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The Handbook of Social Psychology
... We found that participants were less likely to skip commercials for products they had shown an interest in during the pretest, compared to commercials for products they had not shown an interest in (at least, for low-involvement products). Finally, to make sure that the two phases did not interfere with each other, we asked participants a staged series of debriefing questions, designed to elicit any successful hypothesis-guessing that would invalidate a participant's results (Aronson, Wilson, & Brewer, 1998). Fortunately, none of our participants guessed that the two "experiments" were related to each other. ...
... This choice gives the participant control over their own assignment, to either the treatment (interacted) or control (didn't interact) conditions. When participants choose their own assignment, the experiment no longer features random assignment and it can no longer be argued that the treatment and control groups were definitely equal prior to assignment (Aronson et al., 1998). The reasons for interacting or not interacting, whatever they are, provide many APEs for the apparent effects of interacting versus not interacting. ...
... One solution to this problem is to provide "choices" that no participant refuses (Aronson et al., 1998), but this can produce a very unnatural experience. A better solution to the problem of nonrandom assignment (e.g., to interaction vs. non-interaction) is to use econometric regression techniques or sample-matching procedures (Bellman & Varan, 2012;West et al., 2014). ...
Well-designed experiments provide the best possible data for showing that one variable causes another variable. Causative explanations are the building blocks of theory in communication research and science generally. Experimental design is what researchers do before carrying out an experiment. This entry describes the differences between the two basic kinds of experimental design, between-groups designs and within-participants designs. It provides guidelines for choosing between these two types of designs, or for using both in a mixed design. To make a strong case for causation, a well-designed experiment has to rule out alternative plausible explanations for the experiment's results that threaten its internal or external validity. Finally, this entry discusses how new methods allow communication researchers to carry out experiments with high levels of control outside the unnatural environment of a lab. These discussions are illustrated with examples of real-life experiments conducted in a busy media research lab.
... Participants were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions in a 2 (distance manipulation: close versus distant consequences) x 2 (distance accentuation: accentuation versus no accentuation) between-participants design (see the randomization check in Supplement 2.1). This experimental setup follows the standard methodological practices in social psychology, aimed at establishing causal relationships by manipulating independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables under controlled conditions (see Aronson et al 1998). First, participants read a scientific report that presented either spatially and temporally proximal or distal consequences of climate change 5 . ...
Proximizing climate change’ is a widely used strategy for promoting public engagement in environmental communication. However, experimental manipulations of psychological distance often fail to substantially reduce the perceived distance of climate change, and, do not systematically affect responses to this issue. In this study, we test the effectiveness of a new proximizing method that combines two strategies on a sample of French students (N = 349). First, we communicated about the immediate (vs. distant) consequences of climate change. Then, participants were asked to relate these consequences to their own direct experiences to accentuate the level of distance induced (versus a no-accentuation condition). We found that presenting proximal events reduces the perceived distance of climate change, but only when proximity is accentuated. This combined method also leads to greater risk perception, stronger emotional response, and increased engagement in mitigation, as it influences the perceived distance. Our results suggest that proximizing climate change is a valuable communication strategy in environmental campaigns when psychological closeness to climate change is made relevant to individuals’ personal experience.
... Mas a realidade pode vir a ser bem diferente. E como a mudança de atitudes é um processo, no mínimo, moroso (Aronson, 1985;Fischer, 2001;Moscovici, 1985Moscovici, , 1991Petty e Cacioppo, 1996, Rodrigues, 1981 Pela sua veracidade e lucidez, quase seríamos levados a não tecer qualquer comentário às palavras proferidas por este pai, pois elas põem por si próprias, como é habitual dizer-se, "o dedo na ferida", apontando alguns dos pressupostos mais fundamentais de uma educação inclusiva. Porque elas se revestem de tanta importância para compreendermos até que ponto a efectivação de uma educação inclusiva pode ser uma realidade em cada uma das nossas escolas, diremos apenas que, de facto, a solução para ultrapassarmos algumas barreiras da inclusão não está fora do nosso alcance (Ainscow, 1997(Ainscow, , 1998(Ainscow, , 1999(Ainscow, , 2000César, in press;Costa, , 1999Freire, César e Melro, in press;Hopkins, West e Ainscow, 1996;Marchesi, 2001;Rodrigues, 2000;. ...
https://repositorio.ul.pt/handle/10451/3574
... The scenario in our stimuli is highly relevant and common for Ph.D. students in R1 universities. Thus, following the realism principle of experiment design (Aronson et al. 1998), we selected participants from R1 schools in Study 2. 2 We report the results of mediation analysis following the approach outlined by Hayes and Preacher (2014) and Hayes (2017) for mediation analysis with multicategorical independent variables, which we did not preregister. Our preregistration included mediation analysis comparing the high-and low-power conditions yet excluding the observations in the middle power and control conditions. ...
The popular maxim holds that power corrupts, and research to date supports the view that power increases self-interested unethical behavior. However, we predict the opposite effect when unethical behavior, specifically lying, helps an individual self-promote: lower rather than higher power increases self-promotional lying. Drawing from compensatory consumption theory, we propose that this effect occurs because lower power people feel less esteemed in their organizations than do higher power people. To compensate for this need to view themselves as esteemed members of their organizations, lower power individuals are more likely to inflate their accomplishments. Evidence from four studies supports our predictions: compared with those with higher power, executives with lower power in their organizations were more likely to lie about their work achievements (Study 1, n = 230); graduate students with lower power in their Ph.D. studies were more likely to lie about their publication records (Study 2, n = 164); and employees with lower power were more likely to lie about having signed a business contract (Studies 3 and 4). Mediation analyses suggest that lower power increased lying because lower power individuals feel lower esteem in their organizations (Study 3, n = 562). Further supporting this mechanism, a self-affirmation intervention reduced the effect of lower power on self-promotional lying (Study 4, n = 536). These converging findings show that, when lies are self-promotional, lower power can be more corruptive than higher power.
... However, as in any experimental design, a fundamental question refers to the amount of experimental and mundane realism implemented in the vignettes. Although both contribute to the external validity of the experimental results, experimental realism refers to the extent to which participants experience the experimental situation as intended, and mundane realism to the extent to which the experimental situation mimics a real-world setting (Aronson et al. 1998). A less mundane, that is, more hypothetical, experimental scenario reduces the impact of prior beliefs and expectations that participants associated with the given scenario (see, e.g., McDonald 2020). ...
Although digital interfaces are increasingly pervading public administration, little is known about how replacing face‐to‐face interaction with digital interfaces affects citizens’ satisfaction with public service encounters. This study presents evidence from a vignette experiment conducted on a sample of German citizens (N=1.234) whereby we randomly varied the type of public‐service request with regard to its psychological costs, service quality, and the type of interaction (face‐to‐face, self‐service terminal, or app). We found that replacing face‐to‐face communication with a digital interface has no effect on citizens’ satisfaction, nor does it mitigate the effect of psychological costs, service failure, and recovery. Corroborating previous research on service recovery, we find that explaining and apologizing partially compensates for failure. Based on these results, we conclude that using digital interfaces does not undermine the goal to enhance citizen satisfaction with public services.
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... First, the participants in all of our experiments know that they are reading about hypothetical scenarios. It is possible that this reduces the psychological realism of the study [23,24], causing participants' responses to be characteristically different than they would be upon reading about an actual event. The literature provides a mixed view of how well responses to hypothetical scenarios map onto those made in real life situations [25,26,27,28]. ...
When an automated car harms someone, who is blamed by those who hear about it? Here we asked human participants to consider hypothetical cases in which a pedestrian was killed by a car operated under shared control of a primary and a secondary driver and to indicate how blame should be allocated. We find that when only one driver makes an error, that driver is blamed more regardless of whether that driver is a machine or a human. However, when both drivers make errors in cases of human–machine shared-control vehicles, the blame attributed to the machine is reduced. This finding portends a public under-reaction to the malfunctioning artificial intelligence components of automated cars and therefore has a direct policy implication: allowing the de facto standards for shared-control vehicles to be established in courts by the jury system could fail to properly regulate the safety of those vehicles; instead, a top-down scheme (through federal laws) may be called for.
... However, the subjects' dropout after this period meant an inadequate sample size to statistically observe the training's impact over time. Additionally, given that we used a quasi-experimental design, we cannot rule out effects of self-selection bias (Aronson, Wilson, and Brewer 1998), although we made all efforts to minimize them by using a control group and checking for groups' equivalence in terms of demographic characteristics (Shadish et al. 2002). ...
We analyze the effects of the program Cognitive Entrepreneurial Training in Opportunity Recognition on the accurate assessment of prototypical viability of business opportunities. The training integrates the principles of experiential learning and is designed to reach students across campus. We also investigate the moderating role of entrepreneurial passion on opportunity recognition learning. We use a quasi-experimental design with pre-test, post-test in two European universities. The results demonstrate that the training has positive significant effects on the accurate identification of business opportunities' prototypical viability. Intense positive feelings about entrepreneurship moderate the learning process. We provide insights into entrepreneurship education practice across campus.
