Palynological and palaeobotanical data about Bronze Age medicinal plants from archaeological sites in Georgia

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PALEOBIOLOGY
PALYNOLOGICAL AND PALAEOBOTANICAL DATA ABOUT BRONZE AGE MEDICINAL
PLANTS FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN GEORGIA
Eliso Kvavadze1, Inga Martkoplishvili2, Maia Chichinadze3, Luara Rukhadze4
Kakhaber Kakhiani,5 Mindia Jalabadze6, Irakli Koridze7
1-7 Nationla Museum of Georgia, 3 Rustaveli Av., Tbilisi 5, e-mail e.kvavadze@yahoo.com
Abstact: An investigation of pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs and, in some cases, macrobotanical
remains found in organic residues in baskets and wooden caskets from Bronze Age burials provided an
indication of the remedies placed for the deceased during burial. Further evidence on Bronze Age medicines
was obtained from organic substances preserved in millstones in the settlement layers. The medicinal plants
used by ancient humans can help to identify diseases that were prevalent in the past. Medicinal herbs from
the Bronze Age medicine chest can enrich modern phytotherapy and have a positive eect on development
of biomedicine as a whole.
Key words: Medicinal plants, Seeds, Pollen, Non-Pollen Palynomorphs.
Introduction
Pollen analysis can play an important role in revealing the complex of medicinal plants used by ancient
people. Palynological analysis made it possible to establish the plants used as medicines by Neanderthals. At
Shanidar IV, Iraq, a Middle Paleolithic grave dated to 60000 BP, large quantities of pollen of medicinal plants
such as Achillea-type, Centaurea solstitialis, Senecio-type, Muscari-type, Althea-type and Ephedra altissima were
found (Lietava 1992). In the literature this burial is referred to as the “Neanderthal Flower Burial”.
Palaeobotanical studies have shown that burials are a unique object for the establishment of palaeodiseases
and of those drugs that were used in the treatment of people of that time. Evidence for this comes from the
contents of ceramic vessels that were placed with the deceased for use in the afterlife. Often they contain
either dried medicinal herbs or herbal extracts (Bryant and Morris 1986; Kvavadze et al. 2010c). In Georgia,
macrobotanical remains are rarely found in these contexts, while pollen is always preserved in quantities
sucient to reveal something of ancient medicines and burial customs (Kvavadze et al., 2008).
Pollen evidence for ancient medicinal plants can be obtained in a variety of burial contexts. Good results
have been obtained from the palynological investigation of organic remains on the teeth of the deceased
(Kvavadze et al. 2007; Reinhard and Bryant 2008; Kvavadze, Narimanishvili 2010). Valuable material has also
been recovered during investigation of stomach and gut contents (Berg 2002; Kvavadze, Narimanishvili 2006,
2010; Kvavadze, Shatberashvili 2010; Bitadze et al. 2010), as well as during investigation of human coprolites
(Reinhard et al.1991, 2002; Araujo and Ferreira 2000; Сhaves and Reinhard 2006).
In the mountainous regions of southern Georgia, excavations of Bronze Age burials (Fig.1) have yielded
not only rich archaeological material, but also perfectly preserved fabric, ropes, baskets and various wooden
articles, including wagons (Kuftin 1941; Japaridze 1969; Gobejishvili 1980; Kvavadze 2006; Kvavadze et al.
2007; Narimanishvili 2009). In this presentation, the materials contained in those baskets and a wooden box
or casket (Fig.2a), which may have contained plants for medicinal use, will be considered in detail. Bronze-Age
millstones found in the Paravani barrow and settlement layers at Chobareti were investigated and revealed
Cerealia pollen grains as well as the pollen and other microremains of many plants used for medicinal purposes.
saqarTvelos erovnuli muzeumis macne, sabunebismetyvelo da preistoriuli seqcia, #5, 2013, 36-49
Proceedings of the Georgian National Museum, Natural Sciences and Prehistory Section #5, 2013,36-49

