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Introduction
Swimming, like other competitive sports, involves the need to
increase athletes’ power (work/time), in order to optimize the
transfer of their training into their performance. With elite
athletes at the highest levels, specific power training — which
enhances maximal power in dynamic, multi-joint movements at
the right load and velocity — is suited to the demands of the
individual’s sports (Cormie et al., 2010).
Maximal power is the crucial point between optimal load at high
velocity. Swimmers have to generate the maximal power when
starting from the block, during turns, and during the strokes
themselves when applying force against a fluctuant element.
Swimming is a highly specific sport and the reproduction of
complex swimming movements is commonly applied in
"swimming-like" strength training (SLT), although there are still
some limits to this on land(Schleihauf Jr., 1983). To our
knowledge, the biomechanical, physiological and technical
aspects of this have already been well investigated; however, the
effects of neuromuscular power training (NPT) on elite athletes
are still unclear.
The effects of combined dry-land strength training and aerobic
swimming training are already known (Leveritt, 2000; Garrido,
2010), and the effect of tethered swimming force (Aspenes,
2009) has also been ascertained. Nevertheless, other studies
(Tanaka et al., 1993) were not able to detect any enhancement of
performance following a dry-land strength-training period that
included both strength and aerobic training.
Therefore the purpose of this study is to examine the
contribution of NPT compared with that of SLT, and to determine
whether the relationship between dry-land improvements with
the force applied to the water is related to the training effect.
Material and Methods
Participants
Twenty-six elite swimmers (20 boys and six girls; aged: 20±2
years; FINA points: 705±225) participated in this study. There
were no significant differences within the group in terms of age
and swimming, strength and power performance at the
beginning of the protocol, when the subjects were divided into
two groups (p>0.05). All subjects had regularly participated in
various forms of strength training prior to this experiment.
The study was carried out following the periodization of the
swimming season, with the aim of verifying the physiological
modifications induced by NPT in swimmers at an international
level.
The participants maintained their regular swimming training,
along with 10 weekly workouts.
Test procedures
The swimmers’ power and tethered max force performances
were tested twice: (i) before the training protocol (T0), and (ii)
after 12 weeks of combined dry-land and swimming training (T1).
Both the experimental and control groups were evaluated at the
same time. The evaluations, including a complete physiological
assessment, were conducted over three days. Subjects were
familiarized with all of the test procedures four weeks before the
measurements were applied (McCurdy, 2004).
On dry land, both groups underwent incremental tests in three
different exercises based on positive work/phase (Padulo et al.,
2013): bench press (BP), pull-up bar (PU), and squat (SQ). The
athletes’ maximum power (MP) was assessed with a linear
encoder (MUSCLELAB, Porsgrunn, Norway). The individual MP for
each participant was assessed and the result adopted for the NPT
group’s training session.
In the swimming pool, both groups underwent a test protocol
consisting of three tethered trials (max 15s for each trial), in
which the maximal force in the water (MFW) was registered, and
the mean value of the three tests was used as the final test score.
The subjects were connected to a load cell with peak-hold display
(AEP, Modena, Italy), using a rubber tube to smoothen the
measured force during the stroke.
Training procedures
The training programme for the NPT consisted of three phases:
1) Warm up — <10 min, <60% heart rate reserve (HRR);
2) Active phase — 45 min, based on three series of each exercise,
with 3’ passive recovery in-between, repeated three times . The
weights were fixed at the maximal power (MP) reached and the
repetitions were stopped (checked with encoder)when the
speed decreased by more than 15% of the maximal speed
(Padulo et al., 2012);
3) Cool down — <10 min, <60% HRR.
The training programme for the SLT also consisted of three
phases:
1) Warm up — <10 min, <60% HRR;
2) Active phase — 45 min, based on “swimming-like” strength
exercises with ropes, elastic bands and light resistance, in keeping
with the previous season's training
3) Cool down — <10-min, <60% HRR.