... Research using data on outdoor recreationists' stated behavioral responses lacks what social psychologists refer to as mundane realism. Simply put, there is little agreement between how an individual perceives a particular hypothetical scenario described in a survey and how (or even if) they will experience that scenario in their everyday lives (Aronson, Wilson, & Brewer, 1998). Consequently, there is the possibility that individuals' stated behavioral responses to a fee/non-fee scenario will be the product of a different set of decision-making factors (such as social desirability) when that scenario is asked about in a survey relative to when that scenario is actually experienced in the individual's daily life. ...
The arguments for, or against, the use of user fees at outdoor recreation settings are often based upon philosophical, moral, and ethical grounds. Empirically-grounded research on the debate has been sparse. In this study, we report on a unique natural experiment comparing the incomes of individuals visiting very similar outdoor recreation settings which differ only in their requirement of a marginal user fee. Our comparison of the incomes of outdoor recreationists using the settings requiring a fee versus those that do not suggest user fees do play an important role in how low-income individuals choose outdoor recreation settings. Low-income outdoor recreationists tended to choose non-fee settings when they are available and if they support similar activities and opportunities as settings which require a fee. Low-income outdoor recreationists’ aversion of settings which require a fee is not a product of their inability to pay the fee, but rather a product of their unwillingness to pay the fee. Low-income outdoor recreationists reported traveling over three times as far to reach non-fee settings relative to comparable settings which require a fee. If user fees are being considered as a visitor management tool, land-use and outdoor recreation planners should not only expect a shift in the socioeconomic composition of visitors to the areas where the fee will be enforced, they should also anticipate displacement and increased use at nearby non-fee settings. Recreation managers should avoid requiring fees at all outdoor recreation settings within an area to ensure displacement does not become exclusion.
... Furthermore, we hypothesized that the outcome of this mindless influence process would depend on the valence of the presented heuristic. Corroborating previous research (Fennis et al., 2009;Janssen et al., 2008), when there was no heuristic present in the influence context, depleted participants did not differ from nondepleted participants in the amount of compliance,were not actually persuaded into a course of action, but were only asked to imagine that they were, which may have been too subtle a manipulation to evince the effect (cf.Aronson, Wilson, & Brewer, 1998). To address this concern and to provide a stronger test of our proposed process of mindlessIntention to donate as a function of self‐control depletion and type of heuristic resistance, we performed a second experiment in which we replaced the imaginary scenario with an actual confrontation with a persuasion attempt. ...
In our consumer society, people are confronted on a daily basis with unsolicited persuasion attempts. The present research challenges the prevailing view that resisting persuasion is more likely to fail when consumers have low self-control. Four experiments tested the hypothesis that impaired self-regulation may actually facilitate resistance to persuasion when the influence context contains resistance-promoting heuristics. Indeed, participants with low self-control were less likely to comply with a persuasive request (Experiments 1 and 3), reported a less favourable attitude towards an advertised product (Experiment 2), and generated more negative responses towards a persuasive message (Experiment 4) than participants with high self-control, when they could rely on resistance-promoting heuristics: a violation of the norm of reciprocity (Experiments 1 and 3), an advertisement disclaimer (Experiment 2), or negative social proof (Experiment 4). Together, these studies demonstrate that contextual cues can bolster resistance when one does not carefully scrutinize an influence attempt.
Chercheurs et praticiens sont aujourd’hui quasiment unanimes pour reconnaître qu’une publicité est efficace si elle conduit l’individu à évaluer favorablement la marque, objet de la communication. A la lumière des recherches en psychosociologie sur la notion de force d’une attitude, il apparaît cependant que la seule prise en compte de la composante évaluative peut ne refléter que partiellement le construit d’attitude dans un contexte publicitaire. Parmi les dimensions non évaluatives les plus fréquemment étudiées, l’on trouve la notion de confiance dans l’attitude (Howard, 1989). Cependant, cette notion et celle plus générale de confiance en soi n’ont que trop rarement fait l’objet de travaux en communication persuasive. Cette recherche doctorale a donc pour objectifs de clarifier la notion de confiance, fondée non seulement sur la littérature mais aussi sur l’expérimentation, et de comprendre le rôle de la confiance en soi au sein des processus de formation de l’attitude envers la marque (Ab) résultant de l’exposition publicitaire. La méthodologie mise en oeuvre s’appuie d’une part, sur un protocole expérimental similaire à certains systèmes utilisés par les sociétés d’études pour la collecte de données (pré-test publicitaire incluant un programme TV préalablement à la diffusion de 4 annonces pour des marques inconnues en France) et d’autre part, sur les modèles d’équations structurelles avec variables latentes et erreurs de mesure pour la vérification de la qualité des instruments de mesure et la validation des hypothèses de recherche. Les résultats de l’étude empirique montrent que la confiance de l’individu en lui-même à la fois dans sa composante générale (estime de soi) et de manière plus spécifique (confiance dans le traitement des informations et degré de certitude associé à quatre médiateurs intermédiaires d’efficacité) permet de rendre compte de la réalité de la communication persuasive. Plus précisément, la confiance en soi semble jouer un double rôle au sein du processus de persuasion : un rôle de variable intermédiaire entre l’implication publicitaire et le processus de formation de l’attitude envers la marque ainsi qu’un rôle modérateur des relations de causalité d’un modèle de formation de l’attitude envers la marque principalement fondé sur l’hypothèse de médiation duale de Lutz (1985).
This research analyzes how Asian American characters, Mindy Sheridan, Park Sheridan, and Josh Sheridan, in the novel Eleanor & Park view their identities as Asians. This research aims to understand how Asian American characters view their identities as Asians and what factors influence their views. The analysis of this research was conducted using the social psychology approach supported by Tajfel and Turner’s (2004) social identity theory and Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s (1998) minority identity development model. This research shows that Asian American characters’ views of their identity as Asian are influenced by the values believed by the dominant group in their social environment.
A water main break that contaminated the Boston area’s water distribution system prompted a four-day “boil water” order. To understand risk communication during this incident, 600 randomly sampled residents were mailed questionnaires, yielding 110 valid responses. This article describes how perceptions of different social stakeholders influenced whether respondents complied with the Protective Action Recommendation—PAR (i.e., drank boiled water), took alternative protective actions (i.e., drank bottled water or/and self-chlorinated water), or ignored the threat (i.e., continued to drink untreated tap water). Respondents perceived technical authorities (i.e., water utility, public health, and emergency management) to be higher on three social influence attributes (hazard expertise, trustworthiness, and protection responsibility) than public (i.e., news media, elected officials) and private (i.e., self/family, peers, and personal physicians) intermediate sources. Furthermore, respondents were most likely to comply with the PAR if they perceived authorities and public intermediates to be high on all three attributes and if they had larger households and lower income. Contrarily, they were more likely to take alternative actions if they were younger and had higher levels of income, risk perception, and emergency preparedness. These results underscore the need for technical authorities to develop credibility with their potential audiences before a crisis occurs.
Çalışmada, örgütsel analizdeki temel meselelerden biri olan merkezilik/adem-i merkezilik tartışmasının, kamu yönetiminin önemli bir işlevini oluşturan kamu alımları çerçevesindeki yansımalarına odaklanılmıştır. Bu bağlamda, bağımlı değişken olarak, Avrupa Birliği'ne (AB) üye, aday, potansiyel aday, eski aday ve eski üye olan ülkelerde görülen kamu alımları örgütlenme yapılarıyla bunları etkileyebileceği düşünülen bağımsız değişkenler olarak ulusal kültürel boyutlar, uluslararası şeffaflık/yolsuzluk algı endeksi, kişi başına ulusal gelir, nüfus, yüzölçümü, nüfus yoğunluğu ile iş yapma kolaylığı ve lojistik performans endeksleri analize tabi tutulmuştur. Bulgular, güç mesafesi ve hoşgörü-kısıtlama boyutlarıyla şeffaflık/yolsuzluk algısı, kişi başına ulusal gelir, nüfus ve lojistik performans unsurlarının ülkelerin kamu alım örgütlenme yapılarının biçimlenmesindeki etkilerini göstermektedir.
The tourism sector is one of the fastest-growing industries in the world and in Turkey. This growth brings along the issue of sustainability. At this point, sustainable tourism practices are important. Hotel businesses have an important place in the tourism sector. Today, when we look at the variety of services offered by hotel businesses, these services will meet almost all the needs of tourists. Applications in the process of providing these services make significant contributions to hotel businesses when evaluated within the scope of sustainable tourism. The concept of permaculture has become a notorious concept in recent years by bringing together different disciplines in the studies carried out in the name of sustainability and with a long-term and multi-benefit perspective. The Green Star application of the Ministry of Tourism is an application that encourages hotels to increase environmental awareness within the scope of sustainable tourism. In this study, the applicability of permaculture studies in a green star hotel in Manavgat Titreyengöl Region was investigated. Interview and observation techniques were used in the research. A semi-structured interview was conducted with the owner of the hotel and observations were conducted at various times. As a result, it has been shown that permaculture studies are very suitable for the nature of sustainable tourism, can be applied to this hotel with good planning and as a result, will make significant contributions to the business.