37
These millstones or hand mills were made of volcanic andesites with numerous round pores typical of these
volcanic rocks (Fig.2b). These pores were clogged with organic remains containing a diversity of preserved
pollen.
Study area
The archaeological sites studied are located in southern Georgia. This area is a volcanic plateau surrounded
by high ranges consisting mostly of volcanic lava-ows. The altitude of the plateau ranges from 1450-1800 m,
while the mountains reach up to 3301 m (Mt. Abuli). The climate at lower altitudes is moderate with mean
annual temperature 8-9oC; however, at an altitude of 1800-2000 m this index drops to 4-6oC. Precipitation is
no more than 780-800mm (Lominadze and Chirakadze 1971). Most of the area has no forest vegetation. In
secondary steppe ecosystems, Poaceae representatives are predominant. Woods are preserved in inaccessible
river valleys and on steep mountain slopes. They consist of Fagus orientalis, Ulmus glabra, Acer trautvetteri,
Quercus macranthera, Sorbus aucuparia and Salix caprea, with Viburnum lantana, Ribes biebersteinii, Vaccinium
myrtillus and Rhododendron caucasicum in the understorey (Arabuli et al. 2008). The upper tree limit is situated
at 1900-2000m, where fertile chernozem and mountain meadow soils are found. The hydrological network is
well developed; besides the rivers Ktsia and Khrami and their numerous tributaries, there are many lakes and
springs.
Material and methods
The organic remains studied are material taken from three barrows (Nos. 2, 5 and 10, excavated on the
plateau Bedeni and stored in the National Museum of Georgia), the burial mound Paravani and the settlement
Chobareti. In 2008, more than 60 samples from these sites were investigated. This presentation will focus
on ten samples in which, besides pollen and spores, many non-pollen palynomorphs were encountered.
Laboratory treatment of the material (30-40 g per sample) was carried out using standard methods, including
boiling in 10% KOH solution (10-15 min.), followed by density separation in cadmium solution, and acetolysis
after Erdtman (1969). Fragments of the millstones were put into glassware, covered in 10% KOH and boiled for
10-15 min, liberating the organic sediments accumulated in the pores of the volcanic rock. This material was
then subjected to density separation and acetolysis. For identication and pollen counting, a Leitz microscope
(Wetzlar N522929) was used. Material was photographed with a Kodak C653 digital camera. All material is
stored at the Palaeobotany Department of the L. Davitashvili Institute of Palaeobiology, Georgian National
Museum.
Results
Millstone from the Paravani burial mound (beginning of third millennium BC). This millstone was found in
the lower layers of the stone embankment during excavation in 2007 and was a fragment of a larger grain
grinder made of andesite (Fig.2b). The pollen spectrum of the organic material accumulated in the millstone
pores turned out to be very rich in palynomorphs and quite diverse (Table 1). A total of 71 palynomorphs
were identied, 56 of which were pollen. Compared with the pollen complex from the organic remains of
a burial chamber previously investigated (Kvavadze & Kakhiani 2010), these samples showed a number of
distinguishing features. In the millstone spectra, Poaceae pollen and phytoliths are predominant, as one
would expect from a tool used primarily on cereals. There are large quantities of Cerealia, including Triticum,
Hordeum-type and Avena-type. Wheat and oats were predominant. There are also pollen of weeds that aect
cereal crops and that grow near settlements. The pollen spectra also contain many elements of wild ora
growing in natural ecosystems, such as Betula, Ephedra, Juniperus, Ulmus, Quercus, etc. Fraxinus pollen, which is
fragile and cannot spread over long distances, were found in the millstone material (Fig.3), but not in the burial

