ...
The Wadden Sea ecosystem is unique in many respects from a biological perspective. This is one reason why it is protected by national parks in Germany and by its designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In biology didactics, there are only a few studies that focus on the Wadden Sea. This work investigates students’ word associations with the two stimulus words “national park” and “UNESCO World Heritage Site”. The survey was conducted among students living directly at the Wadden Sea and among students from the inland. The analysis of the identified associations (n = 8345) was carried out within the framework of a quantitative content analysis to be able to present and discuss the results on a group level. A statistically significant difference was found between the two groups. Overall, results showed that the students made subject-related associations as well as a large number of associations to both stimulus words that could be judged as non-subject-related. In some cases, a connection with the region of residence could be found, but this was not generally the case. Even students’ immediate residential proximity to the Wadden Sea is no guarantee that they have knowledge of the two considered protection terms.
... Previous research has often referred to nature as a dimension to conquer (Hanna et al., 2019). At this point, we clearly have to differentiate outdoor adventure parks from protected areas, which aim at protecting spectacular natural features and wildlife, but also use their existence economically (Phillips, 2004;Watson, Dudley, Segan, & Hockings, 2014). ...
Outdoor adventure activities have become more popular in recent decades, offering excitement and thrills to their consumers. There has been little research on whether or not outdoor adventure activities impact well-being, especially when these activities are consumed in an outdoor adventure park setting. Thus, this study examined the impact of outdoor adventure park visits on the well-being of (day) tourists by applying a quantitative between-subject pre-post-visit design (n = 349). Results suggested short-term effects of outdoor adventure park activities on well-being, which were also impacted by gender patterns. The study at hand broadened existing discussions and literature in terms of the understanding of outdoor adventure park effects on visitors by (1) providing a before-after comparison of outdoor adventure park guests’ well-being, (2) taking heed of socio-demographic predeterminations, and (3) gathering knowledge about how the duration of a stay at an outdoor adventure park effects changes in well-being.
... There are over 100,000 protected areas (PAs) covering 11.7% of the Earth's surface, from less than 1 million km 2 in 1970 to 18.8 million km 2 in 2003 (Phillips, 2004;Sheppard, 2004). Two thirds of these PAs are located in less developed countries (Zimmerer, 2006). ...
This book provides holistic insights into management of protected areas across East Asia and identifies current trends in mountain tourism within the broader field of human geography and nature conservation. The book describes the diversification in visitors and expanding protected areas territories in different Asian countries during recent years. It also compares protected areas networks in the context of the changing demographic profiles of visitors and provides an interdisciplinary transnational appraisal of mountain-based tourism in Asia based on national and international statistics. The research combines specific case studies at the individual country and destination level with trans-regional trends, thereby offering analysis from both the perspective of supply (parks, protected areas, and stakeholders) and demand (mountain tourist market trends and segments). The book is a useful resource for students and academics in tourism and protected areas studies as well as social scientists and policy-makers interested in Asian countries.
... Areas which are protected from most anthropogenic impacts, allow ecosystems to recover and stabilize. Modern protected areas were set up during the last 200 years in all habitats, but there is evidence that the ideas for protected areas are roughly 2000 years old (Phillips, 2004). In the 1970s, the establishment of protected areas increased exponentially, trying to restore biodiversity and maintain ecosystem services, especially in marine systems (marine protected areas, MPAs). ...
Climatic changes and anthropogenic pressures affect biodiversity and community composition. These biodiversity shifts are recognized in marine ecosystems, but the underlying processes are barely understood so far. Importantly, human well-being highly relies on oceanic services, which are affected by anthropogenic pressures. Here, we review how interdisciplinary research approaches, with the incorporation of eDNA (environmental DNA) analyses, can help increase the understanding of complex ecosystem processes and dynamics, and how they affect ecosystem services. We discuss marine conservation issues in the light of life cycle aspects and conclude that eDNA can improve our ecological knowledge in some instances, for example, in tracking migration patterns. We also illustrate and discuss the application of eDNA analysis within the context of population genetics, epigenetics, geochemistry and oceanography. Embedded into an interdisciplinary context, eDNA can be exploited by a huge variety of methodological techniques, and can resolve spatio-temporal patterns of diversity, species, or even populations within ecological, evolutionary, and management frameworks.