The tourism industry has economic, social, cultural, and environmental impacts on a local and global scale. These effects can be positive with good tourism planning and negative with unplanned tourism practices. In order to implement sustainable tourism activities, it is necessary to reduce the negative effects of tourism and to ensure that it becomes continuous with its positive effects. At this point, sustainability criteria come into play. Permaculture has a comprehensive perspective as it brings together different disciplines related to plants, animals, buildings, and infrastructure works and aims to create systems supporting natural life not only for villages but also for cities by using the smallest possible area. For this purpose, combining the characteristics of land and structures with the natural characteristics of plants and animals, it creates sustainable, ecologically healthy, and economically viable systems in the long term. Tourism applications that comply with these criteria will increase the positive effects of tourism. With this perspective, permaculture studies in both tourism enterprises and tourism centers will strengthen the concept of sustainable tourism. In this study, the conceptual analysis of sustainable tourism and permaculture emphasizes the common aspects and how they can contribute to each other.
O objetivo deste artigo é o de realizar um estudo sobre a percepção de militantes de um movimento social em defesa do rio Tapajós no atual cenário da Covid-19, usando como método a análise de conteúdo das representações sociais. Os movimentos sociais têm contribuído para uma construção psicossocial em seus integrantes, nos aspectos relacionados à pertença de uma coletividade das identidades que ali se reafirmam.
Eyewitnesses to multiple-culprit crimes are often asked to try to identify the culprits from different lineups during a police investigation. In two experiments (total N = 557), we show that disconfirming feedback after an identification attempt for one culprit can impair identification performance on a subsequent lineup for a different culprit. In each experiment, witnesses viewed a simulated, two-culprit crime, followed by two police lineups: A culprit-absent lineup for one culprit, and either a culprit-present or culprit-absent lineup for the second culprit. Following the first lineup, witnesses received disconfirming feedback or no feedback. For witnesses who correctly rejected the first lineup, disconfirming feedback impaired identification performance on the subsequent lineup. For witnesses who incorrectly chose someone from the first lineup, disconfirming feedback impaired subsequent performance when the feedback unambiguously implied poor ability to identify the culprit in the first identification test (Experiment 2) but not when it could have been interpreted as implying poor criterion setting (Experiment 1). Across both experiments, disconfirming feedback also reduced the difference in confidence between correct and incorrect identifications. These results add to evidence that postidentification feedback can affect subsequent identification performance by influencing witnesses’ beliefs about their ability to identify a culprit. Current policy recommendations state that postidentification feedback should be withheld from witnesses until confidence has been documented. These should be updated to recommend withholding feedback for longer if the witness may be asked to view additional lineups, and to ensure that lineup administrators are blind to the results of any previous lineups.
The technological revolution in the social sciences made available a set of research tools and data manipulation techniques that permit the study of complex social processes previously inaccessible or not amenable to our observational powers. One important set of tools took the generic title “experimental games,�? which were characterized by the interactive protagonists’ pursuit of relatively well-defined goals whose achievement is dependent on the behavior of others. James T. Tedeschi, Barry R. Schlenker, and Thomas V. Bonoma, in this work, explicate these highly structured interactions. The grand strategy of scientific inquiry is the development of explanatory systems for natural phenomena. The empirical tactics devised to manipulate, control, observe, and measure events or processes of interest often require as much ingenuity and imagination as theory development itself. Generally the situation is so structured that certain rules govern participant behavior. Within these constraints the social psychological processes of conflict, influence, power, bargaining, and coalition formation can be studied. Concerned with the more formal and technical aspects of games, the authors explain how they are used for purposes of developing and testing scientific theory. The emphasis throughout is on the development and empirical evaluation of a scientific theory of social influence and power in situations where the interests of the interacting parties are in conflict. Experimental games have provided many of the concepts and the preponderance of evidence that have helped to unravel many of the complexities of social behavior. In Conflict, Power, and Games, the authors build a bridge between technical and non-technical approaches in order to shed greater light on interpersonal relations.
The study of observational learning, or learning from others, is a cornerstone of the behavioral sciences, as it grounds the continuity, diversity, and innovation inherent to humanity’s cultural repertoire within the social learning capacities of individual humans. In contrast, collective learning, or learning with others, has been underappreciated in terms of its importance to human cognition, cohesion, and culture. We offer a theory of collective learning, wherein the cognitive capacity of collective attention indicates and represents common knowledge across group members, yielding mutually known representations, emotions, evaluations, and beliefs. By enhancing the comprehension of and cohesion with fellow group members, collective attention facilitates communication, remembering, and problem-solving in human groups. We also discuss the implications of collective learning theory for the development of collective identities, social norms, and strategic cooperation.
This chapter uses key concepts of the total survey error framework to study possible mode effects. It focuses on the effects of interviewer presence on item nonresponse, inconsistency of responses and measurement errors such as response sets, and how these issues and possible further mode effects affect the substantive results gained by the factorial survey experiment in a case study. The chapter begins with a brief illustration of the factorial survey method and continues with a discussion of typical modes, design issues, and their connection to mode effects. In the case study, two different survey modes are analyzed: a face‐to‐face interview where respondents filled in the factorial survey module themselves, but an interviewer was present for optional support, and a completely self‐administered mode (where respondents could choose between completing a mail and a web survey). The chapter concludes with a short summary and discussion of the practical implications.
This article addresses the question of appearance-based effects by looking at the U.S. House of Representatives election 2016. We broaden the focus beyond existing studies by offering a comprehensive and systematic analysis of the three traits attractiveness, competence, and likability while simultaneously taking into account confounding third variables and possible interactions. Corresponding to the comparative character of electoral competition in the districts, we developed a relative measure of the three traits which we apply in an online survey. This measure also takes into account the raters' latency times, that is, their clicking speed, as a weighting factor for their ambiguity in the ratings. With these data we test whether appearance matters for the electoral outcome. We find that attractiveness positively affects the vote share, whereas perceived likability and competence play no role. The study also tests to what extent the found appearance effects are conditioned by incumbency status, age, and gender of the contestants. Furthermore, it gives hints which aspects of their appearance candidates could change to perform better at the ballot box.
dialogisme de la validité dans l'ordre de l'interaction. A paraître dans Bulletin de Psychologie, 64(5), 4, 439-455. Dernière version avant publication Pour citer : Trognon, Alain. ; Batt, Martine. ; Marchetti, Elise. (2011). Le dialogisme de la validité dans l'ordre de l'interaction. Bulletin de Psychologie, 64(5), 4, 439-455. Résumé Les résultats des travaux consacrés depuis 1920 aux groupes de résolution de problèmes convergent sur l'idée que ce genre de groupe constitue un dispositif naturel d'accomplissement d'une rationalité collective, idée que la psychologie sociale du développement cognitif a établi de son propre côté et que la logique a formellement fondée. Examinant alors les propriétés identifiées dans ces groupes, les auteurs montrent que le « jeu de langage » de la « discussion libre » pourrait en constituer une synthèse adéquate. La discussion libre appartenant au niveau 2 (ou « ordre de l'interaction », ou « ordre dialogique ») des quatre niveaux d'analyse de la psychologie sociale selon Doise, les auteurs s'autorisent de la définition proposée par Moscovici du « regard psychosocial » pour affirmer que le niveau 2 constitue l'interface grâce à laquelle la rationalité, dont la connaissance scientifique, façonne la subjectivité et celle-ci pénètre le collectif. The Dialogic Order: Between collective and individual rationalities Abstract Research into group problem-solving carried out since 1920 has supported the idea that this kind of group posesses a natural disposition of collective rationality. This idea has been independently confirmed by social psychology of cognitive development and by formal logic. The authors examine these properties of group problem-solving and they show that 'language-games' of 'free discussions' can provide an adequate synthesis of these phenomena. A free discussion belongs to level 2 (or « interaction order » or « dialogical order ») of the four levels of analysis in social psychology proposed by Doise. The authors adopt Moscovici's definition of 'psychosocial look' in order to affirm that level 2 constitutes an interface in which rationality-including scientific knowledge-shapes subjectivity penetrating the collective mind.
A "blueprint" for a new theory of social groups is presented. The theory was built using the following assumptions: (1) cooperation is the basic social interaction; (2) groups are socially real; (3) groups exist because they are necessary for survival, economic and social growth, and functioning of organizations; (4) we must use separate constructs for variables describing individuals and groups; (5) motivation of social behavior does not have to be self-oriented. The theory proposes to analyze groups using the following facets: group activity, social group characteristics, group development, and individuals. Theories and research of Petrovsky (1979), Deutsch (1949b), and Eskola (1988b) were used to develop specific constructs that describe each facet of analysis. Theoretical formulations were made about the relationships between constructs that belong to the same or different facet of analysis. A plan for the validation research of the theory is outlined.