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chamber. The millstone also uniquely contained pollen grains of Vitis vinifera and that of Symphytum, Cirsium,
Chamaenerium, Brassicaceae, Fagopyrum and Cyperaceae (Fig.4).
Millstone from the layers of the Chobareti settlement (end of fourth millennium BC). A large fragment of this
millstone with numerous small pores was analysed. A total of 63 palynomorphs were identied, 41 of which
are pollen and spores. Poaceae was not as abundant as in the previous millstone. Among herbaceous species,
spores of Polypodiaceae (ferns) and Artemisia (wormwood) pollen were predominant (Fig.4). There are also
large quantities of Serratula pollen. Austrantia, Taraxacum, Trifolium, Urtica (Table 1) pollen was also found,
along with various phytoliths. Cerealia is represented by a small amount of Triticum, Avena and Hordeum
pollen. Arboreal pollen is dominated by Pinus. Pollen of Abies, Piceae, Tilia, Alnus, Quercus, Juniperus, Zelkova,
Vitis and Corylus was found.
Remains of a basket from Bedeni Plateau burial mound №2. Organic remains were identied as a dark mass
with inclusions of plaited, charred, plant branches. In addition, charred grains of Panicum and a thin cord of
twisted thread were found. The pollen spectrum was diverse and interesting. Altogether, 50 palynomorphs
were identied, with a large quantity of Tilia (lime) pollen (Fig.3, Table 1). Pollen grains of Pinus, Quercus, Alnus,
Acer, Fraxinus, Hedera, Hippophae, Rosaceae and Vitis were found. Herbaceous species included Apiaceae,
Centaurea, Fabaceae, Artemisia, Polygonum, Trifolium, Heracleum, Symphytum, Lathyrus, Rumex, Colchicum,
Eringium, Astrantia, Fillipendula, etc. (Table 1). There are also cereal phytoliths, tracheal wood cells and wool
bres. Large quantities of ax were found, some dyed black, red and blue.
Material from a woven box (basket) from Bedeni Plateau burial mound No.5.
In this box, charred grains of Triticum and Panicum were found, along with a whole fossilised g and
g seeds (Fig.5). A total of 57 palynomorphs were identied. Representatives of Apiaceae and Fabaceae are
predominant, with large quantities of Centaurea, Potentilla and Rosaceae pollen. Poaceae pollen is scarce, but
wheat is predominant and single pollen grains of Panicum (millet) occur. Trifolium, Achilea, Liliaceae, Lathyrus,
Campanula, etc. pollen were recorded (Table 1, Fig.4). Among arboreal taxa, Carpinus causasica pollen prevails
over Pinus, Tilia and Quercus pollen. Fagus, Alnus, Castanea, Ulmus, Zelkova and Ficus carica pollen grains
were present (Fig.3). Fern spores of Cryptogramma crispa and Botrychium lunaria were found and non-pollen
palynomorphs included wood parenchyma cells, many plant epidermal cells, phytoliths and stems of Poaceae,
spores of coprophilous fungi, Glomus spores and other unidentied ascospores. Arcella (testate ameba)
remains were found alongside bone crystals, insect and bee setae (Fig.6).
Wooden box (casket) from Bedeni Plateau barrow No.10. One sample was taken from each box (samples 1-4),
and an additional sample (No.5) from the inner part of the box cover, and another (No.6) from the upper part
of the wall on which the remains of upholstery were clearly seen. A tightly closed lid prevented the box from
lling with soil brought down in the barrow. The organic material within consisted mainly of decomposed and
charred plant remains. Pollen spectra of six samples taken from dierent places dier signicantly from each
other. In the rst cell, Asteraceae (Solidago type) pollen and Corylus are predominant (Figs. 3,4). A total of 29
taxa of higher plants were identied here. The spectra of the second cell are distinguished by an abundance
of pollen of Cichorioideae representatives. There are large quantities of Аpiaceae pollen and Pteridium spores.
In sample 2, pollen of 26 plant species was found alongside parenchyma cells of various woody species. The
sample from the third cell (sample 3) is distinguished by a great diversity of forms in the pollen spectrum, of
which 35 taxa were identied. Asteraceae is predominant; Centaurea occurring in especially large quantities. In
the group of arboreal taxa, Castanea sativa and Carpinus caucasica are predominant and Tilia, Ulmus, Quercus,
Abies, Corylus and Vaccinium pollen was found. The fourth cell (sample 4) is characterized by the extreme
diversity of the pollen complex. A total of 46 taxa were identied. Chenopodiaceae pollen is a dominant. There
are large quantities of Boraginaceae and Polygonum aviculare pollen, and the Apiaceae are well represented.
Among arboreal species, Carpinus caucasica, Quercus, Alnus and Corylus pollen were most prevalent, but Picea,