... Em primeiro lugar, para um grupo de autores as áreas protegidas da CDB se restringiriam unicamente às unidades de conservação da Lei n. 9.985, de 18 de julho de 2000, dita Lei do SNUC (RIOS, 2004, p. 78;SANTILLI, 2005, p. 78-81;GANEM;ARAÚJO, 2006, p. 73;FIGUEIREDO, 2015, p. 15). E, em segundo lugar, para outros autores o conceito de área protegida da CDB incluiria, além das unidades de conservação, as terras indígenas e as terras ocupadas por remanescentes das comunidades dos quilombos (LEUZINGER, 2007, p. 122;PEREIRA;SCARDUA, 2008, p. 85;ABI-EÇAB, 2011, p. 2;PRATES;IRVING, 2015, p. 41, 44;ASSUNÇÃO, 2016, p. 282). Por razões que se tornarão evidentes ao longo deste trabalho, essas interpretações devem ser consideradas em uma perspectiva cronológica. ...
Partindo de uma demonstração da polissemia que caracteriza o uso do termo “área protegida” na jurisprudência e na literatura científica brasileiras sobre a proteção do ambiente natural, este trabalho discute brevemente os problemas relacionados a esse fenômeno, no âmbito do direito e do campo multidisciplinar das políticas públicas de conservação, e busca oferecer elementos para sua superação. Com essa finalidade, ele apoia-se em uma revisão bibliográfica para discutir os conceitos de área protegida da Convenção sobre Diversidade Biológica (CDB) e da União Internacional para a Conservação da Natureza (UICN), buscando distingui-los quanto a seus conteúdos e potenciais usos. Demonstra-se que os conteúdos atribuídos a esses conceitos conheceram modificações sucessivas e que, embora atualmente ambos compreendam as unidades de conservação da Lei n. 9.985, de 18 de julho de 2000, eles apresentam interesses distintos. Enquanto o conceito de área protegida da CDB concerne a atividade jurisdicional e análises sobre o direito e as políticas públicas brasileiras relacionadas à CDB, o conceito de área protegida da UICN é um instrumento científico e, como tertium comparationis dos regimes jurídicos de áreas protegidas dos direitos nacionais, permite operacionalizar pesquisas que buscam conhece-los por meio do método funcional do direito comparado.
... Since the first formal protected area in 1864, the number of protected landscapes and seascapes has grown dramatically to accomplish more and more complex objectives (Watson, Dudley, Segan, & Hockings, 2014). Beginning with the mission to protect spectacular natural features and wildlife (Phillips, 2004), protected areas, especially in developing countries, are more recently expected to be not only the solution for local socioeconomic development (Ferraro & Hanauer, 2011;Naughton-Treves, Holland, & Brandon, 2005) but also the supplier of ecosystem services (Lubchenco, Palumbi, Gaines, & Andelman, 2003;Postel & Thompson Jr, 2005;Soares-Filho et al., 2010). However, keeping the operation of protected areas management and biodiversity conservation activities is a financial burden for governments and organizations (Dharmaratne, Sang, & Walling, 2000;Emerton, Bishop, & Thomas, 2006;Thur, 2010). ...
Given the pros and cons of tourism on biodiversity, at least 12 of the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets are directly or indirectly related to tourism. Meanwhile, Target 19 aims to raise the generation, transfer, and application of knowledge on the topic of biodiversity. The objective of this study is, therefore, to evaluate the impact of Aichi Biodiversity Targets on the interdisciplinary research output, quality, and collaboration at the national scale regarding biodiversity and tourism. The Hamiltonian MCMC technique, incorporating the bibliometric analysis, was performed on 1,003 documents extracted from the Web of Science database. The current investigation revealed two prominent findings. First, the Aichi Biodiversity Targets induced positive effects on scientific productivity, quality, and international collaboration at the national level. Still, more than half of the countries on Earth (55.02%) had not acquired any interdisciplinary publication on the topic of biodiversity and tourism.Moreover, international collaboration was found to be an effective measure to improve scientific quality and quantity in both periods before and after the Aichi Targets. Nevertheless, whereas the effect of international collaboration on scientific output was similar between the two periods, its impact on scientific quality during 2011-2020 was lower than during 1991-2010. Thus, we argue that international cooperation cannot be used as a "silver bullet" strategy for advancing knowledge in the interdisciplinary field between biodiversity and tourism due to the trilemma between quantity, quality, and cost. Eventually, we recommend policymakers, funding evaluators, and researchers to put culture into perspective for lessening the cost of interdisciplinary research.
