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The investigation of natural products for use in construction continues to grow to fulfil the need for sustainable and locally available materials. Bamboo, being globally available and rapidly renewable, is an example of such a material. Structural and engineered bamboo products are comparatively low-energy-intensive materials with structural properties sufficient for the demands of modern construction. However, the lack of appropriate building codes and standards is a barrier to engineers and architects in using the material. This paper describes the existing national and international codes and looks towards the future development of comprehensive standards directly analogous to those in use for timber.
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Sustainable structures: bamboo
standards and building codes
&
1Ana Gato´o MSc
Research Assistant, Department of Architecture, University of
Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
&
2Bhavna Sharma PhD
Post-Doctoral Research Associate, Department of Architecture,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
&
3Maximilian Bock PhD
Post-doctoral Research Associate, Department of Architecture,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
&
4Helen Mulligan PhD
Director, Cambridge Architectural Research Limited, Cambridge, UK
&
5Michael H. Ramage MArch
Senior Lecturer, Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, UK
1 2 3 4 5
The investigation of natural products for use in construction continues to grow to fulfil the need for sustainable and
locally available materials. Bamboo, being globally available and rapidly renewable, is an example of such a material.
Structural and engineered bamboo products are comparatively low-energy-intensive materials with structural
properties sufficient for the demands of modern construction. However, the lack of appropriate building codes and
standards is a barrier to engineers and architects in using the material. This paper describes the existing national and
international codes and looks towards the future development of comprehensive standards directly analogous to
those in use for timber.
1. Introduction
Bamboo has been used for centuries as a material for
construction, furniture, crafts and food, among others. In
recent years, the use of bamboo has been transformed, both in
terms of design and products created. Simple structures
constructed from full culm bamboo have demonstrated a
way forward for complex structures constructed with bamboo
laminates and composites (Figure 1).
Increased interest in, andthe development of, bambooin modern
construction have been driven by increasing needsfor sustainable
materials to meet rising demand due to rapid urbanisation.
Although timber offers a low-cost material for construction,
increasing urbanisation and deforestation have depleted tropical
resources. Timber forests require 30–50 years to establish
growth, with European oak taking up to 80 years (Mulligan
and Ramage, 2013). In comparison, bamboo is rapidly renew-
able: structural material can be harvested every 3 to 5 years.
Within academia, the study of engineered bamboo is rapidly
growing into a research field of its own, with emphasis on
characterising the material and its mechanical properties
(Correal et al., 2010; Mahdavi et al., 2012; Sinha et al., 2014;
Xiao et al., 2013). Industry is following this new trend with the
development of new types of bamboo products to expand the
current use from surfaces to structures (see Figure 1(c)).
To adopt and implement structural and engineered bamboo as a
construction material, a major barrier of the lack of standards
and building codes needs to be addressed. Although design and
testing standards exist for full culm bamboo (ISO, 2004a, 2004b,
2004c), they do not provide the foundation from which builders,
engineers and architects can design and construct (Harries et al.,
2012). The result is that bamboo properties, joints and connec-
tions are studied on a case-by-case basis rather than universally
designed, which is prohibitive for new methods of construction
(Finch, 2005). To overcome the geometric and material variability
of bamboo, the development of products that can be easily
incorporated into practice is becoming increasingly necessary.
2. New materials in construction
The history of the development of engineering materials
typically begins with a new material introduced and designed
with a large factor of safety, which is then adjusted over the
Engineering Sustainability
Volume 167 Issue ES5
Sustainable structures: bamboo standards
and building codes
Gato´ o, Sharma, Bock, Mulligan and Ramage
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Engineering Sustainability 167 October 2014 Issue ES5
Pages 189–196 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/ensu.14.00009
Paper 1400009
Received 04/06/2014 Accepted 06/06/2014
Keywords: buildings, structures & design/codes of practice
& standards/sustainability
ice
|
proceedings ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
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years based on research and practice (Ellingwood, 1994).