39
Pinus, Juglans, Ulmus, Fagus, Tilia, Hedera and Vitis vinifera pollen grains were also recorded. In sample No.5
from the lid, 48 forms of higher plants were identied. Artemisia pollen was predominant. Among arboreal
species, there were large quantities of Alnus, Pinus and Carpinus caucasica pollen, along with Tilia, Juglans,
Ulmus, Fagus, Salix, Castanea, Corylus and Hedera pollen. Sample 6 contained large quantities of Apiaceae and
Fabaceae pollen and total of 44 taxa. In the group of arboreal pollen, Tilia and Castanea were predominant.
Pinus, Fagus, Alnus, Fraxinus, Carpinus caucasica, Quercus, Vitis vinifera and Corylus pollen was also recorded.
Fungal spores dominated the non-pollen palynomorph component. Flax bres were common and bee hairs
were also found (Fig.6).
Discussion
The fact that, besides Cerealia pollen and phytoliths, the pollen of wild plants was found in the Paravani
millstone’s cavities suggests that this grinder was also used for pounding or grinding seeds, dry leaves,
rhizomes and other plant parts used by humans for various purposes, including drugs. The millstone from
the Chobareti settlement, judging by its pollen spectrum, was used mainly for these purposes and not for
grain grinding. Common medicinal plants, such as Tilia, Ephedra, Betula, Trifolium, Taraxacum, Centaurea and
Plantago lanceolata, whose pollen was found on the millstone, indicate that Early Bronze Age humans were
aware of their uses and medicinal properties. For example, large quantities of pine pollen in the millstone
spectra may be evidence of grinding a powder from needles and buds. In Georgia this kind of extract is
still used for treatment of bronchitis, tuberculosis, pneumonia and other inammatory diseases (Odisharia,
Sabakhtarishvili 1993). Oak pollen could have been incorporated into the millstone pores either from the bark
or acorns that may have been ground there. In modern phytotherapy oak extract is used for diarrhea, enteritis
and stomatitis (Grossgeim 1946; Mindadze 1981; Kurdgeladze and Kurdgeladze 2002).
It is noteworthy that Juniperus pollen was found on both millstones. In the mountains of Georgia, an
extract of dry juniper fruit is used in folk medicine as a febrifuge, analgesic, diuretic and resolvent (Odisharia
and Sabakhtarishvili 1993). In recent centuries, Juniperus and other representatives of the Cupressaceae have
been used in some countries for treating tuberculosis (Evans 1994; Robert & Buikstar 2003).
Vitis vinifera pollen found in the samples of both grain grinders might arrived from their leaves during
grinding. Vine leaves always carry large quantities of Vitis pollen (Kvavadze and Chichinadze 2007; Kvavadze et
al. 2010b). In the Middle Ages and later, a powder of dry vine leaves was used as a haemostatic during uterine
bleeding, as an antiseptic, resolvent and to accelerate the healing of wounds (Odisharia and Sabakhtarishvili
1993; Kurdgeladze and Kurdgeladze 2002). Large quantities of Vitis vinifera pollen were found in Late Bronze
Age graves of young women (Kvavadze, Narimanishvili 2006; 2010). They perhaps died of uterine bleeding
and therefore bundles of vine leaves were put to their graves. Vitis vinifera pollen grains were also found in
organic remains of the teeth and stomach of young women in the cemetery of Saphar-Kharaba (Kvavadze
et al. 2007). The occurrence of Ostrya carpinifolia and Zelkova carpinifolia pollen in organic material from the
stomach and teeth of the Chobareti burials is dicult to interpret, since there is little modern information on
the medicinal properties of these plants ( George and Rogers 1999). However, at that distant time, humans
probably knew of their healing properties.
The presence of Fraxinus pollen on the Paravani millstone is of some interest. In the Caucasus, the leaf
and bark extract is used primarily for the treatment of tuberculosis (Odisharia and Sabakhtarishvili 1993). A
decoction of nettle leaves with the extract (Grossgeim 1946), and Urtica pollen also occurs in the palynological
material from the Paravani millstone. Almost all of the fossils found on the millstones belong to medicinal
plants.
The two baskets that might have put into the Bedeni burial mound as domestic medicine chests
contained exclusively the pollen and seeds of medicinal plants (Table 1). Besides lime pollen, as in the grain