L'objet de cette recherche consiste à étudier le rôle que des manuels d'anglais tunisiens jouent dans l'acquisition d'une Compétence Communicative Interculturelle ('ICC) par les apprenants. On se basant sur des méthodes quantitatives et qualitatives ainsi que les modèles de Risager (1991) et de Sercu (2000), l'étude essaie d'évaluer aussi bien quatre manuels d'anglais tunisiens que la connaissance des apprenants et leurs attitudes envers les Britanniques et leur culture. Laquelle étude a tenu compte de deux variables : leurs niveaux d'éducation (6ème et 9ème années de l'enseignement de base) et leur appartenance régionale (zone rurale et zone urbaine ; il s'agit respectivement des deux régions de Bouzguem et de Sfax). L'application du test de corrélation de Pearson sur les données obtenues des élèves et les manuels n'a montré aucun rôle significatif des manuels d'anglais tunisiens évalués dans la formation des attitudes et des connaissances des apprenants dans les deux zones et concernant les deux niveaux d'éducation en question. En effet, l'étude a montré que les élèves ont tendance à être ethnocentriques et n'ont que peu ou une fausse connaissance des Britanniques et de leur culture. Il faut souligner, par ailleurs, que les manuels, ont aussi contribué à présenter une image irréelle et déséquilibrée de la culture britannique. D'autres sources d'informations sur la culture cible semblent être plus influentes dans la formation des attitudes des élèves et leur acquisition des connaissances sur la culture de la langue étrangère qu'ils apprennent. Quelques recommandations sont suggérées pour modifier les manuels évalués afin qu'ils puissent être plus commodes et plus efficaces dans l'enseignement de l'anglais ayant pour objectif la communication interculturelle
Although research shows that affect and motivation-related variables influence the amplitude of the Reward Positivity (RewP) event-related potential (ERP), motivational direction (approach versus avoidance) and affective valence (positive versus negative) have been confounded. As a negatively valenced yet approach motivation-related emotion, anger can be used to tease apart motivational direction versus affective valence contributions to the RewP amplitude. The present study examined the relation between trait anger and the RewP. Participants were 98 young adult student volunteers who completed the Doors reward task and self-report questionnaires. Their asymmetric frontal cortical activity during resting baseline was also examined. Results revealed that trait anger was positively correlated with the RewP amplitude. The present study contributes to the literature by providing novel evidence for the link between trait anger and the RewP.
Kıskançlık, bir kişinin, başka bir kişide, kendisinden daha üstün özelliklerin var olduğunu fark etmesi sonucunda, bu avantajlı durumu ele geçirme isteğini içinde barındıran acı verici bir duygu olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bu olgunun kendi içinde hem duygusal, hem de bilişsel bir değerlendirme sürecini barındırdığı düşünüldüğünde, çalışma ortamında kişilerin yapmış oldukları sosyal karşılaştırmaların ve statüleriyle ilgili sahip oldukları endişelerin, çalışma arkadaşlarına karşı hissettikleri yıkıcı duygulara zemin oluşturması beklenmektedir. Özellikle yerel yazında işyerinde yaşanan kıskançlıkla ilgili az sayıda çalışmaların yer alması ve bu kavramın ilgili öncellerle (statü endişesi ve işbirlikçi amaç yapıları) ilişkisinin hem ulusal hem de uluslararası yazında daha önce irdelenmemiş olduğu düşünüldüğünde, bu çalışmada önerilen modelin, çalışanların içinde barındırdıkları kıskançlık duygusunun açığa çıkmasını kolaylaştırıcı dinamiklerin anlaşılması ve çağdaş yönetim uygulamalarına ışık tutması açısından yazına katkı sağlayacağına inanılmaktadır.
The papers collected here are based on the presentations and discussions at the Zweite Konstanzer Werkstattgesprach zu Moral und Umwelt at the University of Konstanz, which was this time held jointly with MOSAIC. The common topic was morality, cognition and education. The presenters came fromvarious background (philosophy, psychology, sociology, political science and others), and came from different countries (Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Switzerland, the United States of America, and the United Kingdom).
All presentations (position papers) have been thoroughly revised and considerably shortened. The original versions and additional documents can be obtained directly from the authors (see the list of participants in the appendix). To all papers written comments have been invited. The number of comments submitted for this document does not reflect the quantity of discussion alotted to each position paper during the conference, though they reflect excellently the spirit of the lively and fair discussions at the meeting.
Download: www.uni-konstanz.de/ag-moral/b-liste.htmhttp://www.uni-konstanz.de/ag-moral/b-liste.htm#R_Lind_1984
Experimente haben für unterschiedlichste wissenschaftliche Disziplinen zentrale Bedeutung und eine lange Tradition. Die Grundidee von Experimenten in der Marktforschung besteht darin, dass man nicht nur gegebene Merkmale (z. B. Einkommen, Mediennutzung, Markenpräferenzen) misst, sondern dass man „Manipulationen“ an so genannten „unabhängigen Variablen“ vornimmt und beobachtet, welche Auswirkungen diese Manipulationen auf so genannte „abhängige Variable“ haben. Beispielsweise kann man sich vorstellen, dass man in verschiedenen Supermärkten die Preise eines Produkts unterschiedlich verändert („manipuliert“) und dann analysiert, wie sich diese Preisänderungen auf die jeweiligen Absatzmengen auswirken (→ Preis‐Absatz‐Funktion). Dieses Untersuchungsdesign erlaubt Aussagen über Ursache‐Wirkungs‐Beziehungen, stellt aber auch besondere Anforderungen an die Durchführung entsprechender Untersuchungen, auf die im 6. Kapitel eingegangen wird. Zahlreiche in der Praxis gängige Produkttests, Kommunikationstests etc. beruhen auf den Prinzipien experimenteller Designs.
Rumah Sakit harus didesain dengan baik sehingga mampu memenuhi kebutuhan pelayanan kesehatan paripurna. Desain Rumah Sakit harus juga lebih ramah terhadap pasien Rumah Sakit sesuai standar mutu pelayanannya. Penyebab terbanyak penyakit jantung (cardiovasculer desease) ialah atherosclerosis dan/atau darah tinggi (hypertension). Berbagai faktor yang mempengaruhi ialah usia perubahan fisiologi dan morfologi fungsi kardiovaskuler. Fasilitas Penanganan Jantung penting untuk diteliti kualitas ruang dan dampaknya pada pasien. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif mengenai kualitas ruang Rumah Sakit Jantung (ukuran ruang dan warna). Metode dokumentasi yang dipilih ialah menggunakan Metode Visual Research oleh Sanoff (1991) dan analisis terhadap denah yang ada. Kemudian dilakukan wawancara pada keluarga pasien untuk mengetahui persepsi mereka. Hasilnya diharapkan dapat memberi masukan bagi panduan desain fasilitas Penanganan Jantung yang sesuai dengan sosial budaya Indonesia.
Kata kunci: jantung, kualitas ruang, ukuran ruang, warna, visual research,
This thesis will focus on the analysis of both the artistic trajectory and the public image of the illustrator Jordi Labanda. It will thus attempt to pin down the keys of his early breakthrough as an illustrator as well as the reasons that have made his profile, work and label prevalent up until today. It is hard to grasp the relevance of Jordi Labanda just by analyzing the pictorial space of his work. As a subject matter, he is a character, an artistic firm and a label. Thus, it is only possible to locate the main keys of his sustained success as a relevant name of commercial illustration by studying his profile through a variety of perspectives. In this sense, the theoretical framework of this research will introduce the concept of public image to the reader whilst discussing a set of variables of success, fame and social prestige both within the artistic and the commercial arenas. Subsequently, the study will go on to re-examining both the chronological stages of his work and its particularities, with special focus on the impact and popularity reached in each period. In order to delimit the object of this study to the fullest -and after having set up a wide theoretical and contextual framework- the study will focus on a qualitative research method consisting of: exploratory interviews, a scrutiny of both press and Facebook content on his figure, and an in-depth interview followed by a lecture delivered by Jordi Labanda himself, in which he offers a thorough outline of his own professional career. All these sources of information will become the pillar of the methodological design of the thesis, providing the reader with an accurate portrait of both the illustrator's public image and the different variables of his success. The personal testimony of the researcher -as well as her work position as a team member of Jordi Labanda's studio- will have an enormous significance for the outcome of the investigation. It will provide first-hand information that will complement and contrast all the previous work on the illustrator's figure, work and label. Thus, from an internal standpoint, this project will attempt to prove that Labanda did not get where he is by mere chance, but as a consequence of a unique capacity to observe and assimilate his social environment, to which he has adapted and seized for more than two decades. The next pages will therefore open the doors of the so-called 'Labanda universe', extensively discussed over the years as a way to assemble an organized explanation of the Labanda phenomenon -a cornerstone of today's public image management techniques within the commercial illustration sector.
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of personal involvement and task complexity on the decision making process. Seventy-four female university students were randomly assigned to one cell of a 2 (personal involvement: low or high) × 3 (task comlexity: 2, 6, or 10 alternatives) design. The main results were as follows. (I) The subjects spent a greater amount of time reaching decisions in which they had greater involvement. (2) The subjects inquired about a greater amount of information during the decision task in which they had greater involvement. (3) The subjects more often returned to the information that they had already inquired about during the decision task in which they had greater involvement. (4) An interaction effect between involvement and task complexity was observed. That is, the effect of involvement on decision making process was largest when task complexity was moderate. © 1994, The Japanese Psychological Association. All rights reserved.
