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Brand loyalty of NASCAR fans towards sponsors: The impact of fan identification
Abstract
Although brand loyalty has been cited by practitioners as one of the most important sponsorship objectives, there is little empirical research on the effect that sponsorship has on sports fans' loyalty towards sponsoring brands. Comparing a sample of NASCAR fans to a sample of non-NASCAR fans, brand loyalty towards NASCAR sponsors was measured using a scale that includes both attitudinal and behavioural components. It was found that NASCAR fans exhibited stronger brand loyalty than non-NASCAR fans to NASCAR sponsoring brands of beer, particularly on the attitudinal component of brand loyalty. Furthermore, it was found that NASCAR fans' loyalty to NASCAR sponsoring brands is significantly higher for those fans who scored high on a scale that measures fan identification. Again, this effect was significant on the attitudinal factor of brand loyalty, but not the behavioural factor.
... As team sponsors financially support their team, they are regarded as important partners in accomplishing the team's goals and are therefore accepted as in-group members (Gwinner & Swanson, 2003). Similarly, highly identified fans are not only inclined to purchase a sponsor's product (Lings & Owen, 2007;Madrigal, 2000) but even become loyal customers of their team' sponsors (Levin, Beasley, & Gambley, 2004), exhibit positive attitudes toward the sponsor, sponsor patronage and satisfaction with the sponsor (Gwinner & Swanson, 2003) and tend to magnify the positive aspects of the sponsors so as to create a compatible image between the team and the sponsor (Gwinner & Bennet, 2008). Hence, it is proposed that: ...
... This conceptualization is consistent with Aaker (1992) who highlights the ability of brand awareness, associations and perceived quality to boost brand loyalty, to provide reasons for consumers to buy a certain brand of a product category and to eliminate their motivation to try other brands (Aaker, 1992). In addition, there is evidence of the sponsorship's ability to increase brand loyalty (Levin et al., 2004), particularly when customers are aware of the sponsorship and have some degree of involvement with the sponsored event (Sirgy, Lee, Johar, & Tidwell, 2008). Nonetheless, studies of this nature are very much in the minority in the wider context of sponsorship research. ...
... Social desirability is regarded as one of the most common type of bias affecting the results of a survey research (Nederhof, 1985) and its effects have been identified by social and marketing researchers (King & Bruner, 2000;Paulhus, 1991). In the sport sponsorship context, there is some concern that fans identified with a sport or a sport team will be willing to show themselves in a way acceptable by the other fans (Levin et al., 2004). In order to reduce social desirability bias effects, the questionnaires were self-administered, anonymous and randomly distributed in the arena and the sport facilities of the academy and collected after several minutes, following the guidelines to confine the risk of social desirability bias proposed in the literature (Nederhof, 1984(Nederhof, , 1985Sudman & Bradburn, 1974;Wiseman, 1972). ...
... Donlan (2013), further suggests that brand loyalty and sponsorship have received little attention, possibly because it is difficult to attribute consumer purchasing behavior to a single marketing communication tool. Levin et al. (2004) as well as Liu et al. (2015) found evidence that sponsorship can build brand loyalty. This is further supported by Biscaia et al. (2013), who found that attitudinal loyalty impacts consumer attitude toward both sponsors and purchase intentions and that behavioral loyalty influences sponsorship awareness and the attitude and purchase intentions toward each sponsor differently. ...
... The results indicate that there is no positive relationship between sport sponsorship and loyalty, thus hypothesis 3 is not supported. This contradicts the findings of Donlan (2013) and Levin et al. (2004). ...
... Although one of the key objectives of sponsorship is to favor brand loyalty, the relationship between the two has had mixed results in the literature (Mazodier & Merunka, 2012). Studies by Donlan (2013) and Levin et al. (2004) found evidence that sponsorship can build brand loyalty. Our study contradicts these findings and validates the view presented by Henseler et al. (2011) that sponsorship is perceived to contribute more to building brand equity through awareness and image than through brand loyalty. ...
This study scrutinizes the influence of sport sponsorship on brand equity in South Africa. It examines the impact and contribution of brand awareness, brand image, brand loyalty and perceived quality resulting from sports sponsorship. The objective was also to understand the influence of sponsorship fit between event and sponsor on brand awareness and brand image. To date, extant research has been conducted in the developed world, mainly in the United States, Europe and Asia. Investigations of sports sponsorship in Africa are sparse. Marshaling the sports sponsorship and brand equity literature, the results show that sponsorship has a major role to play in building brand awareness and brand image. An important and unexpected finding is that the perceived appropriate fit between the sponsor and the sport event has a negative influence on brand awareness and brand image. The implications and recommendations are then discussed.