... Since the first formal protected area in 1864, the number of protected landscapes and seascapes has grown dramatically to accomplish more and more complex objectives (Watson et al. 2014). Beginning with the mission to protect spectacular natural features and wildlife (Phillips 2004), protected areas, especially in developing countries, are more recently expected to be not only the solution for local socio-economic development (Naughton-Treves et al. 2005;Ferraro and Hanauer 2011) but also the supplier of ecosystem services (Lubchenco et al. 2003;Postel and Thompson 2005;Soares-Filho et al. 2010). Acknowledging the critical roles of protected areas for biodiversity conservation and related issues, expanding the coverage of protected areas to 10% of coastal and marine areas and 17% of terrestrial and inland water areas is considered Target 11. ...
Given the pros and cons of tourism on biodiversity, at least 12 of the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets are directly or indirectly related to tourism. Meanwhile, Target 19 aims to raise the generation, transfer, and application of knowledge on the topic of biodiversity. The objective of this study is, therefore, to evaluate the impact of Aichi Biodiversity Targets on the interdisciplinary research output, quality, and collaboration at the national scale regarding biodiversity and tourism. The Hamiltonian MCMC technique, incorporating the bibliometric analysis, was performed on 1,003 documents extracted from the Web of Science database. The current investigation revealed two prominent findings. First, the Aichi Biodiversity Targets induced positive effects on scientific productivity, quality, and international collaboration at the national level. Still, more than half of the countries on Earth (55.02%) had not acquired any interdisciplinary publication on the topic of biodiversity and tourism. Moreover, international collaboration was found to be an effective measure to improve scientific quality and quantity in both periods before and after the Aichi Targets. Nevertheless, whereas the effect of international collaboration on scientific output was similar between the two periods, its impact on scientific quality during 2011-2020 was lower than during 1991-2010. Thus, we argue that international cooperation cannot be used as a "silver bullet" strategy for advancing knowledge in the interdisciplinary field between biodiversity and tourism due to the trilemma between quantity, quality, and cost. Eventually, we recommend policymakers, funding evaluators, and researchers to put culture into perspective for lessening the cost of interdisciplinary research.
Waterfowl use a diversity of resources (e.g., food, structure, sanctuary) to meet energetic, social, and other life‐history demands during the non‐breeding period. Waterfowl often seek areas with limited human disturbance (i.e., sanctuary) during autumn and winter when hunting seasons are open perhaps to reduce exposure to mortality risks, minimize energy expenditure, and increase foraging efficiency, all of which should enhance survival and subsequent fitness. Prior studies of sanctuary use by waterfowl have mostly focused on patterns of abundance and behavior, with many documenting differential diel movements of marked birds in and around sanctuaries. Although reduced mortality risk is likely associated with sanctuary use, much less is known about the potential effects on energy expenditure, body condition, reproductive consequences at the individual level, and seasonal distribution with respect to viewing and harvest potential. We consider these aforementioned factors among the most significant gaps in our understanding of the function of sanctuary in waterfowl management. As waterfowl hunter recruitment, retention, and reactivation have become a major initiative of many natural resource agencies and a core principle of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, we discuss the potential role of sanctuary relative to these efforts. Herein, we review historical aspects of waterfowl sanctuary, introduce hypotheses about its potential role in habitat resource management and conservation planning during autumn and winter, discuss our knowledge of the effects of sanctuary on waterfowl, and share insights to inform decisions about the role of sanctuary in waterfowl management given currently available evidence and remaining uncertainties. Our review describes the existing evidence for the biological and social outcomes of sanctuary, draws some conclusions about the role of sanctuary in natural resource management given the available evidence, and outlines potential research opportunities to help us make informed decisions regarding sanctuary implementation for waterfowl.