Acceptance of non-conventional structural materials, as in the
case of carbon fibre, typically takes more than 30 years (Maine
and Garnsey, 2006; van der Lugt, 2008). This slow acceptance
of new construction materials and techniques is necessary to
satisfy not only performance but also insurance and regulatory
requirements (Blayse and Manley, 2004). Around the world,
building codes and regulations ensure the safety of occupants
and the surrounding vicinity of buildings. When enforced,
compliance with codes is a requirement for a building to be
completed and occupied. In comparison, standards or norms,
which provide additional guidance on the standardisation and
testing of materials to ensure quality, are used voluntarily.
The introduction of standards and codes further stimulates
innovation. For example, emerging green construction stan-
dards, which may be voluntary or can be mandated by
regulatory agencies in the UK and USA, are leading to
increased development of building materials and processes that
assist in meeting the requirements of the standards. Gann et al.
(1998) note that the benefits of a regulatory framework are to
create accessible knowledge, leverage investments and demand
for technology.
Innovation in the built environment extends beyond creating a
new product or material. The additional layers of marketing and
associated institutions need to be tailored to the new product
(OECD, 2009). Geels (2005) describes this system innovation as
a multi-phase process in which the initial phase is emergence in a
niche market with design under development. The next phase is
application to specialised markets that encourage the develop-
ment of additional technical aspects of the product. The product
is then deployed in the mainstream market, which in turn leads
to the final phase of replacement of the inferior products or
processes. Structural bamboo and engineered bamboo have
both reached the initial and specialised market phases and are
on the cusp of being deployed as mainstream products. While
the movement forward is positive, the adaptation of bamboo as
a building material requires not only technological substitution
but also a holistic transformation.
International standardisation and codification would promote
structural and engineered bamboo as a renewable structural
product worldwide. Blayse and Manley (2004) note that standards
create a demand for improved technologies that otherwise would
be commercially unsuccessful. Standards provide a way to ensure
quality of products and cover specific details, such as test methods,
which may be referenced by building codes. Ellingwood (1994)
states that structural codes bridge the technology transfer gap
between research and practice and are a legal underpinning to
assure public safety. Therefore, the need for the development of a
structural code for bamboo construction, supported by a previous
(a)
(c) (b)
Figure 1. Examples of full culm and engineered bamboo
construction: (a) rural construction, Estancia, Philippines (photo:
Ana Gato´ o); (b) Tiga Gunung, Bali, Indonesia, by Jo¨ rg Stamm
(photo: Ana Gato´ o); (c) KPMG-CCTF community centre, Cifeng
village, Sichuan province, China (by Lin Hao, reproduced with
permission of Zhou Li and Lin Hao)
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standards and building codes
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body of standards, is necessary to promote the material in
construction. To be accepted by both designers and policymakers
as an engineering material, standardisation is needed to develop
the widespread use of bamboo (Janssen, 2000). Without further
standardisation of the material, the growing interest and
motivation for creating more sustainable infrastructure from
bamboo will not be achieved.
3. Standardisation
Standardisation is dependent on the coordinated involvement
of stakeholders involved in construction, who promote and
accelerate the standardisation process as a collective. The
development of an international standard for structural and
engineered bamboo products would encourage manufacturers
to create a high-quality, safe and efficient product and to
reduce environmental impacts and social inequalities asso-
ciated with processing.
Increased standardisation of the manufacturing process has the
potential to drive the development of industry and improve
efficiency overall. For example, the use of fibre reinforced
polymers was adapted from aeronautical engineering to other
markets such as structural engineering. This shift of applica-
tion required changes in manufacturing, not only for increased
diversity of products but also due to the need to reduce costs to
remain competitive.
3.1 Existing standards and codes
In 2004, the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) published three standards on bamboo construction, which
was the first step to standardise bamboo for this purpose (ISO,
2004a, 2004b, 2004c). These standards build on existing tradi-
tional knowledge and reference existing ISO timber standards
with testing methods adapted to bamboo (Sharma, 2010). The
standards also serve as a basis for further standardisation of
bamboo as a structural material. However, full development of
codes and standards is still necessary to utilise bamboo as a
structural material in the USA and Europe.