... [19,21] While NASCAR fans demonstrate stronger brand loyalty than those are in other sports, they are often with their 'affiliated' drivers, teams, and sponsors. [19,22] In such a noisy atmosphere made by scared sound of running engines it creates a high degree of external stimulus and gives a unique 'experience'. [22] Auto racing could have higher risk factor (car accident) than other sports that also provides distinctive entertainment value to 'gratify' oneself or others. ...
... [19,22] In such a noisy atmosphere made by scared sound of running engines it creates a high degree of external stimulus and gives a unique 'experience'. [22] Auto racing could have higher risk factor (car accident) than other sports that also provides distinctive entertainment value to 'gratify' oneself or others. [19] NASCAR events often occupy a whole weekend that allows the spectators to socialize fully with family members, peers, friends, or other fans. ...
... The fans might estimate the costs against 'substance' of benefits (discounted ticket, parking, hotel, and gifts) obtained from the auto racing events. [22] Characteristics of auto racing fans were generally younger, more men (76%) than women (24%), and featured as white American sport. [21,23,24] ...
... As team sponsors financially support their team, they are regarded as important partners in accomplishing the team's goals and are therefore accepted as in-group members (Gwinner & Swanson, 2003). Similarly, highly identified fans are not only inclined to purchase a sponsor's product (Lings & Owen, 2007;Madrigal, 2000) but even become loyal customers of their team' sponsors (Levin, Beasley, & Gambley, 2004), exhibit positive attitudes toward the sponsor, sponsor patronage and satisfaction with the sponsor (Gwinner & Swanson, 2003) and tend to magnify the positive aspects of the sponsors so as to create a compatible image between the team and the sponsor (Gwinner & Bennet, 2008). Hence, it is proposed that: ...
... This conceptualization is consistent with Aaker (1992) who highlights the ability of brand awareness, associations and perceived quality to boost brand loyalty, to provide reasons for consumers to buy a certain brand of a product category and to eliminate their motivation to try other brands (Aaker, 1992). In addition, there is evidence of the sponsorship's ability to increase brand loyalty (Levin et al., 2004), particularly when customers are aware of the sponsorship and have some degree of involvement with the sponsored event (Sirgy, Lee, Johar, & Tidwell, 2008). Nonetheless, studies of this nature are very much in the minority in the wider context of sponsorship research. ...
... Social desirability is regarded as one of the most common type of bias affecting the results of a survey research (Nederhof, 1985) and its effects have been identified by social and marketing researchers (King & Bruner, 2000;Paulhus, 1991). In the sport sponsorship context, there is some concern that fans identified with a sport or a sport team will be willing to show themselves in a way acceptable by the other fans (Levin et al., 2004). In order to reduce social desirability bias effects, the questionnaires were self-administered, anonymous and randomly distributed in the arena and the sport facilities of the academy and collected after several minutes, following the guidelines to confine the risk of social desirability bias proposed in the literature (Nederhof, 1984(Nederhof, , 1985Sudman & Bradburn, 1974;Wiseman, 1972). ...
Drawing on Aaker’s brand equity model and Keller’s brand engagement concept and building on the sponsorship between a professional basketball club and a software company, this study examined how sport sponsorship affects brand equity and purchase behavior of the sponsor’s product. Data from 222 survey respondents were collected and analyzed using structural equation modeling techniques. The results provided evidence that perceived quality and brand engagement impact brand loyalty and purchase behavior of fans toward the sponsor’s product. Perceived fit between sponsor and sponsee and team identification were found to influence significantly sponsor’s brand equity constructs. The study extends Aaker’s model in the sport sponsorship context and highlights the influential role of perceived quality and brand engagement on driving sport team fans to form brand loyalty and purchase sponsor’s product.
http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/4EUMUcnCxfPh6b9GtAHY/full
... Meanwhile, little empirical support regarding a direct link between sponsor identification and purchase intention exist in the sponsorship literature. Levin et al. (2004) found that highly-identified NASCAR fans demonstrated strong attitudinal loyalty toward NASCAR sponsors' products, suggesting that highly-identified fans possess both a strong commitment to the sponsors' products and a willingness to purchase them due to their strong emotional connection. Kim and Kim (2009) also provided empirical evidence that sponsor identification positively affects image transference from the sporting event to the title sponsor. ...
... First, it was proposed that team identification would be positively related to sponsor identification, which, in turn, would act as an important mediator in the relationship between team identification and purchase intention toward the sponsor's product. The findings of the current study provide evidence to support this hypothesis and advance the knowledge base pertaining to the interrelationship of team identification with sponsor identification (e.g., Kim and Kim, 2009) and purchase intention (Gwinner and Swanson, 2003;Ko et al, 2008;Levin et al. 2004). ...