This study addresses the management of a protected area (PA) within the context of Itupararanga’s Environmental Protection Area (Itupararanga’s EPA) in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. It evaluates whether municipal master plans (MMP) have contributed to maintaining vegetation cover in the PA by analyzing land use and land cover change (LULCC). Effective PA management necessitates coordination among various stakeholders, including local action groups and associations. However, municipal master plans are often discriminatory and top-down, which can lead to inefficient implementation. Since its establishment in 1986, Itupararanga’s EPA has undergone significant changes, notably forest loss in recent years, indicating a deficiency in proactive conservation policies. The MMPs mainly focus on guiding urban expansion and restricting land subdivisions in strategic areas of the EPA. They often favor agricultural expansion over environmental conservation. This study highlights the importance of integrated and participatory management in PA conservation, which should involve the coordination of different actors. In conclusion, further studies should identify existing conflicts between the MMPs and the management plan (MP) of Itupararanga’s EPA to facilitate integrated territorial management and monitoring.
Forest loss is a leading threat to global biodiversity. For many mountains worldwide, forest loss appears to occur disproportionately at lower elevations. This pattern—if confirmed—means widespread loss and scarcity of lower-elevation forest habitat, with profound biodiversity implications within and beyond these elevations. However, there remains no global assessment of this pattern based on robustly mapped forest loss, crucially by disentangling forest loss from the natural absence of forest. We fill this gap and demonstrate disproportionate forest loss at lower elevations for >65% of all 769 mountains in the world’s forested ecoregions that we assessed. We find a clear lack of lower-elevation forest—most of which remains unprotected—and associated warmer and drier climatic conditions, explainable by high human impacts and low precipitation at these elevations. Our findings call for targeted forest protection and restoration at lower elevations for mountains worldwide, including integrated mountain-scale conservation planning for entire elevational gradients.
"O universo é mais amplo que os nossos pontos de vista sobre ele" (Henry David Thoreau) Neste texto, apresento aspectos gerais sobre a história da criação de alguns dos primeiros parques nacionais da América, como os de Yellowstone (PNY) e Itatiaia (PNI). Trata-se de uma revisão bibliográfica que inclui noções sobre a origem das Áreas Protegidas, no con-texto internacional, até o desembarque desta ideia no Brasil, assinalando suas principais moti-vações e personagens. A partir desta leitura, também aponto situações que, no meu ponto de vista, poderiam ser mais investigadas no âmbito da História da Ciência. Questões Metodológicas Este trabalho é parte do processo avaliativo da disciplina História das Ciências no Brasil, da Faculdade de Educação da Universidade de São Paulo (FE/USP), ministrada pela Profa. Dra. Ermelinda Moutinho Pataca. O tema geral do trabalho (Unidades de Conservação) se relaciona ao meu projeto de tese, que se desenvolverá em escolas do entorno do Parque Nacional Montanhas do Tumucumaque (PNMT), localizado predominantemente no Amapá (Brasil).
Traditional ways of protection and conservation of wildlife, forests and all the natural resources have been suppressed by colonialism, industrialization and a new knowledge system resulting in the biodiversity loss. Then came the new concept of "protected areas" for the conservation and protection of wildlife after the establishment of first National Park, Yellowstone, US in 1872. Even then the threats to wildlife remained or rather increased in a newer form of poaching, habitat disturbances, etc. The model of human-exclusivity (National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Reserved Forest) is being met with several challenges, favouring the creation of more human-inclusive protected areas that were traditionally present (before establishment of first National Park in 1872) and are now left in a few places like in the State of Meghalaya, due to the provisions of the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. Meghalaya has both, traditional and contemporary methods of forest management and wildlife conservation and protection. This study clearly indicates that human-inclusive methods (that is traditional forest management) of wildlife and nature conservation need to be maintained and incorporated along with the contemporary methods of wildlife conservation.
Predicting future conservation needs can help inform conservation management but is subject to uncertainty. We measured deforestation rates during 2015–2017 for 114 protected areas in Madagascar, linked deforestation to the status of protection according to IUCN categories I–VI, used recent deforestation rates to extrapolate forest cover over 2017–2050 and linked the size of forest blocks to the projected persistence of lemur subpopulations. In the six IUCN categories for protected areas in Madagascar the median size of forest blocks is 9–37 km2 and median annual deforestation rates range from 0.02% in the single IUCN category III site to 0.19% in category II and 1.95% in category VI sites. In 2017, 40% of all forest blocks within protected areas were < 10 km2, and this is projected to increase to 45% in 2050. Apart from these small forest fragments, the modal site of forest blocks was 160–320 km2 in 2017, and this is projected to decrease to 80–160 km2 in 2050. The range of > 50% of all lemur species exclusively contains forest blocks of < 10 km2. The modal size of forest blocks > 10 km2 is predicted to remain at 120 km2 until 2050. Although uncertainty remains, these analyses provide hope that forest blocks within the protected areas of Madagascar will remain large enough to maintain lemur subpopulations for most species until 2050. This should allow sufficient time for the implementation of effective conservation measures.