A decade later, the field has advanced with increased global
interest and research, but the call for further standardisation
and codification of bamboo construction continues (Harries
et al., 2012; Jayanetti and Follet 2008; van der Lugt et al.,
2006). Countries with local bamboo resources (e.g. China,
Colombia, Ecuador, India and Peru) have taken the lead in
creating a framework for bamboo construction codes. Sections
in national building codes and standards on bamboo testing,
construction and structural design have emerged, mainly
focusing on whole culm bamboo. The available codes and
standards for structural design and construction with bamboo
are summarised in Table 1 and reviewed in the following
sections.
3.1.1 International Organization for Standardization
(ISO)
ISO 22156: Bamboo – structural design (ISO, 2004a) provides
basic design guidance for full culm construction. The standard is
supported by ISO 22157-1 Bamboo – determination of physical
and mechanical properties – part 1: requirements (ISO, 2004b),
which specifies test methods, and ISO 22157-2 (ISO, 2004c), a
laboratory manual for determining material properties. An
emerging field is the study of laminated bamboo products for
construction. ISO 22156 (ISO, 2004a) addresses the structural
application not just of full culm bamboo, but also plybamboo,
which is composed of woven bamboo mats glued together or
layers of split bamboo strips laid across each other and glued
together. The standard indicates that characterisation of the
material should be conducted based on national standards for
plywood.
3.1.2 China
Research on bamboo construction continues to increase in
China. Standards on full culm bamboo, such as JG/T 199:
Testing method for physical and mechanical properties of
bamboo used in building (PRC MoC, 2007), provide guidance
for material and mechanical testing. The standard includes the
physical and mechanical tests found in ISO 22156 (ISO, 2004a),
but differs in the test methods and parameters. For example, JG/T
199 uses sections of the culm wall for all of the mechanical tests
whereas the ISO standard uses the full culm for compression,
shear and flexure tests. The Chinese standard also uses separate
tests to obtain the modulus of elasticity in compression, tension
and flexure. JG/T 199 provides a correction factor, which utilises
an empirical equation to account for moisture content in the
specimen, to obtain strength and stiffness values.
3.1.3 Colombia
The Colombian code for seismic-resistant structures includes a
chapter on structures built with the most common bamboo species
in Colombia, Guadua (Guadua angustifolia Kunth) (ICONTEC,
2010). This chapter establishes the minimum requirements for
structural and seismic-resistant design for Guadua. The chapter
utilises allowable stress design in which a modified allowable stress
is determined from mechanical properties, obtained from experi-
mental tests and modified by multiple factors to account for
uncertainty in test conditions and test methods. Similar equations
are found in the ISO design standard (Trujillo, 2013). As shown in
Table 1, additional Colombian standards are NTC 5407, on
structural joints with Guadua angustifolia Kunth (ICONTEC,
2006), and NTC 5525, which concerns methods and tests to
determine the physical and mechanical properties of Guadua
angustifolia Kunth (ICONTEC, 2007).
3.1.4 Ecuador
Chapter 17 of Norma Ecuatoriana de la Construccio´n on the
utilisation of Guadua angustifolia Kunth in construction (INEN,
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standards and building codes
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2011) addresses processing, selection, construction and main-
tenance. Similar to the Colombian norms on joints and
preservation (ICONTEC, 2006, 2007), the chapter describes the
process but does not include design calculations. Similarly,
INEN 42 (INEN, 1976) promotes useful aspects of bamboo as a
construction material in Ecuador, but also does not include any
design guidance.
3.1.5 India
Section 3B of the National Building Code of India (NBCI) (BIS,
2010) provides strength limits for three classes of bamboo,
representing species commonly found in India. While some
examples of bamboo joints and connections are provided,
detailing with dimensions and capacities is not addressed
(Sharma, 2010). In addition to the NBCI, several Indian
standards are centred on structural design. For example, IS
15912: Structural design using bamboo – code of practice (BIS,
2012) provides the minimum requirements for structural design
of bamboo buildings. Similarly, IS 6874: Method of tests for
bamboo (BIS, 2008) can be utilised to determine the physical
and mechanical properties of full culm bamboo.