... The motivation for sport fans to become loyal to the brands of their team's sponsors stems from their emotional affiliation with the team, and subsequent commitment to those organisations (e.g., sponsors). Fans exhibit resistance to the promotional efforts of competitors' brands, insensitivity toward the prices of sponsors' brands, and a willingness to pay a premium for the sponsors' brands (e.g., Levin et al., 2004). Advancing this perspective further, this study tested the sponsor identification construct as the mediator between team identification and purchase intention, and found that highly-identified sport fans of a team are likely to become similarly identified with sponsors of the team due to in-group favouritism. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the mediating effect of sponsor identification in the relationship between team identification and purchase intention of a title sponsor's product in the Korea Baseball Organization League (KBO League). Fans of seven teams (N = 691) in the KBO League participated in the study. Results showed that multi-dimensional team attributes such as team attractiveness, team similarity and team awareness, positively affected team identification, and that sponsor identification fully mediated the relationship between team identification and purchase intention. These findings extend previous studies on sponsorship effectiveness and provide empirical support for the relationships between team identification, sponsor identification, and purchase intention.
... By contrast, scholars suggest geography may not influence identification with NASCAR due to the absence of a prominently featured "home field" for drivers and their hometowns. Rather, for NASCAR sport consumers connections to local geographic communities are replaced by loyalty to sponsors and products (Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004;Levin, Beasley, & Gilson, 2008), whereby driver uniforms signal attention to entities like beer brands and car manufacturers rather than cities such as New York and Los Angeles. Stated simply, "NASCAR fans pick drivers regardless of geography" (Hugenberg & Hugenberg, 2008, p. 639). ...
... In no place is the relationship between national media and NASCAR more evident than in television advertising. NASCAR sport consumers are exposed to drivers outside of traditional sport media via commercials and advertisements, and these sponsors and partnerships provide opportunities for identification apart from actual racing (Levin et al., 2004). Two of the most popular drivers in NASCAR-Dale Earnhardt, Jr., and Danica Patrick-are not among the most successful in winning races but they are easily recognized for their numerous endorsements, television commercials, and print advertisements. ...
... Thus, to attract sport consumers to a driver, NASCAR owners could expand efforts to garner media attention for less popular drivers and focus on characteristics that are more appealing to these sport consumers. Previous research into NASCAR and consumer behavior has examined the connection between sport consumers and their focus on brands within the sport (Dees, Bennett, & Ferreira, 2010;Kinney, McDaniel, & DeGaris, 2008;Levin et al., 2004;Levin, Joiner, & Cameron, 2001). ...
This research is a comparison of identification and motivation factors between sports with team as a point
of attachment (college football) and sports with an individual athlete as a point of attachment (NASCAR).
The results contribute to advancing our understanding of identity formation and spectator motivation.
Geography and family were found to be important antecedents of college football team identification, while
media influence drove consumer identification with NASCAR drivers. NASCAR sport consumers were
prone to watch their sport casually, while college football sport consumers were influenced to watch their
sport by the aesthetics of the game, and a relationship to other recreational activities such as tailgating.
Findings help us to understand what specific factors play a role in individuals connecting with different types
of sport symbols, but also have implications for the management, marketing, communications, and selling
of sport and sport-related products.
... The extent of identification of fans with the club is influenced by many factors, including socialization agents (parents and peers), geography, player attractiveness, club success and perceived similarities between fans and the club (Wann, 2006). Furthermore, previous studies have shown that identifiying as a sports fan is related to gender and age of individuals (Levin et al., 2004;Allison & Knoester, 2021). Fan identification is associated with a variety of affective, cognitive, and behavioural outcomes (Wann & Pierce, 2003). ...
... Results relating HFI, gender and age are in line with similar previous studies (Levin et al., 2004;Allison & Knoester, 2021) whereas finding relating income and HFI diverges from them, indicating positive relationship between income and HFI index values. ...
Sports, due to its publicity and social role is an exceptional channel for sponsorship activities. In addition to marketing of sports, goal of sports marketing is marketing through sports. This paper explores changes in fans’ buying intentions toward current and former sponsors when a change of a football club’s main sponsor occurs. Additionally, the role of fan identification and perceived group norms on purchasing intentions is explored. The research was conducted on a sample of 370 respondents. The results of hierarchical regression analysis show that fan identification and perceived group norms are significant predictors of purchasing intentions. Higher values of the Fan Identification and the Perceived Group Norms (PGN) indexes are related to the more pronounced intention to buy more often with the current and less often with the former sponsor. The research confirms the mediating role of PGN in relation to the HFI index and purchase intentions. This work contributes to knowledge by providing insights into the dynamics of fans’ purchase intentions in the specific situation of sponsor change.