Resumo. Enquanto método de investigação qualitativa, a Observação Participante possibilita obter uma perspetiva holística e natural das matérias a serem estudadas. No presente artigo descrevem-se e discutem-se alguns aspetos inerentes a esta técnica. Após a fundamentação metodológica, sumariam-se as diversas práticas de Observação Participante, distinguindo-se o papel do observador participante do mero observador. Após discussão das vantagens e limites, sugere-se complementar esta metodologia de investigação com outras, no sentido de se apurar o entendimento da problemática em análise sob diversas perspetivas. Palavras-chave: Observação participante; Metodologia de investigação; Investigação qualitativa Participant Observation as a qualitative research methodology Abstract. As a qualitative research method, the Participant Observation allows to obtain a holistic and natural perspective of the issues to be studied. In this article are described and discussed some aspects inherent to this technique. After the methodological foundation, the various practices of Participant Observation are summarized, distinguishing the role of the participant observer from the mere observer. After discussing the strengths and limits, it is suggested to complement this research methodology with others, in order to ascertain the understanding of the problematic under analysis in different perspectives. 1 Introdução O presente artigo debruça-se sobre a " observação em campo " , mais precisamente, sobre a técnica de investigação designada por Observação Participante. Inserida no conjunto das metodologias denominadas de qualitativas e, frequentemente, etnográficas, encontramos este método ou técnica. Em consonância com Evertson e Green (1986), reconhecemos que toda a observação – científica vs. quotidiana ou direta vs. indireta – possibilita, por parte de quem observa (para além da aquisição e clarificação de informações sobre uma dada realidade), a identificação de problemas, o entendimento de conceitos, bem como a análise de relações e aplicações de esquemas de diferenciação dos mesmos. Toda a informação recolhida convergirá num entendimento abrangente do tipo de relações conceptuais entre os problemas e, eventualmente, na indiciação de novos problemas (Mónico, 2010). 2 Das origens à técnica A observação participante inscreve-se numa abordagem de observação etnográfica no qual o observador participa ativamente nas atividades de recolha de dados, sendo requerida a capacidade do investigador se adaptar à situação (Pawlowski, Andersen, Troelsen, & Schipperijn, 2016).
Using cellular automata, the authors show how mutual influences among elements of self-relevant information give rise to dynamism, differentiation, and global evaluation in self-concept. The model assumes a press for integration that promotes internally generated dynamics and enables the self-structure to operate as a self-organizing dynamical system. When this press is set at high values, the self can resist inconsistent information and reestablish equilibrium after being perturbed by such information. A weak press for integration, on the other hand, impairs self-organization tendencies, making the system vulnerable to external information. Paradoxically, external information of a random nature may enhance the emergence of a stable self-structure in an initially disordered system. The simulation results suggest that important global properties of the self reflect the operation of integration processes that are generic in complex systems.
Aus der Vielzahl möglicher Modellansätze, die zur Erklärung des Konsumentenverhaltens herangezogen werden können, erscheint das Präferenzmodell der Kaufentscheidung von Individuen als theoretische Basis zur Untersuchung der Einkaufsstättenwahl auf Grund seiner Allgemeingültigkeit und überschaubaren Komplexität als besonders geeignet.1 In den folgenden Ausführung soll daher der Präferenzbildungsprozess auf die spezielle Fragestellung der Einkaufsstättenwahl adaptiert werden, wobei die Schematik von Stimulus, Organismus und Response des neobehavioristischen Modells in der weiteren Gliederung Berücksichtigung findet. Von vorerst untergeordneter Bedeutung für die weitere Vertiefung der Modelldarstellung erweisen sich die in Abb. 2 dargestellten Prozessdimensionen, die als implizite Voraussetzungen zur Erreichung der jeweiligen Ergebnisdimension angenommen werden können.
Peer group interactional style was examined as a moderator of the relation between peer group school misconduct and group members' school misconduct. Participants were 705 students (Mage = 11.59 years, SD = 1.37) in 148 peer groups. Children reported on their school misconduct in fall and spring. In the winter, group members were observed in a limited-resource task and a group conversation task, and negative and positive group interactional styles were assessed. Multilevel modeling indicated that membership in groups that were higher on school misconduct predicted greater school misconduct only when the groups were high on negative or low on positive interactional style. Results suggest that negative laughter and a coercive interactional style may intensify group effects on children's misconduct.
Emotional security theory was introduced over two decades ago to explain how and why children exposed to interparental and family conflict are at greater risk for developing psychopathology. Using developmental psychopathology as an evaluative lens, this chapter provides a review of the progress, challenges, and future directions in testing EST. After characterizing the distinctive properties of the goal system of emotional security in relation to developmental constructs outlined in other approaches, we review empirical evidence supporting the hypothesis that emotional insecurity is a unique and robust mediator of multiple pathways involving family adversity and children's adjustment problems. Next, the chapter addresses the family, contextual, developmental sources underlying the multiplicity of pathways among family discord, emotional insecurity, and children's psychological functioning. Throughout the chapter, we distinguish between two formulations of EST to adequately characterize the significant developments in the history of the theory. Finally, we conclude by outlining scientific and clinical growing points for EST.
This dissertation research aims to present a new proposal for videogames analysis. This new look is articulated based on understanding video games as a group of discursive practices. In this way we propose a methodology that allows the discourse to emerge produce video games. For these analyzes the video game "Pokemon Mystery blue team" in order to present the concrete practices that articulate the naturalization of neoliberal social reality. Research report presents an exhaustive review on the development video game the cultural and academic area through different theoretical approaches. In the same way, we analyze different dimensions related to the study of video games such as the economy, education or psychology. It discusses the most important currents within the Games Studies, a discipline that was created with the purpose of studying the videogames as a field of study itself. The second part of the research an empirical analysis a specific case from the previously proposed methodology. From the proposed Foucaultian discourse analysis methodology is proposed which pays special attention to the historical, material and political discourse. A qualitative proposal defending a different way of approaching the cultural object from its relation to other discursive practices. Finally, it addresses the question posed by the five great discourses that emerge from the analysis. These speeches are the recreational-technological, pedagogical-legal, psychological-narrative, management-economist and competition-winning. At the same time, it raises the three elements that are modified mainly through the gaming experience, discourse, power and subjectivity. Key elements to understand the subtle strategies of naturalization of neoliberal social reality.
Seventy new attendees of growing Mainline Protestant churches in Canada agreed to be interviewed regarding what attracted them to, and kept them at, their current congregation. A variety of responses revealed that, in part, the new attendees were drawn to their Mainline Protestant church by aspects of Conservative Protestant theology. Contemporary theories of group membership are used to explore the links between Conservative Protestant theology, group cohesion, and, to a lesser extent, church growth.
Soixante‐dix nouveaux participants provenant d'une église protestante traditionnelle au Canada en croissance ont accepté d’être interviewés au sujet des caractéristiques qui les ont attirés et qui les ont gardés à leur congrégation actuelle. Une variété de réponses a démontré que, en partie, les nouveaux participants ont été attirés par leur église protestante traditionnelle par les aspects de la théologie protestante conservatrice. Les théories contemporaines de l'appartenance au groupe sont utilisées pour explorer les liens entre la théologie protestante conservatrice, la cohésion du groupe, et dans une moindre mesure, la croissance de l’église.
The sequential lineup is multifaceted, including serial presentation of faces, multiple decisions, and often backloading (indicating to an eyewitness that a lineup contains more photos than there actually are). We evaluated the effect of backloading instructions on response bias and sensitivity with an eyewitness identification paradigm. Importantly, we included an “undisclosed” condition that provided no information to participants about the number of lineup members to expect. Experiment 1 (N = 780) tested sequential lineups; Experiment 2 (N = 532) tested simultaneous lineups. As predicted, signal detection analysis showed that backloading induced participants to be more conservative in choosing from both lineup types, but did not affect d'. We conclude that the criminal justice system should be mindful of this shift in response bias, as it has implications for both guilty and innocent suspect identifications.
The research presented in this paper is part of a wider study investigating the role cognitive bias plays in developing long-term companionship between a robot and human. In this paper we discuss, how cognitive biases such as misattribution, Empathy gap and Dunning-Kruger effects can play a role in robot-human interaction with the aim of improving long-term companionship. One of the robots used in this study called MARC (See Fig. 1) was given a series of biased behaviours such as forgetting participant’s names, denying its own faults for failures, unable to understand what a participant is saying, etc. Such fallible behaviours were compared to a non-biased baseline behaviour. In the current paper, we present a comparison of two case studies using these biases and a non-biased algorithm. It is hoped that such humanlike fallible characteristics can help in developing a more natural and believable companionship between Robots and Humans. The results of the current experiments show that the participants initially warmed to the robot with the biased behaviours.
Across six studies we explore when, why, and how an individual’s rank position affects their unethical intentions and behavior. We first demonstrate that competing to attain top ranks leads to more unethical intentions (Study 1) and behaviors (Study 2) than competing to attain intermediate or avoid bottom ranks – even when competing in ranks close to top and bottom ranks (Study 3). We then demonstrate that adding additional extrinsic value to top and bottom ranks (via rewards and punishments) increases unethical intentions for bottom ranks (Study 4), such that competing to attain top and avoid bottom ranks elicits more unethical intentions (Studies 4 and 6) and unethical behaviors (Study 5) than competing to attain intermediate ranks. Finally, we demonstrate that elevated perceptions of power and increases in moral rationalizations mediate these effects for top and bottom ranks respectively (Study 6). We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.