3.1.6 Peru
The Peruvian code for bamboo was approved in 2012 (ICG,
2012). The code covers design and construction with bamboo
for seismic-resistant structures. Various other codes and
standards are also referenced, including the Colombian code
and the ISO standards on bamboo construction. Modified
versions of the structural design calculations from the
Colombian code (although not as detailed as their original
Country Code Standard
China JG/T 199: Testing method for physical and
mechanical properties of bamboo used in building
(PRC MoC, 2007)
Colombia Reglamento Colombiano de Construccio´ n Sismoresistente
– chapter G12 Estructuras de Guadua (Guadua structures)
(ICONTEC, 2010)
NTC 5407: Uniones de Estructuras con Guadua
angustifolia Kunth (Structural unions with Guadua
angustifolia Kunth) (ICONTEC, 2006)
NTC 5525: Me´ todos de Ensayo para Determinar las
Propiedades ´sicas y Meca´ nicas de la Guadua
angustifolia Kunth (Methods and tests to
determine the physical and mechanical properties
of Guadua angustifolia Kunth) (ICONTEC, 2007)
Ecuador Norma Ecuatoriana de la Construccio´n – chapter 17
Utilizacio´ n de la Guadua Angustifolia Kunth en la
Construccio´ n (Use of Guadua angustifolia Kunth in
construction) (INEN, 2011)
INEN 42: Bamboo Can˜ a Guadua (bamboo cane
Guadua) (INEN, 1976)
India National Building Code of India, section 3 Timber and
bamboo: 3B (BIS, 2010)
IS 6874: Method of tests for round bamboos (BIS,
2008)
IS 15912: Structural design using bamboo – code
of practice (BIS, 2012)
Peru Reglamento Nacional de Edificaciones, Section III. Code
E100 – Disen˜o y Construccio´ n con Bamboo (ICG 2012)
USA ASTM D5456: Standard specification for
evaluation of structural composite lumber products
(ASTM, 2013)
International ISO 22156: Bamboo – structural design (ISO,
2004a)
ISO 22157-1 Bamboo – determination of physical
and mechanical properties – part 1: requirements
(ISO, 2004b)
ISO 22157-2: Bamboo – determination of physical
and mechanical properties – part 2: laboratory
manual (ISO, 2004c)
Table 1. Existing structural bamboo standards and codes
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source) and construction design from the Ecuador code are
included.
3.1.7 USA
ASTM D5456: Standard specification for evaluation of
structural composite lumber products (ASTM, 2013) is the
first to recognise laminated veneer bamboo as a structural
product and provides guidance on manufacturing standards
and test methods. The material is treated as an equivalent to
structural composite lumber products such as laminated strand
lumber, laminated veneer lumber, oriented strand lumber and
parallel strand lumber, as shown in Figure 2.
4. Future standardisation
The brief review of international standards and codes for
bamboo construction presents two pathways forward for
further standardisation of bamboo construction. First, the
review demonstrates that many of the existing standards and
codes reference the ISO standards, which have been shown to
be insufficient for widespread use. The ISO standards provide
a foundation from which to design with bamboo, but they need
to be updated and expanded to reflect the growing research on
test methods and material characterisation, as well as the
development of new structural bamboo products. The second
pathway is to create standards and codes that are analogous to
timber-based standards. The trend to utilise timber-based test
methods for characterisation and design is increasing in
research and provides a simple pathway to engage architects
and engineers in the use of bamboo for construction.
4.1 Benefits of timber-based standards for
engineered bamboo
As discussed previously, the adoption of timber standards is an
initial way to create widely marketable bamboo products.
Engineered bamboo products have the potential to be
manufactured in standard sizes and shapes, analogous to
timber and glulam. Timber, structural bamboo and engineered
bamboo all have different properties, but presented together
within the timber standards could serve as a foundation for the
creation of engineered bamboo product standards. Figure 3
demonstrates an example of how bamboo standards could be
developed, based on existing and European norms and ISO
standards. The figure illustrates the physical and mechanical
properties for engineered bamboo, determined using timber-
based standards.