40
grinders, Pinus, Quercus, Fraxinus and Vitis pollen is recorded. In archaeological material from the Bedeni
plateau, Hedera, Acer, Castanea sativa, Ficus carica, Rosa-type and Hippophae pollen, absent in the grain grinder
spectra, were found. The pollen spectra also dier in composition of herbaceous species. For example, the
baskets contained pollen of herbaceous plants such as Heracleum, Lathyrus, Filipendula, Pulmonaria, Anchusa,
Colchicum, Eringium, Campanula, Primula and Cryptogramma сrispa. All these taxa are medicinal and seemingly
they were used 6000-5000 years ago. Even gs (Ficus carica) and maybe g leaves were placed into the basket
as a medicine. Fig leaves are used for ringworm, and the milk is regarded as analgesic (Grossgeim 1946).
Figs themselves are used for treatment of cardiac and enteric diseases (Kurdgeladze and Kurdgeladze 2002).
Bronze Age phytotherapy also included the wheat, oats and barley grains found in the baskets. It should be
mentioned that remains of the same plants have also been found in burials of later periods in other regions of
southern Europe, such as the nds of g, wheat, millet and barley macroremains in burials of the early Roman
period (Sostaric et al. 2006).
The wooden box from burial mound No.10 can also be regarded as a domestic medicine chest. Pollen spectra
are in many respects similar to that of the baskets. However, the box contained Salix, Juglans and Vaccinium pollen,
as well as some fern taxa - Ophioglossum vulgatum and Pteridium aquilinum. Ophioglossum, Pteridium and ans
other Polypodiaceae is good drug for helmints (Odisharia and Sabakhtarishvili 1993). In the mountains of South
Georgia in the Bronze Age the spread of forest vegetation with predominance of oak is conrmed by existence
of helminthiasis caused by pork tapeworm (Taenia solium). As is known, precisely pig is an intermediate host in
the cycle of pork tapeworm development. Numerous eggs of pork tapeworm were found in the abdomen area of
skeletons in burials both of the Early and Late Bronze Age (Kvavadze et all. 2010a,c).
Pollen grains of Fragaria, Alisma, Sedum, Helianthemum, Polygonum persicaria were also found and many
of these are thought to have healing properties (Cucunava 1960; Khidasheli and Papunidze 1985; Kurdgeladze
and Kurdgeladze 2002). On the whole, Asteraceae, especially Solidago type were very important in the box’s
pollen spectra. There were large quantities of Apiaceae, Fabaceae and of other melliferous taxa, which could
be explained by the presence of honey products as medicines (wax or propolis) in the box. This is further
indicated by the bee hairs found here. Wood tracheal cells found abundantly in one of the box cells, judging
by their very dark color, are remains of charcoal pieces put into the chest as a medicine. Such highly developed
folk medicine might have been determined by its necessity – according to palaeoanthroplogic data, Bronze
Age life expectancy in the study area was very low (Bitadze 2005) and the rate of child mortality was very high.
Conclusion
During the initial stages of the Bronze Age (end of the 4th millennium BC – beginning of the 3rd millennium
BC), humans in Georgia used rather a wide selection of medicinal plants from the diverse ora of the Caucasus
region.
Our analysis indicates that Bronze Age folk medicine was highly developed. The existence of domestic
medicine chests indicates a high degree of social organization at the end of the 4th and the beginning of the
3rd millennium BC.
The medicinal plants used by ancient societies can help to establish palaeodiseases. An investigation of
the suite of medicinal herbs from medicine chests and milling stones of the Bronze Age can enrich modern
knowledge of phytotherapy, with positive implications for homeopathic treatments and biomedical research.
Application of other interdisciplinary methods, for example DNA analysis of skeletal remains from the
burials, can conrm the existence of palaeodiseases, such as tuberculosis, during the Bronze Age.
Paleoanthropological data indicate that Bronze Age populations in southern Georgia had a low life
expectancy and high child mortality rate. Thus the development of herbal medicines in this region was born
out of necessity.