In 1995, the Second International Biosphere Reserve Congress in Seville resulted in a set of new regulations that spurred a significant paradigm shift in the UNESCO Man and Bio-sphere (MAB) Programme, reconceptualizing the research programme as a modern instrument for the dual mandate of nature conservation and sustainable development. But almost 20 years later, a large proportion of biosphere reserves designated before 1996 still did not comply with the new regulations. In 2013, the International Coordination Council of the MAB Programme announced the ‘Exit Strategy’ to assess, monitor and improve the quality of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. However, the strategy also meant that 266 biosphere reserves in 76 member states were faced with the possibility of exclusion from the world network.
This study presents a global assessment of the challenges that result from the Exit Strategy and the Process of Excellence and Enhancement that follows. Specifically, it investigates the differences in quality management strategies and the periodic review processes of various biosphere reserves, the effects of those quality management strategies on the MAB Programme and on the 76 directly affected member states, and the interlinkages between the MAB Programme and other UNESCO designations for nature conservation: the natural World Heritage Sites and the Global Geoparks.
Semi-structured expert interviews were conducted with 31 participants in 21 different countries, representing all UN regions. To showcase the diversity of the World Network of Bio-sphere Reserves, 20 country-specific case studies are presented, highlighting the challenges of implementing the biosphere reserve concept and, more specifically, the periodic review process. Information gleaned from the experts was transcribed and evaluated using a qualitative content analysis method.
The results of this study demonstrate major differences worldwide in the implementation biosphere reserves, especially in the case of the national affiliation of the MAB Programme, the legal recognition of biosphere reserves in national legislation, the usage of the term ‘bio-sphere reserve’ and the governance structures of the biosphere reserves. Of those represented by the case studies, the four countries with the highest number of voluntary biosphere reserves withdrawals after 2013, Australia, Austria, Bulgaria and the United States of America, show that the Exit Strategy contributed to the streamlining and quality enhancement of the world network. The biosphere reserves in those countries were strictly nature conservation areas without human settlements and were designated as such in the 1970s and 1980s. Only post-Seville biosphere reserves remain in those countries. Some experts have pointed out that there appears to be competition for political attention and funding between the three UNESCO labels for nature conservation. While a combination of the designation of biosphere reserves and World Heritage Sites in one place is favoured by experts, Global Geoparks and Biosphere Reserves are seen as being in competition with each other.
This study concludes that quality enhancement strategies were fundamental to improving the credibility and coherence of the MAB Programme. Most pre-Seville biosphere reserves were adapted or the member states were encouraged to withdraw them voluntarily. Challenges in implementing the Exit Strategy were not unique to individual countries but applied equally to all member states with pre-Seville sites. Over the course of the quality enhancement process, many UNESCO member states have become more involved with the MAB Programme, which has led to rejuvenation of the national biosphere reserves network in many countries.
Causal factors provide a tool for simplifying the complexity of wetland conservation. Wetland conservation is part of a global challenge. The world’s “safety net” is a network of protected natural areas connected by natural corridors. The large-scale, long-term challenge for wetland managers is to protect and restore wetlands as a part of this global network.KeywordsCausal factorsSimplificationMultiple working hypothesesPrioritiesGlobal contextProtected areasGlobal networkNational parksNature reservesConservationRestoration
A repository of spatial and non-spatial data in digital format on the protected areas of the J&K has been prepared. The GIS database shall help in development of Decision Support Systems to assist in formulation of conservation and management plans for management of national parks, sanctuaries and wetland reserves. The Atlas is going to lay foundation for utilization of near real time information for evolving effective wildlife conservation strategies. Now the basic geospatial database is created, the department shall have facilities for managing spatial databases relating to wildlife, initiating special studies on the habitat of individual species besides, developing Spatial Decision Support Systems for evolving judicious management action plans. The proposed GIS database
shall help in assessing the following:-
• Wild animal population and its distribution.