Recent research studies are shifting towards timber standards
for testing and characterising engineered bamboo products
(a)
(d) (e)
(b) (c)
Figure 2. ASTM D5456 structural composite lumber products:
(a) laminated strand lumber; (b) laminated veneer lumber;
(c) oriented strand lumber; (d) parallel strand lumber; (e) laminated
veneer bamboo (reproduced with permission of Greg Smith,
Katherine Semple and Ana Gato´o)
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that no longer resemble whole culm bamboo. For example,
ASTM D143: Standard test methods for small clear specimens of
timber (ASTM, 2009) has been used to evaluate the mechanical
properties of laminated bamboo (Correal et al., 2010; Mahdavi
et al., 2012; Sinha et al., 2014; Xiao et al., 2013). The
development of timber-based standards will provide a compar-
ison to other timber products as well as broaden the potential
markets for structural and engineered bamboo products.
5. Conclusion
The standardisation of structural bamboo products reflects the
growing interest from society and policymakers and provides a
new opening for sustainable industrial development. The
emergence of comprehensive codification of structural bamboo
products may be inevitable in the near future, but without
coordinated participation from interested stakeholders the
process will be slow and ineffective. Academia, industry and
policymakers must improve their collaboration and commu-
nication to make the process efficient. Although the develop-
ment of standards and codes thrives globally, there is a need to
address the growing demand for bamboo-based products.
Academic research should aim to inform the process, through
experimentation and analysis, from which industry and policy-
makers can work towards creating the foundation for standar-
disation. The joint contribution of each of the stakeholders will
help guide the growing economic and environmental interest
and will be a crucial step towards the standardisation of
structural and engineered bamboo products.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by EPRSC grant EP/K023403/1 and the
Newton Trust, and forms part of a collaboration between the
University of Cambridge, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) and the University of British Columbia (UBC).
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Engineering Sustainability
Volume 167 Issue ES5
Sustainable structures: bamboo
standards and building codes
Gato´ o, Sharma, Bock, Mulligan and
Ramage
196
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... This could be an avenue for future interest. Putting more interest on the codification and standardization of bamboo usage is needed for the growing interest in this material [99]. Kumar et al. [23] pointed out that there are still no codes and standards in characterizing engineered bamboo composites; thus, comparing it with the literature is the best they can do to assess the results, each of which also utilized different standards. ...
... Codes and standards play a crucial role in the use of bamboo as a sustainable material in construction and other applications; they are essential for gaining confidence and trust in the reliability and safety of bamboo-based structures. Gatoo et al. [99] emphasized that codification and standardization of bamboo use are needed for the increasing interest in this sustainable material. Kumar et al. [23] also emphasized that there is still a need for codes and standards in characterizing engineered bamboo composites because comparison with the existing literature is what most researchers do. ...
Article
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Bamboo is the building material of the past and future. It offers numerous properties that make it versatile for various applications, including construction. Its impressive strength-to-weight ratio enables it to bear substantial loads and stresses, while its good elasticity allows efficient energy absorption. However, its mechanical properties can vary based on factors such as species, age, locations, methods, and treatment. Treating bamboo is essential to enhance its properties and durability. The literature provides various natural and chemical treatments that enhance some of the properties but also reported drawbacks regarding higher temperature, content, and duration. This paper reviewed 57 articles from the Scopus database, specifically focusing on article-document-type publications from the years 2003 to 2023. Additional references were also incorporated to address concerns in properties, treatment, and standards to provide systematic understanding. With extensive assessment of the articles, the following gaps and concerns were observed, and recommendations for further study and assessment were made: the bamboo's properties, the development of centralized guidelines and procedures for the preparation and processing; the exploration of alternative materials to reinforce bamboo without compromising its ductility; and the development of joint connections, and testing of mechanical properties considering seismic, wind and vibration. For treatment methods, the standardization of procedures using natural, chemical, or a combination. Lastly, for bamboo codes and standards, the assessment of existing codes and standards for testing the mechanical properties of bamboo, highlighting the potential limitations and areas, uniformity, and differences with all existing similar standards. By filling these gaps, it can support the reliability and robustness of bamboo as a sustainable material, fostering its promotion and adoption in the construction industry.