The training programmes for both groups were conducted by
fitness professionals with degrees in Sports and Physical
Education, and continuously monitored by a supervisor
responsible for the activity level. The individual MP for each
participant was checked weekly with a specific power device
(PUSH, Toronto, Canada) and modified when necessary, in order
to maintain the MP throughout the protocol.
The swimming training for both groups consisted of 1200
swimming training units (10 sessions per week). They performed
20% at an intensity corresponding to their critical speed and 20%
at an intensity corresponding to their aerobic power. The
remaining training comprised low aerobic tasks (~30% of whole
volume), and technical (~5%) and velocity training (~15%).
Results
A two-way ANOVA with repeated measures showed no significant
effects of the maximal force in the water (MFW) on the training
interaction × type; significant effects were shown only on × time
(F
1.24
=25.151, with p<0.0001,
2
= 0.51). In the same way, for SQ
power, no significant effects were shown on the training
interaction × type (F
1.24
=1.683, with p=0.270,
2
=0.06), but only
on × time (F
1.24
=5,619.746, with p<0.005,
2
=0.286). In contrast,
the PU power results were shown to have significant effects on
the training interaction × type (F
1.24
=4.644, with p=0.041,
2
=0.163) and × time (F
1.24
=4.533, with p=0.044,
2
=0.159).
Finally, the ANOVA for BP power showed no significant effects on
either the training interaction × type (F
1.24
=0.162, with p=0.961,
2
=0.007) or × time (F
1.24
=0.909, with p=0.350,
2
=0.036). When
we analysed the effects of the specific training protocols, we
found large improvements (Figure 1) in the NPT group for MFW
(4.43%, p<0.001), PU power (3%, p=159), SQ power (13.8%,
p<0.001) and BP power (11.8%, p<0.001). Meanwhile, in the SLT
group, small improvements were found for MFW (0.78%,
p=0.212), PU power (13.6%, p=0.010), SQ power (1.6%, p=0.69)
and BP power (8.56%, p<0.01).
Discussion and Conclusion
This investigation showed that 12 training weeks were enough to
stimulate the muscle strength in both groups. The literature has
shown that it is possible for maximal power to improve in some
individuals and not in others (Cormie et al., 2011), depending on
specific experiences and/or competitive athletes (Newton et al.,
1999). Therefore, it is crucial to consider every individual's macro-
cycle, on the basis of the specific neuromuscular characteristics
of each individual athlete (Newton et al., 1994).
Although high statistical significance was not achieved, certain
training responses that have practical applications for elite
swimmers are evident. In particular, the best results seem to have
been attained in the NPT group for squat and bench press
exercises. As demonstrated in previous studies (Behn & Sale,
1993; Padulo et al., 2012), this effect could be related to the
velocity-specific response, in which high speed is required during
the positive phase (push or pull) without overcoming the fatigue
threshold (i.e., the target speed required) ), as shown in the
findings relating to the neuromuscular training. Even if the effects
on the elite athletes’ performances were very limited, a
correlation between the peak performance and the peak results
in tethered swimming was demonstrated (Gullstrand & Holmer,
1983). Our study also found a trend in the MFW in the NPT
group. In any case, the effects of neuromuscular training on
swimming performances — as well as its precise effects during
the stroke-cycle, and on increasing the distance of a stroke
(Tanaka, 1993) in competitive swimmers — needs further
research.
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The Effects of 12 weeks
of Neuromuscular
Power Training on
Elite Swimmers
Gian Mario Migliaccio
1,3
, Marco Cosso
1,4
, Alberto Bazzu
1,4
, Artem Skryabin
4
, Marco Del Bianco
5
,
Johnny Padulo
2,6
1
Sport Science Lab, London (UK) -
2
eCampus University, Novedrate (Italy),
3
CONI Italian National Olympic Committee, Sardinia (Italy) ,
4
Energy Standard Int. Swimming Club, Kiev (Ukraine),
5
University of Pavia, Pavia (Italy),
6
Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split (Croatia).
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Paris, 26/27 November 2015