... Most scholarship on sports fans has focused on those in college when, coincidentally, sports fanship may be at its peak (End et al., 2004). Sports fanship extends throughout adult life, evidenced by marketing-oriented studies that link sports fanship with appreciation for corporations that sponsor sports (Levin et al., 2004;Madrigal, 2000). Yet, sports fanship intensity may not be a constant throughout life. ...
... Sports fanship can be measured in many ways and is viewed as a multidimensional concept including cognitions, affect, and behaviors . Although ESPN has relied on a single, self-report item assessing fanship avidity and sports marketing scholars have included behavioral measures, those interested in the psychological correlates of fanship have relied on scales that, for the most part, address the affective domain of fanship (Levin et al., 2004;Madrigal, 2000). Along those lines, we used a 17-item measure of sports fanship adapted from Wann (1995). ...
Using two studies and two theoretical perspectives-socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) and social identity theory-this article examines the intensity of sports fanship across the adult lifespan. It is proposed that as adults age, emotional well-being increases, negative affect decreases, life satisfaction is enhanced, and self-identity is less dependent on group affiliation. All of these are likely to diminish the importance of sports fanship for most individuals over time. Adults aged 40 to 87 were surveyed in three data collections (combined N = 2,524). Study 1 used a 17-item measure to identify changes in sports fanship. Study 2 analyzed participants' responses to an open-ended item that asked why their sports fanship decreased or increased over time. Results determined that most participants' fanship significantly diminished with age. Key factors for this were lack of time, shifting priorities, and increasing maturity levels, with the latter marked by decreased passion. A minority of participants reported an increase in fanship, primarily because of a stronger connection to teams and the opportunity sports afforded them to spend time with their family and friends. Gender also mattered. The majority whose fanship decreased were male; the majority of those whose fanship increased were female.
... In sport marketing literature, there is a connection to suggest some demographic variables are positively related to fan identification, and these variables are strong predictors for identification. Demographic variables such as age (e.g., Aiken, Campbell, & Sukhdial, 2010;Brown, Devlin, & Billings, 2013;Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004;Sukhdial, Aiken, & Kahle, 2002) and gender (e.g., Harvard, Eddy, & Ryan, 2016;Levin et al., 2004;Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001) have been shown to be strong predictors of fan identification. ...
... In sport marketing literature, there is a connection to suggest some demographic variables are positively related to fan identification, and these variables are strong predictors for identification. Demographic variables such as age (e.g., Aiken, Campbell, & Sukhdial, 2010;Brown, Devlin, & Billings, 2013;Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004;Sukhdial, Aiken, & Kahle, 2002) and gender (e.g., Harvard, Eddy, & Ryan, 2016;Levin et al., 2004;Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001) have been shown to be strong predictors of fan identification. ...
... Over the past decades, many researchers have made numerous efforts to extensively investigate interesting roles of sport consumers' team identification using various consumption contexts (e.g., sponsorship, licensed goods, spectatorship, etc.). For instance, several studies (e.g., Gwinner & Swanson, 2003;Kwon et al., 2007;Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004) uncovered that team identification has positive impacts on attitude formation and purchase intent. In particular, Levin et al. (2004) conducted an empirical study in the context of NASCAR and revealed that fans highly identified with NASCAR events tend to demonstrate greater levels of brand loyalty. ...
... For instance, several studies (e.g., Gwinner & Swanson, 2003;Kwon et al., 2007;Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004) uncovered that team identification has positive impacts on attitude formation and purchase intent. In particular, Levin et al. (2004) conducted an empirical study in the context of NASCAR and revealed that fans highly identified with NASCAR events tend to demonstrate greater levels of brand loyalty. Likewise, Kwon and others (2007) found that team identification leads sport fans to purchase team licensed goods. ...
By incorporating two different types of event satisfaction (core and peripheral event), the present study aims to test whether sporting event satisfaction can increase fans’ team identification and revisit intent. Data were collected from a total of 224 spectators of a Korean men’s professional basketball event. The results indicate that performance-related satisfaction had a positive impact on both team identification and revisit intent, while peripheral-event-related satisfaction had a positive impact only on revisit intent. Moreover, team identification was found to partially mediate the impact of core event satisfaction on revisit intent. In particular, we found that satisfaction from performance-related elements increased the level of team identification, while satisfaction from event-related factors did not. Examining the mediating role of team identification in the relationship between consumer satisfaction and revisit intent, this study extends the sport marketing literature that has focused primarily on the direct impact of consumer satisfaction on revisit intent.