... Bamboo grows very fast, and can be harvested on a yearly basis, meaning that the plant doesn't have to be killed to yield usable fiber , so respondents felt that bamboo's environmental benefits were self-evident. The extensive rhizome systems of many bamboo species can bind tightly to the soil, contribute to natural land recovery, slow land degradation, regulate flooding and even reduce heavy metal concentrations in soil in some cases (Gatóo et al., 2014). The recurrent shedding of sheath and leaf layers provides a steady supply of foliage which can provide a sheet of leaf litter, protecting soil, supplying organic matter and conserving soil moisture content. ...
Article
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Industry 5.0 is a fifth industrial revolution in which enabling technologies center human wellbeing, sustainability and supply chain resilience in industrial settings. This paper explores the linkages between Industry 5.0 and the mainstreaming of bamboo in industry, particularly in construction. It represents the first attempt to integrate bamboo into Industry 5.0 discourse. Literature of the two concepts is summarized, and a list of Industry 5.0 components is obtained from literature. Then, interviews with expert informants from bamboo-producing countries identify key strengths, weaknesses, challenges and opportunities of bamboo industrialization. Using a frequency-based weighting to rank and weigh these elements, Industry 5.0 components are ranked using the Weighted Sum Model. Our analysis and review found many opportunities for synergy with human-centricity, resilience and sustainability; the key Industry 5.0 pillars. Bamboo is an environmentally friendly material with many applications that already contributes to pro-poor, human-centric livelihoods in many vulnerable communities. However, many applications of bamboo in modern industry are currently limited to research or demonstration, and the global bamboo industry remains at a low level of commercialization and is yet to capitalize on Industry 4.0 advances. Significant investment and efforts are need to realize the potential of bamboo to enhance and be enhanced by the Industry 5.0 transition. Further research can build on this preliminary analysis and create feasible pathways for bamboo integration into Industry 5.0.
... Entretanto a renovação do ecossistema não é infinita e diversos problemas ambientais começaram a surgir (LISZBINSKI; BRIZOLLA; PATIAS, 2023). Com a preocupação em garantir que as gerações futuras tenham a capacidade de suprir as demandas sem problemas ambientais, estudos voltados para a sustentabilidade começaram a ser desenvolvidos (INSTITUTO ECO BRASIL, 2023;DURAN, 2015;KIDD, 1992;YANARELLA, 1992, GATÓO, 2014 (SERAFINI et al., 2022). ...
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Contextualização: O bambu, um material de construção tradicional, ganhou destaque com a publicação da norma brasileira ABNT NBR 16828 (2020), abrindo novas possibilidades de aplicação para engenheiros e arquitetos. Objetivo: Este artigo visa explorar a viabilidade da aplicação de bambu na construção de um ponto de ônibus, utilizando simulações pelo método dos elementos finitos e a construção de um protótipo em escala 1:20. A espécie escolhida é Phyllostachys Pubences, conectada por amarrações de corda de sisal e coberta com telhas de PVC. Método: Iniciou-se com ensaios de resistência característica à compressão paralela às fibras, um parâmetro essencial no projeto de estruturas de bambu. A iniciativa integra o Projeto Integrador Cidades Inteligentes da Escola de Engenharia da UniversidadePresbiteriana Mackenzie, uma atividade extracurricular que busca alternativas sustentáveis para as cidades, alinhada com os 17 objetivos de desenvolvimento sustentável (ODS) da ONU. Resultados: A análise do modelo estrutural e do protótipo indica que a aplicação de estruturas de bambu em equipamentos urbanos é viável, oferecendo uma alternativa sustentável e alinhada aos princípios dos ODS da ONU. Conclusões: A partir dos resultados obtidos, conclui-se que o uso de bambu em estruturas urbanas, exemplificado pelo ponto deônibus, é uma opção viável. Esse trabalho destaca a importância de buscar alternativas sustentáveis em projetos urbanos, contribuindo para o alcance dos objetivos globais de desenvolvimento sustentável.