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pPaleobiologia
saqarTveloSi mopovebuli arqeologiuri masalis
palinologiuri da paleobotanikuri kvleviT
dadgenili brinjaos xanis samkurnalo mcenareebi
e. yvavaZe1, i. martyofliSvili2, m. WiWinaZe3, l. ruxaZe4, k. kaxiani5,
m. jalabaZe6, i.qoriZe7
1-7 saqarTvelos erovnuli muzeumi, rusTavelis gamziri 3, 0105 . el.fosta: e.kvavadze@
yahoo.com
reziume
naSromSi ganxilulia adre brinjaos periodis yorRnebis masalis palinologiuri
da paleobotanikuri kvlevis Sedegebi. Seswavlilia faravnis, WobareTis da bedenis
platos samarxebi. WurWlis, kalaTebis, xis kolofebisa da xelsafqvavebis organuli
naSTebi, romlebic mdidari aRmoCnda mcenareTa mtvriT, nayofebiTa da TeslebiT.
gansazRvruli taqsonebis siis ZiriTadi komponentebi arian samkurnalo mcenareebi.
gansakuTrebiT saintereso aRmoCnda oTxganyofilebiani xis kolofi, romlis calkeul
nawilSi gansxvavebuli samkurnalo mcenareTa mtvris marcvlebia napovni. dadgenilia, rom
brinjaos periodSi adamianma ukve icoda uamravi samkurnalo mcenaris Tviseba da iyenebda
maT. am siaSi Zelqvacaa. misi mtvris marcvlebi garda xis kolofisa, romelic imdroindeli
saojaxo afTiaqi unda yofiliyo, napovnia xelsafqvavebis masalaSic. im uZveles dros
swored xelsafqvavSi fqvavdnen samkurnalo mcenareTa gamxmar foTlebs, Teslebsa da
yvavilebs.
sainteresoa is faqtic, rom TiTqmis yvela samarxSi micvalebuls Catanebuli hqonda
farsmandukis, matitelas, RiRilos, avSnis, mravalZarRvas, cacxvisa da sxva samkurnalo
mcenareTa konebi.
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Figure Captions
Fig.1. Map of Georgia with the locations of investigated Bronze Age sites
Fig. 2. a - general view of the wooden box (casket) thought to be a medicine chest from the Bedeni burial
mound; b – millstone from the Paravani burial mound after treatment in KOH (pores cleaned of organic
material are seen)
Fig. 3. a – remains of the basket with fossil g (Ficus carica) fruit and seeds; b – g seeds found in the basket
of burial mound No.5.
Fig. 4. Diagram showing the AP (arboreal pollen) percentage per microscope slide in samples from the
studied burials and Chobareti settlement: 1-6 – wooden casket (box); 7-8 – grinder; 9-10 – baskets
Fig. 5. Diagram showing the NAP (non-arboreal pollen) percentage per microscope slide in samples from the
studied burials and Chobareti settlement: 1-6 – wooden casket; 7-8 – grinder; 9-10 – baskets
Fig.6. Diagram showing the NPP (non-pollen palynomorph) percentage per microscope slide in samples from
the studied burials and Chobareti settlement: 1-6 – wooden casket; 7-8 – grinder; 9-10 – baskets.
Table 1.Total number of palynomorphs per microscope slide in samples from the studied burials and Chobareti
settlement.

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Fig. 1

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Fig.2

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Fig. 3

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Fig. 4

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Fig. 5

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Fig. 6