... Fans feel that sponsorship provides a benefit to the team with which they identify, whereas traditional advertising primarily has a sales objective (Gwinner & Swanson, 2003;Meenaghan, 2001b). Therefore, fans express higher levels of loyalty towards those sponsors that financially support their favourite teams (Levin, Beasley, & Gambley, 2004). On the other hand, empirical studies have shown that fans have less positive attitudes towards firms associated with rival teams (Grohs, Reisinger, & Woisetschlaeger, 2015). ...
... For instance, Gwinner and Swanson (2003) reported that higher levels of team identification among supporters of American football teams were associated with more favourable attitudes towards the image and products of corporate sponsors of the teams. Sport fans are often intensely loyal to those companies that financially support their favourite teams, such as the renowned brand loyalty shown by U.S. fans of NASCAR stock-car racing (Levin et al., 2004). Empirical evidence supports the positive correlation between higher fan identification and sponsorship awareness, positive attitudes and satisfaction towards team sponsors (Gwinner & Swanson, 2003;Madrigal, 2001Madrigal, , 2004Wann, 2006), positive associations towards the sponsor's brand (Donlan, 2014) as well as higher sponsorship consumption (Capella, 2002;Fisher & Wakefield, 1998;Gwinner & Swanson, 2003;Madrigal, 2001Madrigal, , 2004Pope & Voges, 2000;Wann, 2006;Wang, Jain, Cheng, & Aung, 2012). ...
Research question/purpose: Although literature has focused on the impact of sponsorship on the customers’ purchase intentions, the impact of sport team sponsorship on switching intentions on service providers remains a largely overlooked research topic. The study addresses this gap by examining the effects of sport team sponsorship on the switching intentions of service customers, who at the same time are sport fans.
Research methods: The study draws on a sponsorship agreement between a mobile telecommunication company (sponsor) and a European professional football team (sponsored team). Through a survey, 261 responses were collected and subsequently analysed using structural equation modelling techniques.
Results and findings: The results suggest that enhancing the relationship of fans with the team and its sponsor – as well as increasing their level of involvement with the sport – can contribute to increasing the perceived switching cost of the fans regarding mobile telecommunications services. Similarly, strengthening the fans’ attitudes towards the sponsor can reduce their likelihood of switching to another telecommunications provider.
Implications: As the first study to examine the effects of sport team sponsorship on the switching intentions of service customers who at the same time are sport fans, this paper adds to academic understanding of the impacts of sport (football) involvement, team-brand attitude, sponsor-brand attitude, and sponsorship fit on switching intentions and on perceived switching cost of the sponsor’s customers. In doing so, the study also investigates how team identification and sponsor affiliation moderate the influence of the aforementioned attributes.
... The construct team's History and tradition includes the element of regional provenance, which Bauer et al. (2008) describe as country-of-origin effects on a regional or national basis. In the present study, we argue that such effects can be broadly viewed as elements related to the tradition of the club, particularly in the context of European soccer, where teams have a close relationship with their home town and local communities (Beech & Chadwick, 2008 (Levin et al., 2004), one should also note that the image (positive or negative) of the sponsor can have a spill-over effect on the brand image of the team (Bauer et al., 2008). Fans are also considered to play an essential part in creating a team sport's product since they can have a huge impact on several business segments, such as sponsorship and the media (Bauer et al., 2008). ...
... This is connected with the overall attitude of loyal fans towards their team, since the amount of knowledge fans possess provides an indication of their loyalty (Gladden & Funk, 2001). higher levels of loyalty towards those sponsors that financially support their favorite team (Levin et al., 2004), professional sports brands that want to become global need a thorough understanding of the various consumer segments in order to create more targeted strategies (Kim et al. 2013). For instance, professional teams need to consider cultural or language differences before implementing their approach to particular geographic regions. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of social media in brand associations, particularly in regard to soccer fan clubs.
Design/methodology/approach
The study used a professional English Premier League soccer team to investigate the effects that social media interaction had on brand associations of the team’s fan clubs in two national contexts – England and Greece.
Findings
In total, 207 online questionnaires from six fan clubs were collected and analyzed using descriptive and inferential ( t -tests and χ ² tests) statistics.
Originality/value
The results revealed similarities on Facebook in terms of positive receptions of brand attributes and resonance of perceived brand benefits, while significant differences were observed on Twitter, particularly in terms of brand benefits.