• Habitat use and preferences
• Progress of conservation activities
• Status of biodiversity
• Monitoring and updating data on the man-animal conflict situation.
• Delineation of corridors of different species in the area.
• Monitoring the anthropogenic pressures, etc.
Contribuição para formação do Instituto Israelita de Ensino e Pesquisa Albert Einstein, para o “Curso Introdutório de Natureza e Saúde; Módulo Áreas Naturais” (Academia Digital Einstein), em processo de preparação. Liderado por Eliseth Leão.
We offer an ethnographic account of how forest conservation is diversely assembled at the contiguous Tambopata National Reserve and Bahuaja Sonene National Park, biodiversity hotspots in the southern Peruvian Amazon. In so doing, and revising Elinor Ostrom and collaborators' Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) Framework, we put together a theory framework of forest institutional change, informed by assemblage perspectives. Given the context of high world society interest in the Amazon and low spatial reach of the Peruvian state, charismatic wildlife watching and scientific investigation, Brazil nuts harvest, and gold mining shape the customizing of conservation assemblages. Institutional change is the result of how Peruvian State and diverse local groups adapt, resist and reconfigure through the ongoing practices of assemblage, which are pulled by conservation and commodification forces. Responding to the IAD framework, we propose institutional diversity fundamentally means that practices of assemblage are neither uniform, nor static.
p>Protected Area (PA) managers and policy makers need to determine and demonstrate the effectiveness of PA management and keep track of the conservation status in ways that are practical, scientifically sound and comparable among PAs in various terrestrial and aquatic environments. As most existing methods for measuring the managerial efficiency of PAs are restricted to specific elements of the management or a limited number of detailed environmental aspects, often without the participation of practitioners, we aim for a generally applicable method developed in close cooperation with PA managers; the Protection Level Index (PLI). PLI includes ecological, socio-economic, as well as managerial factors, and consists of twelve variables that together describe the state of a PA. Seven of those are derived from interviews with PA managers, and five of them are derived from GIS analyses. Data were obtained during face-to-face interviews with PA managers using a fixed protocol, thereby introducing a new way of incorporating the perception of the PA managers. PLI was tested in seven different PAs across Europe. The lowest final PLI score was for the Island Network of Protected Areas in La Palma and the highest final PLI score was for the Kalkalpen National Park. PLI is wider applicable than other related methods and more cost-effective. Therefore PLI can be used on a yearly basis to keep track of the progress of management activities and conservation status within and among (networks of) PAs.</p
The Himalayas are among the world’s most popular mountaineering destinations for tourism. Millions of hikers, trekkers and climbers visit them. Sensitive to outside influences, the Himalayan environment of high mountain areas, until recently cut off from civilization, has been abruptly exposed to it. The Indian Himalayan region welcomes over 50 million tourists annually. Becoming a popular visitor destination, more and more protected areas (PAs) in the Himalayas have been opened to tourism. About 70% of the Himalayan mountain system is located within India. The Indian share of the range (396,405 km2) contains 34,766 km2 of PAs that account for 8.8 % of the landmass. There is ongoing effort to preserve areas characterised by rare flora and fauna, where nature protection is on a par with commercial goals, that is tourism. The chapter outlines the state of the natural environment within PAs and the trends in the changes, implications on nature-based tourism (NBT) in the Indian Himalayan PAs and its challenges. The authors also discuss the impact of tourism on local communities, and possible solutions to strengthen NBT management in mountainous PAs.
La connectivité écologique est le mouvement sans entrave des espèces et le flux des processus naturels qui soutiennent la vie sur Terre. Il est impérieux que les pays du monde entier s’orientent vers une approche globale et cohérente de la conservation de la connectivité écologique, et qu’ils entreprennent de mesurer et de contrôler l’efficacité des efforts déployés en ce sens pour ainsi établir des réseaux écologiques fonctionnels. Pour favoriser l’atteinte de ces objectifs, les présentes lignes directrices présentent les corridors écologiques comme des moyens de recenser, de préserver, d’améliorer et de restaurer la connectivité; synthétisant un volume important de données scientifiques connexes; et formulent des recommandations concernant les moyens d’officialiser les corridors et les réseaux écologiques.
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