The chapter reviews the main explanations and interpretations for differences between cultures in mean levels of neuroticism. The relationships between neuroticism and cultural dimensions are also presented to provide a complex overview of current cross-cultural investigation in neuroticism. Three paradigmatic questions of current cross-cultural research in neuroticism were identified in the present study: the question of a) the heritability of neuroticism; b) randomness, i.e., if worldwide distribution of neuroticism is systematic or random; and c) independence of neuroticism in terms of the independence of its measurement with measurement of cultural dimensions. The present review distinguished six different interpretations for differences between cultures in mean levels of neuroticism that has emerged in current cross-cultural research:
1) intercultural differences in neuroticism reflect slight differences in culture-specific components of neuroticism, all cultures share a similar personality dimension of neuroticism, but this trait does not mean completely the same thing in various cultures;
2) the mainstream religion in a given culture influences the level of neuroticism in that culture;
3) geographically close cultures also show similar levels of neuroticism in comparison with geographically distant cultures;
4) intercultural differences in neuroticism are caused by culturally endorsed response styles;
5) intercultural differences in neuroticism reflect genetic differences between cultural groups;
6) intercultural differences in neuroticism may be caused by adaptations of psychometric personality questionnaires to other languages.
Taking these interpretations together provides an intriguing theoretical background for further theoretical developments in this field. Various implications for both theory and empirical research are discussed in the Discussion subsection of this chapter. For example, we discussed the role of acquiescence response bias, differential item functioning in factor loadings, the Euclidean similarities of personality profiles across cultures, or various methodological problems of comparing neuroticism in different cultures.
En este estudio se exploran algunos de los antecedentes e influencias estadounidenses en la investigación
psicosocial en el último siglo. Entre las principales corrientes que contribuyeron al proceso constitutivo y a la
posterior consolidación de la Psicología Social de orientación sociológica se analizan las contribuciones de la
Escuela de Chicago y su interés por la sociología urbana, así como el paradigma interpretativo del
Interaccionismo Simbólico como una de las corrientes precursoras del pensamiento microsociológico con el
desarrollo de la teoría de los roles y el enfoque dramatúrgico y que sienta las bases de la metodología cualitativa en la investigación psicosocial. Asimismo, se ofrece un análisis de dos de las principales derivaciones actuales de la corriente del Interaccionismo Simbólico, como el Enfoque Fenomenológico del mundo social y la Etnometodología de los que se derivan fructíferos intereses psicosociológicos vinculados a una psicología social contemporánea crítica y discursiva.
Palabras Clave: Interaccionismo Simbólico, Enfoque dramatúrgico, Enfoque fenomenológico,
Etnometodología.
We lay out a multiple, interacting levels of cognitive systems (MILCS) framework to account for the cognitive capacities of individuals and the groups to which they belong. The goal of MILCS is to explain the kinds of cognitive processes typically studied by cognitive scientists, such as perception, attention, memory, categorization, decision-making, problem solving, judgment, and flexible behavior. Two such systems are considered in some detail—lateral inhibition within a network for selecting the most attractive option from a candidate set and a diffusion process for accumulating evidence to reach a rapid and accurate decision. These system descriptions are aptly applied at multiple levels, including within and across people. These systems provide accounts that unify cognitive processes across multiple levels, can be expressed in a common vocabulary provided by network science, are inductively powerful yet appropriately constrained, and are applicable to a large number of superficially diverse cognitive systems. Given group identification processes, cognitively resourceful people will frequently form groups that effectively employ cognitive systems at higher levels than the individual. The impressive cognitive capacities of individual people do not eliminate the need to talk about group cognition. Instead, smart people can provide the interacting parts for smart groups
The importance of comedy as a mode of political communication is widely recognized, and the correlation between exposure to political comedy and knowledge has been well documented. Still, empirical research has produced decidedly mixed conclusions about whether, how and for whom political comedy might promote learning and influence attitudes. This dissertation incorporates socio-psychological theories of humor into a model of humor-triggered cognition which produces theoretically derived expectations about the effect of comedy on political sophistication. Political comedy is not merely an alternative news source but a unique communicative form which, by encouraging effortful processing and cognitive engagement, enhances learning and attitude constraint. Further, the strongest effects are predicted not among apathetic citizens incidentally exposed to information, but among moderately sophisticated audiences capable of comprehending and appreciating humorous messages but generally unmotivated to think deeply about politics absent the potential emotional gratification of amusement.
These expectations are empirically tested using both experimental and survey methodologies. A controlled experiment isolates the effect of comedy from the influence of exposure to information by manipulating the presence of humor in political news stories but otherwise holding content constant. Consistent with the model of humor-triggered cognition, experimental results demonstrate that political comedy promotes learning and ideological constraint beyond exposure to identical information in hard news form, and its relative influence is greatest among those with moderate prior political knowledge. Learning is mediated by the experience of amusement, not perceptions that the (identical) information is more interesting. Secondary survey data are used to replicate experimental analysis and examine the relationship between real-world exposure to political comedy and the structure of political attitudes. Self-reported exposure to political comedy is strongly correlated with several alternative measures of ideological constraint, suggesting that experimental findings are generalizable.
Overall, results indicate that effects of political media depend on the way information is presented. Political comedy enhances sophistication by not only providing important political information but also by arousing and engaging audiences so that they think more deeply about politics, become more ideologically consistent, and are potentially more capable of effective democratic citizenship.
This study provides advertisers with a simple positive facial cue—the Duchenne (or genuine) smile—to enhance the authentic persuasive appeal of a celebrity endorser whose standing has slipped. The authors examined the effect of celebrity attitude on consumer perceptions of celebrity genuineness, and in turn, consumer attitude toward the advertisement and purchase intention. They also investigated whether a negative attitude toward a celebrity can be overcome, resulting in positive advertisement attitude and purchase intentions. Results showed that exposure to a celebrity displaying a Duchenne smile significantly boosts consumer perceptions of celebrity genuineness when consumers have a negative attitude toward the celebrity.
This study presents a detailed investigation of the prevalence of climate scepticism among the Norwegian public, and of what factors best explain it. We find that denial of climate change is not widespread in Norway, but that scepticism about its impact and seriousness are fairly common. Investigation of the explanatory factors is based on three dominant explanations of climate change, namely lack of knowledge and information, differences in values and world views and differences in practice. By utilizing public opinion data collected by TNS Gallup on behalf of SIFO in November 2011, we find that the variables for knowledge level, world-views and environmentally friendly practice are all statistically significant in the analysis, but that the respondents' world-views are the strongest predictors of climate scepticism. Respondents with individualistic values and who voted for the Progress Party in the parliamentary election in 2009 are significantly more sceptical than others. We conclude that existing values and political ideology are important determinants of public attitudes towards climate change, and that this needs to be reflected in climate change communication.
In the article by S. Schachter and J. Singer, which appeared in Psychological Review (1962, 69(5), 379-399) the following corrections should be made: The superscript "a" should precede the word "All" in the footnote to Table 2. The superscript "a" should appear next to the column heading "Initiates" in Table 3. The following Tables 6-9 should be substituted for those which appeared in print. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 196306064-001.) It is suggested that emotional states may be considered a function of a state of physiological arousal and of a cognition appropriate to this state of arousal. From this follows these propositions: (a) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has no immediate explanation, he will label this state and describe his feelings in terms of the cognitions available to him. (b) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has a completely appropriate explanation, no evaluative needs will arise and the individual is unlikely to label his feelings in terms of the alternative cognitions available. (c) Given the same cognitive circumstances, the individual will react emotionally or describe his feelings as emotions only to the extent that he experiences a state of physiological arousal. An experiment is described which, together with the results of other studies, supports these propositions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
This study tested the prediction that introspecting about the reasons for one's preferences would reduce satisfaction with a consumer choice. Subjects evaluated two types of posters and then chose one to take home. Those instructed to think about their reasons chose a different type of poster than control subjects and, when contacted 3 weeks later, were less satisfied with their choice. When people think about reasons, they appear to focus on attributes of the stimulus that are easy to verbalize and seem like plausible reasons but may not be important causes of their initial evaluations. When these attributes imply a new evaluation of the stimulus, people change their attitudes and base their choices on these new attitudes. Over time, however, people's initial evaluation of the stimulus seems to return, and they come to regret choices based on the new attitudes.