... Over recent decades, the sport management research community has extensively investigated the role of fan identification in explaining sport consumers' various consumption behaviors (e.g., sponsorship, license goods, spectatorship, etc.). For example, several previous studies (e.g., Gwinner & Swanson, 2003;Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004) revealed that a high level of fan identification positively affects sport consumers' perceptions of sponsors. In particular, Levin et al. (2004) conducted an empirical study in the context of NASCAR, and showed that highly identified fans are more likely to report greater levels of brand loyalty toward the sponsor brand. ...
... For example, several previous studies (e.g., Gwinner & Swanson, 2003;Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004) revealed that a high level of fan identification positively affects sport consumers' perceptions of sponsors. In particular, Levin et al. (2004) conducted an empirical study in the context of NASCAR, and showed that highly identified fans are more likely to report greater levels of brand loyalty toward the sponsor brand. ...
Despite the benefit of athlete endorsement as a viable marketing communication strategy, the potential risks of such campaigns and their consequences have received little attention from scholars. In particular, the various moral reasoning processes of sport consumers, which are triggered by athletes??? moral transgressions, deserve greater attention, as these psychological mechanisms can affect consumers??? perceptions of brands associated with morally contaminated athletes. The moral reasoning strategies of sport consumers play a crucial role in enabling researchers and practitioners to better understand diverse responses toward the moral transgressions of athlete endorsers. Contemporary research on moral disengagement seems to suggest that this reasoning approach enables the individuals to support of a wrongdoer. However, there still exist situations in the sport marketplace that cannot be explained with moral decoupling (separate performance judgments from morality judgments) and moral rationalization (justify immoral behavior in evaluating a wrongdoer). For instance, some people may find it difficult to either separate performance judgments, or justify immoral behavior of a wrongdoer, and then may tend to conflate both performance and morality judgments when they process celebrity ethical transgressions of athletes. In order to address this theoretical gap, this dissertation mainly focuses on identifying and validating ???moral coupling??? (the integration of morality and performance judgments) as a distinctive yet important moral reasoning process that uniquely functions in the athlete endorsement context. By presenting a series of four experiments, this research and analysis is intended to provide an expanded theoretical framework that facilitates a better understanding of diverse moral reasoning processes, and subsequent responses. Study 1 theorizes and validates the existence of moral coupling as an alternative reasoning process. In addition, this dissertation examines the impact of several potential boundary conditions of moral reasoning strategies and consumer evaluations such as transgression type; the functional fit between athlete and brand (Study 2); and the sociocultural background of sport consumers (Study 3). Finally, causal relationships between fan identification, moral emotions, moral reasoning strategies, and consumer evaluations of an athlete in relation to an associated brand are examined via an actual transgression case involving a celebrity athlete (Study 4).
... In order to provide more value to league sponsors (and consequently increase sponsorship revenue), the UFC should also consider marketing initiatives that would strengthen fan attachment with the league itself, given that the participants in this study were quite heavily involved with following the UFC online (approximately 15 hours per week), but were only somewhat positively attached to the UFC brand (M = 4.74, SD = 1.37). This practical application might also hold true in stock car racing (i.e., NASCAR) considering their fan base displays high lev-els of sponsor brand loyalty and identification with specific drivers (Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004). Not surprisingly, fan attachment to a favorite fighter had a significant, positive relationship with both attitudes towards the fighter sponsor and fighter sponsor purchase intentions. ...
... and .41 for models that examined fan identification, as well as product involvement, brand attitudes, and personality traits of drivers. Given that NASCAR fans are considered to be extremely brand loyal (Dees et al., 2010;Levin et al., 2004), and other significant antecedents to sponsor outcomes were not part of this study (i.e., sponsor image, brand attitudes, sponsor fit; Walraven et al., 2012), the prediction of the models in this study, particularly those involving attitudes toward sponsors, could be considered somewhat strong. ...
In 2009, the US baseball club San Francisco Giants was the first sports club to implement a dynamic pricing system. To date, however, no German sports club has applied dynamic pricing. This paper lays the ground for such a development by identifying determinants of fans’ willingness to pay for Bundesliga tickets. The current study evaluates ticket sales in the German secondary market. Ticket prices of eBay auctions were collected daily during the second half of the Bundesliga season 2013/14. A data set of 6,510 auctions was analyzed by means of a two stage least squares regression. Results suggest that tickets in the secondary market are resold for nearly twice as much as the original face value of the ticket. The final model includes 23 significant variables and explains 59.6% of the variance. The overall results are comparable to previous studies, although there are a number of unique aspects to the current paper. Sport managers can apply these finding to further differentiate their current variable
ticket pricing strategy or to implement a more sophisticated dynamic pricing approach.