... GB/T 15780 1995;JG/T 199 2007) for characterizing working properties of bamboo tissue and composites. In addition to China, several countries, including Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and India, have established their own standards for the structural use of bamboo (Gatóo et al. 2014). While the adoption of timber standards serves as a foundation for developing standards on bamboo and engineered bamboo composites, differences between the behavior and properties of timber and bamboo under different working/loading conditions necessitates further research to better understand the limitations of adopting timber standards for bamboo and bamboo composites. ...
... The sheet type is generally used for indoors, surface applications and furniture; the bamboo scrimber is used in structural applications. (Sharma, 2014) In this case, the tensile strength of bamboo fibers can be considered as the most important property which should be evaluated during the design stage. ...
Chapter
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Bamboo is a type of woody grass from the family of Bambusoideae and it has been widely spread in most Asian, African, and South American countries. In Sri Lanka, 10,000 hectares of bamboo cultivation belonging to seventeen different species have been identified. Bamboo is considered highly renewable, economically feasible and fast-growing, all of which are a hallmark of a sustainable material. When used with proper treatment and comprehension of its properties under different applications, it is a durable and versatile material. The present study aims to determine the key structural properties of four species of bamboo available in Sri Lanka, namely yellow bamboo, green bamboo, giant bamboo, and hybrid bamboo. In order to identify their suitability to adopt as a load-carrying material such as bamboo reinforced concrete, its properties should be evaluated under standard conditions. As such, laboratory experiments for compressive strength, tensile strength (transverse and longitudinal) and shear strength were carried out for representative samples of the four species. All the tests have been carried out according to the standards of ISO 22157:2019 to maintain the accuracy and reliability of results. This paper presents and discusses the preparation of samples to comply with the standards. The ultimate strength, as well as the stress–strain variation for each of these loading cases, were obtained from the experimental results, and the preliminary findings are also presented. Moreover, failure patterns, especially under longitudinal tensile forces and their significance towards structural design are presented. In conclusion, the outcomes of the present research study will play a significant role in introducing bamboo as an alternative and sustainable material in the construction industry in Sri Lanka.KeywordsSri Lankan bambooSustainable materialsSample preparationStrength propertiesFailure patterns
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Circular bio-based building materials (CBBMs) provide a potential solution to reduce the climate impacts of buildings and offer opportunities to transition the construction industry to a circular model. Promoting the use of these materials can also bring economic, environmental, and social benefits from valorising biowaste and by-products from other sectors. Despite their potential, CBBMs have not received sufficient attention globally, and their adoption is hindered by various barriers. However, it is unclear what the CBBMs' use status is, what adoption barriers exist, how these barriers interact, and what should be done to address them. This study addresses these knowledge gaps through a systematic study using mixed methods to investigate the adoption status and barriers to these materials in developed economies by using a specific case analysis in Flanders. The data analysis results show that hemp-based, cork-based, and straw-based materials are the most used, while the market for CBBMs is very limited in the region. Twenty-three potential adoption barriers were identified and selected from the existing literature, then ranked based on their mean scores. The t-test analysis helps to identify 13 critical barriers, which are grouped into five categories, including cost and risk-related barriers, technical and cultural-related barriers, the government's role-related barriers, information and quality-related barriers, and market-related barriers. Among them, cost and risk-related barriers, including “concern about the high initial cost”, “risks and uncertainties involved in adopting new materials”, and “perception of the extra cost being incurred”, are the three most critical barriers to CBBM adoption in Flanders. Kendall's W test shows good consensus among the two expert groups—with and without hands-on experience in utilising CBBMs—in their rankings of the barriers. Meanwhile, the Mann-Whitney U test indicates no statistically significant differences in the ranks of barriers between the two expert groups. The interview results confirm almost all survey results and provide deeper insights into the status and barriers to adopting these materials. Practical and policy implications are discussed based on these findings to inform policy deliberations on promoting CBBMs. This study may also be a good reference for scholars and industry practitioners to better understand issues impacting decision-making towards the adoption of CBBMs in the construction industry.
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