After reviewing the distinction between the "dehoaxing" and "desensitizing" aspects of debriefing as proposed in a previous paper (see record
1977-28592-001), the problem and the process of postexperiment desensitizing are discussed. The research on the effectiveness of desensitizing is then reviewed. The limited but very consistent results indicate that desensitization is an effective means of eliminating the arousal and concerns that Ss develop as a consequence of their behavior in experiments and the personal insights that behavior might generate. Qualifications and warnings concerning the use of deceptions and stress are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
When people are given extrinsic reasons not to perform an activity they had little interest in to begin with, intrinsic interest in the activity may increase. It is argued that this is an overjustification phenomenon. In Study 1, 31 children (aged 4.1–8.6 yrs) were told that they could not play with an unattractive toy motorcycle. Control Ss were allowed to play with whatever toy they chose, although few played with the motorcycle. Ss told not to play with the motorcycle showed more interest in this toy at a 2nd session with a different experimenter than did controls. In Study 2, 19 undergraduates were given either a severe threat, mild threat, or no threat not to cheat in a situation in which there was minimal motivation to cheat. Ss in the threat conditions were significantly more likely to cheat on an intelligence test several days later in a different setting. Alternative explanations for these findings (e.g., reactance) are considered, and the implications of the use of superfluous extrinsic controls are discussed. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Hypothesized that senders who are highly motivated to lie successfully (vs those who are less highly motivated) would be more successful at controlling the verbal aspects of their communications but less successful at controlling the nonverbal aspects. In Study 1, 32 senders (16 male and 16 female undergraduates) randomly assigned to high vs low motivational conditions, answered 4 questions in front of 6 peers. They answered 2 of the questions truthfully and 2 deceptively. They were given time to plan in advance 1 truthful response and 1 deceptive response; the other responses were not planned. In Study 2, judges (64 undergraduates) rated the deceptiveness, spontaneity, and tenseness of the Study 1 messages in 1 of 4 conditions: verbal only, visual only, audio only (verbal plus vocal), and audiovisual. Consistent with the hypothesis, the lies of the highly motivated senders were less readily detected when only verbal cues were available but more readily detected in the conditions that included nonverbal cues. Lies that were planned were no more or less readily detected than lies that were not planned. However, planned responses—whether truthful or deceptive—were perceived as more deceptive, more tense, and less spontaneous by judges in both studies. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Self-presentation is the use of behavior to communicate some information about oneself to others. The 2 main self-presentational motives are to please the audience and to construct (create, maintain, and modify) one's public self congruent to one's ideal. It is proposed that a wide range of social behavior is determined or influenced by these self-presentational concerns. Research evidence is examined to show the relevance of the self-presentational motives to giving and receiving help, conformity, reactance, attitude expression and change, responses to evaluations, aggressive behavior, self-serving and counter-defensive attributional statements, task performance, ingratiation, and emotion. (149 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
If a person is induced to cease performing a desired action through the threat of punishment, he will experience dissonance. His cognition that he is not performing the action is dissonant with his cognition that the action is desirable. An effective way of reducing dissonance is by derogating the action. The greater the threat of punishment the less the dissonance—since a severe threat is consonant with ceasing to perform the action. Thus, the milder the threat, the greater will be a person's tendency to derogate the action. In a laboratory experiment 22 preschool children stopped playing with a desired toy in the face of either a mild or severe threat of punishment. The mild threat led to more derogation of the toy than the severe threat. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two experiments investigated effects of communication on behavior in an 8-person commons dilemma of group vs individual gain. A total of 593 persons recruited through newspaper ads served as either participants or observers. Ss made a single choice involving a substantial amount of money (possible outcomes ranging from nothing to $10.50). In Exp I, 4 communication conditions (no communication, irrelevant communication, relevant communication, and relevant communication plus roll call) were crossed with the possibility of losing money. Ss chose self-serving (defecting) or cooperating responses and predicted responses of other group members. Defection was significantly higher in the no-communication and irrelevant-communication conditions than in relevant-communication and relevant-communication plus roll call conditions. Loss had no effect on decisions. Defectors expected much more defection than did cooperators. Exp II replicated irrelevant communication and cooperation effects and compared predictions of participants with those of observers. Variance of participants' predictions was significantly greater than that of observers, indicating that participants' decisions were affecting their expectations about others' behavior. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies with 182 White female college students investigated the effects of cognitive busyness on the activation and application of stereotypes. In Exp 1, not-busy Ss who were exposed to an Asian target showed evidence of stereotype activation, but busy Ss (who rehearsed an 8-digit number during their exposure) did not. In Exp 2, cognitive busyness once again inhibited the activation of stereotypes about Asians. However, when stereotype activation was allowed to occur, busy Ss (who performed a visual search task during their exposure) were more likely to apply these activated stereotypes than were not-busy Ss. Together, these findings suggest that cognitive busyness may decrease the likelihood that a particular stereotype will be activated but increase the likelihood that an activated stereotype will be applied. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the effects of rewards for pinball competence on subsequent interest in the game in 3 studies with 219 Ss in which 3 components of performance-contingent reward structures—an evaluative contingency established before playing, performance feedback, and the receipt of a reward—were identified. The symbolic cue value of the reward may affect interest independently of evaluation and competence feedback. To isolate its effect, groups receiving a performance-contingent reward were compared with groups that experienced the same evaluative contingency and feedback and with feedback-only controls (Studies 1 and 3). Results show that evaluation reduced intrinsic motivation, compared with controls, whereas reward enhanced intrinsic motivation relative to evaluation. In Study 2, groups receiving rewards for attaining competence but differing in whether the evaluation was anticipated before playing were compared. Results indicate that unexpected performance-contingent rewards enhanced interest, compared with expected rewards. Findings suggest that the 3 reward properties have separate effects on intrinsic motivation. Anticipation of evaluation was responsible for negative reward effects, whereas competence feedback and due value had independent positive effects (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Is there a difference between believing and merely understanding an idea? R. Descartes (e.g., 1641 [1984]) thought so. He considered the acceptance and rejection of an idea to be alternative outcomes of an effortful assessment process that occurs subsequent to the automatic comprehension of that idea. This article examined B. Spinoza's (1982) alternative suggestion that (1) the acceptance of an idea is part of the automatic comprehension of that idea and (2) the rejection of an idea occurs subsequent to, and more effortfully than, its acceptance. In this view, the mental representation of abstract ideas is quite similar to the mental representation of physical objects: People believe in the ideas they comprehend, as quickly and automatically as they believe in the objects they see. Research in social and cognitive psychology suggests that Spinoza's model may be a more accurate account of human belief than is that of Descartes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Indicates that research in social psychology has largely been based on college students tested in academic laboratories on academiclike tasks. How this dependence on one narrow data base may have biased the main substantive conclusions of sociopsychological research in this era is discussed. Research on the full life span suggests that, compared with older adults, college students are likely to have less crystallized attitudes, less formulated senses of self, stronger cognitive skills, stronger tendencies to comply with authority, and more unstable peer-group relationships. These peculiarities of social psychology's predominant data base may have contributed to central elements of its portrait of human nature. According to this view, people are quite compliant and their behavior is easily socially influenced, readily change their attitudes and behave inconsistently with them, and do not rest their self-perceptions on introspection. The data base may also contribute to this portrait of human nature's strong emphasis on cognitive processes and to its lack of emphasis on personality dispositions, material self-interest, emotionally based irrationalities, group norms, and stage-specific phenomena. The analysis implies the need both for more careful examination of sociopsychological propositions for systematic biases introduced by dependence on this data base and for increased reliance on adults tested in their natural habitats with materials drawn from ordinary life. (127 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Maintains that many psychological investigations are accused of failure to generalize to the real world because of sample bias or artificiality of setting. It is argued in this article that such generalizations often are not intended. Rather than making predictions about the real world from the laboratory, it is possible to test predictions that specify what ought to happen in the lab. Even "artificial" findings may be regarded as interesting because they show what can occur, even if it rarely does; or, where generalizations are made, they may have added force because of artificiality of sample or setting. A misplaced preoccupation with external validity can lead to dismissing good research for which generalization to real life is not intended or meaningful. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that persons who undergo an unpleasant initiation to become members of a group increase their liking for the group; that is, they find the group more attractive than do persons who become members without going through a severe initiation. This hypothesis was derived from Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance." 3 conditions were employed: reading of "embarrassing material" before a group, mildly embarrassing material to be read, no reading. "The results clearly verified the hypothesis." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Determined the effects of deception and harm on research participants' perceptions of their experiences in psychology experiments. In addition, the role of debriefing in reducing any negative effects was examined. 464 undergraduates who had participated in psychology experiments during the academic quarter completed questionnaires on their perceptions of harm and benefit, adequacy of debriefing, and experimenters' behavior. Ss who had been deceived evaluated their experience more positively than those who had not participated in deception experiments. Also, effective debriefing seemed to eliminate negative effects perceived by Ss who felt they had been harmed. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Evidence is reviewed which suggests that there may be little or no direct introspective access to higher order cognitive processes. Subjects are sometimes (a) unaware of the existence of a stimulus that importantly influenced a response, (b) unaware of the existence of the response, and (c) unaware that the stimulus has affected the response. It is proposed that when people attempt to report on their cognitive processes, that is, on the processes mediating the effects of a stimulus on a response, they do not do so on the basis of any true introspection. Instead, their reports are based on a priori, implicit causal theories, or judgments about the extent to which a particular stimulus is a plausible cause of a given response. This suggests that though people may not be able to observe directly their cognitive processes, they will sometimes be able to report accurately about them. Accurate reports will occur when influential stimuli are salient and are plausible causes of the responses they produce, and will not occur when stimuli are not salient or are not plausible causes.
Ostracism is such a widely used and powerful tactic that the authors tested whether people would be affected by it even under remote and artificial circumstances. In Study 1, 1,486 participants from 62 countries accessed the authors' on-line experiment on the Internet. They were asked to use mental visualization while playing a virtual tossing game with two others (who were actually computer generated and controlled). Despite the minimal nature of their experience, the more participants were ostracized, the more they reported feeling bad, having less control, and losing a sense of belonging. In Study 2, ostracized participants were more likely to conform on a subsequent task. The results are discussed in terms of supporting K. D. Williams's (1997) need threat theory of ostracism.
Eighteen years of research using the Happiness Measures (HM) is reviewed in relation to the general progress of well-being measurement efforts. The accumulated findings on this remarkably quick instrument, show good reliability, exceptional stability, and a record of convergent, construct, and discriminative validity unparalleled in the field. Because of this, the HM is offered as a potential touchstone of measurement consistency in a field which generally lacks it.