... Consequently, enthusiastic or highly identified fans (i.e. die-hard fans) exhibit fan-related attitudinal loyalty to the team and sponsor brands (Bodet & Bernache-Assollant, 2011;Doyle, Filo, McDonald & Funk, 2013;Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004) as well as combined attitudinal and behavioural loyalty (e.g. Stevens & Rosenberger, 2012). ...
... This finding supports previous research, where highly enthusiastic (or identified) fans have been found to display fan-related behaviours and commitment to a particular team (e.g. Bodet & Bernache-Assollant, 2011;Doyle, Filo, McDonald & Funk, 2013;Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004). Lastly, cumulative fan satisfaction was found to have a positive influence on attitudinal loyalty (H4), which is consistent with the literature (e.g. ...
... Consequently, enthusiastic or highly identified fans (i.e. die-hard fans) exhibit fan-related attitudinal loyalty to the team and sponsor brands (Bodet & Bernache-Assollant, 2011;Doyle, Filo, McDonald & Funk, 2013;Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004) as well as combined attitudinal and behavioural loyalty (e.g. Stevens & Rosenberger, 2012). ...
... This finding supports previous research, where highly enthusiastic (or identified) fans have been found to display fan-related behaviours and commitment to a particular team (e.g. Bodet & Bernache-Assollant, 2011;Doyle, Filo, McDonald & Funk, 2013;Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004). Lastly, cumulative fan satisfaction was found to have a positive influence on attitudinal loyalty (H4), which is consistent with the literature (e.g. ...
Accepted for presentation in July, 2015:
Football (soccer) accounts for 43 per cent of the global market for major sports. 3.4 billion people around the world watched the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Competition from other sports is increasing. However, little is known about the antecedents of attitudinal and behavioural loyalty for football fans and how these influences diverge in different cultural settings. This has heightened the need in understanding what drives football fans to be attitudinally committed to and exhibit fan-related behaviours for a team, and how this may vary across German, Brazilian and Chinese fans. A theoretically developed conceptual model is empirically tested using survey data from 762 football fans from Germany, Brazil and China. The findings show that: (a) attitudinal fan loyalty is largely determined by motivation and fanship, followed by overall satisfaction with the team; (b) attitudinal fan loyalty drives behavioural fan loyalty; and (c) the model largely holds in different cultural contexts across countries, although differences were found between German and Brazilian fans for the effects of motivation and fanship. This study offers new insights into advancing the discourse in the area of fan-loyalty research in a cross-national context. Managerial implications and recommendations for future research are also presented.
... Identification plays an important role in sponsorships as well (Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004). In NASCAR, for example, fans are more likely to be aware of and purchase products of sponsors based on their identification to the sport. ...
... Bodkin et al. (2009) found that as fans identified and formed attachments to drivers, they developed a greater commitment to the associated sponsors and causes. Levin et al. (2004) found that as the level of fan identification to a driver increased, so too did their intentions to purchase sponsor-related products. This literature is important since NASCAR drivers are often aligned with the sponsoring brand through commercials and other advertisements, providing an additional point of attachment for even the casual fan to associate with. ...
While NASCAR has traditionally been among the most watched sports in the US, the brand has suffered due to economic conditions and waning interest. As a result, NASCAR has focused its promotional efforts on new marketing and revenue-generating strategies to raise awareness of the sport. One way to increase awareness is through fantasy sports, which have seen a marked uptick in global popularity. However, using fantasy sports to activate involvement among self-described non-fans of a particular sport remains a relatively unexplored area. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of fantasy sports on attitude and certain behavioral factors using a mixed-method, comparison group design. Employing the path analytic model to examine relationships among variables, results indicate significant differences between study conditions and regression analyses show how patronage intentions were influenced. Focus group data buttress the quantitative results and support the use of fantasy sports as a way to convert self-identified sport non-fans into involved fans.
... Similarly, Milne and colleagues (1996) mapped the overlap and unique market positions of over 30 sports, thereby highlighting the perils of sports marketers that ignore differences between sports. In particular, other researchers have isolated motorsport as potentially more conducive to corporate promotional messages than other sports (Cobbs & Hylton, 2012;Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004). Racing fans appear to especially appreciate the monetary and other support provided by corporate marketers in exchange for using motorsports as a promotional platform (Lapio & Speter, 2000). ...
... Highly identified fans support entities that help ensure the continued success of the object of their identification-the team, event, or sport. NASCAR takes pride in nurturing the emotional connections that fans have with the sport and extending those positive connections to the advertisers and sponsors of the sport (Levin et al., 2004). By conceptualizing and measuring fans' acceptance of commercial messages in televised sports programming, our study begins to bridge the gap between fans' connection to the sport and fans' perception of brands marketing through the sport. ...