The chapter presents evidence consistent with the observations of Roethke and Vargas Llosa that introspection can be disruptive. The focus is on one type of introspection-thinking—the reasons for one's feelings. The chapter demonstrates that this type of thought can cause people to change their minds about the way they feel and lead to a disconnection between their attitudes and their behavior. It is clear that asking people to think about reasons will often produce attitude change, particularly for affectively based attitudes. The direction of this change, however, has been difficult to predict. The chapter explains people who think about reasons and end up with an attitude that is significantly more negative or positive, on the average, than the attitudes of control subjects. The direction of attitude change is difficult to predict, because it is closely related to the hypothesis about the generation of a biased sample of reasons. In the chapter, there are at least two sorts of harmful attitudes that might be changed by thinking about reasons—those that are undesirable from the individual's perspective and those that are undesirable from a societal perspective.
Self-affirmation processes are being activated by information that threatens the perceived adequacy or integrity of the self and as running their course until this perception is restored through explanation, rationalization, and/or action. The purpose of these constant explanations (and rationalizations) is to maintain a phenomenal experience of the self-self-conceptions and images as adaptively and morally adequate—that is, as competent, good, coherent, unitary, stable, capable of free choice, capable of controlling important outcomes, and so on. The research reported in this chapter focuses on the way people cope with the implications of threat to their self-regard rather than on the way they cope with the threat itself. This chapter analyzes the way coping processes restore self-regard rather than the way they address the provoking threat itself.
Early critical reaction to the practice of deceiving research subjects suggested that its continued use would lead to a negative view of the discipline and distrust by future subjects. In spite of these concerns and the constraints imposed by ethical codes, deception has remained a popular research strategy. The study reported in this article compared data from the Psychological Research Survey (PRS) at the beginning of the academic year in 1970 and the responses of students surveyed at a comparable time in 1989. Scores on the PRS from the recent samples were found to be similar to scores from 20years ago. After participating in a number of experiments, subjects sampled in 1990 were accepting of arguments justifying the use of deception; however, they reported a somewhat more negative attitude toward psychological research than in the 1989 sample, regardless of whether they had been exposed to deception.
Deception has been attacked repeatedly as ethically unacceptable and morally reprehensible. However, research has revealed that subjects who have participated in deception experiments versus nondeception experiments enjoyed the experience more, received more educational benefit from it, and did not mind being deceived or having their privacy invaded. Such evidence suggests that deception, although unethical from a moral point of view, is not considered to be aversive, undesirable, or an unacceptable methodology from the research participant's point of view. The repeated assumption of the unacceptability of deception seems to be due to the fact that deception has been evaluated only from the viewpoint of moral philosophizing. This has led to the repeated conclusion that deception is reprehensible and seems to have created a perceptual set to view deception immediately as aversive. However, the perception of the unethical nature of deception seems to be minimal in studies that investigate innocuous public behaviors and enhanced in studies that run the risk of harming research participants or in studies that investigate private behaviors. When this knowledge is combined with the fact that research participants do not mind being deceived, and that it can also be viewed as immoral not to conduct research on important problems, the scale seems to be tilted in favor of continuing the use of deception in psychological research.
The desegregated classroom has not produced many of the positive results initially expected by social scientists some 25 years ago. It is argued that one of the major reasons for this failure is the over-emphasis on competitiveness at the expense of interdependence in the classroom. In short, students in most classrooms very rarely cooperate with each other in pursuit of common goals. In this article, we describe a program of research in wihich elementary school students are "forced" to spend part of their classroom time mastering material in an interdependent structure. The results indicate that such structured interdependence increases the self-esteem, the morale, the interpersonal attraction, and the empathy of students across ethnic and racial divisions, and also improves the academic performance of minority students without hampering the performance of the ethnic majority.
The chapter presents the two very different basic processes that link attitudes and behavior, along with variants that amount to a mixture of the essentials of each process. Conditions that promote one process or the other also are discussed in the chapter. This discussion of mixed models illustrates the complexity of the role of spontaneous and deliberative processing to understand the manner in which attitudes influence behavior. The basic difference between the two types of models of the attitude-behavior process centers on the extent to which deciding on a particular course of action involves conscious deliberation about a spontaneous reaction to one's perception of the immediate situation. An individual may analyze the costs and benefits of a particular behavior and, in so doing, deliberately reflect on the attitudes relevant to the behavioral decision. These attitudes may serve as one of possibly many dimensions that are considered in arriving at a behavior plan, which may then be enacted.
The present study examined the immediate and delayed effects of unobtrusive exposure to personality trait terms (e.g., "reckless," "persistent") on subjects' subsequent judgments and recollection of information about another person. Before reading a description of a stimulus person, subjects were unobtrusively exposed to either positive or negative trait terms that either could or could not be used to characterize this person. When the trait terms were applicable to the description of the stimulus person, subjects' characterizations and evaluations of the person reflected the denotative and evaluative aspects of the trait categories activated by the prior exposure to these terms. However, the absence of any effects for nonapplicable trait terms suggested that exposure to trait terms with positive or negative associations was not in itself sufficient to determine attributions and evaluations. Prior verbal exposure had little effect on reproduction of the descriptions. Moreover, no reliable difference in either evaluation or reproduction was found between subjects who overtly characterized the stimulus person and those who did not. Exposure to applicable trait terms had a greater delayed than immediate effect on subjects' evaluations of the stimulus person, suggesting that subjects may have discounted their categorizations of the stimulus person when making their immediate evaluations. The implications of individual and situational variation in the accessibility of different categories for judgments of self and others are considered.
Psychology calls itself the science of behavior, and the American Psychological Association's current "Decade of Behavior" was intended to increase awareness and appreciation of this aspect of the science. Yet some psychological subdisciplines have never directly studied behavior, and studies on behavior are dwindling rapidly in other subdisciplines. We discuss the eclipse of behavior in personality and social psychology, in which direct observation of behavior has been increasingly supplanted by introspective self-reports, hypothetical scenarios, and questionnaire ratings. We advocate a renewed commitment to including direct observation of behavior whenever possible and in at least a healthy minority of research projects.
© 2007 Association for Psychological Science.
impression formation processes are assumed to be bottom-up, or data-driven, with an integrated representation of the individual person as the final product / challenges this prevailing view of the person perception process by proposing an alternative model of social cognition that incorporates top down processing as well as data-driven constructions
differences between these two modes of impression formation are elaborated
implications for how and when social cognition differs from object perception are discussed
comparison of processing stages
identification / automatic processing
typing / structure and format of person categories
person types / words or images
impression formation as category matching
individuation / intracategory differentiation
personalization / formation of person-based impressions (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
An experiment was performed which demonstrated that the attractiveness of a superior person is enhanced if he commits a clumsy blunder; the same blunder tends to decrease the attractiveness of a mediocre person. These results were predicted by conjecturing that a superior person may be viewed as superhuman and, therefore, distant; a blunder tends to humanize him and, consequently, increases his attractiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It has been suggested that cooperativeness on the part of Ss in supporting the hypotheses of Es, yields artifactual data in some social psychological experiments. An experiment was conducted to examine the nature of this cooperation. It was predicted that cooperativeness would not manifest itself when the Ss own ends would be better satisfied by not cooperating. 40 Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 experimental conditions or a control condition. In the experimental conditions, Ss were told that they knew the E's specific hypothesis. In 2 of these conditions the S could confirm the E's hypothesis and also "look good." In the 3rd experimental condition these outcomes were mutually exclusive. Results indicate that Ss in the 3rd condition choose to look good, thereby disconfirming the E's "hypothesis." Results support the prediction. The control condition was later replicated and a condition in which Ss knew the broad nature, but not the specifics of the E's hypothesis, was added. Results again support the hypothesis that Ss try to look good. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
automatic activation of motives and goals / chronically accessible motives and social interaction goals (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examines hypotheses to account for the apparent failure of desegregation to (a) produce true integration, (b) reduce racial prejudice, and (c) increase the self-esteem of minority children. Changes considered in the classroom structure and learning process that are considered necessary to achieve those effects are discussed. The "jigsaw" technique, and interdependent learning environment developed to encourage cooperation is described. Students are placed in 5–6 member learning groups, in which each student is responsible for teaching one part of the day's lesson to the other participants. Results of several experiments using the technique indicate that participating in the jigsaw groups (JGs) increased Ss' liking for other group members, maintained interest in school, improved self-esteem, reduced competitiveness, and increased their belief that they could learn from their classmates. In academic performance, minority students performed significantly better in the JGs than in the control classrooms; Anglos performed equally well in both conditions. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The writer is indebted to the following colleagues for helpful suggestions and comments on an earlier version of this paper: Roger Barker, L. B. Kornreich, Eugene Levitt, and Lawrence Linn. Thanks are also due to Anthony Fazio and James Green who supplied unpublished studies for review, and to Dean Bolton and Douglas Simpson for library work. Locating relevant references was facilitated by Deutscher's bibliography (1966a). This research was supported by a grant from the Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee and National Institute of Mental Health Grant 1 R03 MH-15798-01. Portions of this paper were presented at the Western Psychological Association Convention, Vancouver, B.C., June 20, 1969.