Advertising, sponsorships, and other marketing communications are commonplace in the contemporary world of sports. Are sports fans irritated and annoyed by this commercial bombardment or are they accepting of the role of sports advertising? This study investigates consumers’ perceptions of commercial messages during televised sporting events. The results indicate that fans of two of the most popular U.S. sports (NFL and NASCAR) generally have high levels of sport commercial acceptance (SCA) in televised broadcasts. NASCAR fans—particularly those highly identified with the sport—are the most tolerant of commercial
messages. While older fans are more likely to be annoyed by commercial messages, women are
more tolerant. To test the potential implication for sports marketers, the study also measured customers’ brand perceptions of Miller Lite beer—a prominent NFL and NASCAR advertiser. Beyond greater commercial acceptance, NASCAR fans who drink Miller Lite also demonstrated higher perceptions of brand equity and emotional attachment to Miller Lite compared to the brand’s customers who were NFL fans.
... Among the factors measuring sponsorship outcomes at the individual level (Cornwell & Kwon, 2020), brand (not team) loyalty has received the least attention in recent years (Dreisbach et al., 2021;Pan & Phua, 2020;Woisetschläger et al., 2017) despite being positioned as one of the main objectives of sponsorship (Levin et al., 2004). Pan and Phua (2020) consider loyalty a continuous process of valuable and remarkable relationships between consumers and brands. ...
Information for measuring the performance of a commercial action is essential for any organization. Sponsorship actions have increased significantly in the last few decades, but academics and practitioners have not yet found a suitable indicator for measuring their performance. This is the first study to propose an objective indicator—frontal Alpha asymmetry (FAA) using an electroencephalogram (EEG). Our goal was to investigate the effectiveness of sports sponsorships by examining both stated preferences and neural responses. We measured the congruence of the stated preferences, attitude, purchase intention, and loyalty, as well as the effective congruence. A 76-subject experiment revealed greater left frontal activity (approach behavior) during congruent versus incongruent sponsorship (avoidance behavior). EEG results were consistent with self-reports, but we found that FAA is positively related to loyalty when sponsorship is congruent and inversely related in the incongruent case. This new indicator of sponsorship effectiveness could be useful for examining the performance of commercial action at both academic and professional levels.
... Sports enthusiasts are not only fans, but also consumers or spectators who engage with their favorite athletes through various means of expression, such as purchasing merchandised products, or watching / following the athlete through mass media or social media (Toder-Alon et al., 2019;Parry, 2009). Identification with an athlete transcends the act of watching a particular sporting event (i.e., a match) as it takes place and extends into the rest of the past time of the fan, thus becoming a way of life, up to the point where the fan comes to worship the athlete and make him or her into a personal hero (Burca et al., 2015;Levin et al., 2004). ...
This sports media research uses a single case study approach to investigate the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mediatic consumption of sports heroes. The case of airing the “3mm” documentary film about WTA tennis player Simona Halep on Romanian television is being analyzed. The theoretical framework is set around the concept of parasocial interaction specific for the mediated relationships between sports fans and their favorite sports brands. The research question asks about the factors induced by the COVID-19 pandemic that might have influenced the rather low audiences of the broadcasted documentary. Results show that, indeed, the COVID-19 pandemic might have well had a considerable impact upon audience figures, mainly because, due to the pandemic situation, the patterns of parasocial interaction between sports fans and sports brands have been altered. The paper discusses the changes in parasocial interaction which occurred due to the pandemic.
... Consumers' positive evaluations of team sponsorship activities help them to form positive attitude towards the sponsored entity (Wakefield and Bennett, 2010). Fans who highly identified with the sponsored entity perceive sponsorship activities as being for the benefit of the team and can generate higher loyalty towards the team sponsor brands (Levin et al., 2004). ...
... In addition, more highly identified fans consider themselves to be members of the group, experiencing positive attitudes toward other members (Lee & Ferreira, 2011). In this sense, sponsors could be accepted as members of the group due to their financial support of the team , which could generate fan loyalty to the sponsor (Levin, Beasley, & Gambley, 2004). Gwinner and Swanson (2003) determined that the more a fan identifies due to higher exposure, the more aware of the sponsor they become . ...
E-sports games can drive the sports industry forward and sponsorship is the best way to engage consumers of this new sport. The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of sponsorship image and consumer participation in co-creation consumption activities on fans' sponsorship response (represented by the variables interest, purchase intention and word of mouth) in e-sports. Four antecedent variables build sponsorship image (i.e., ubiquity of sport, sincerity of sponsor, attitude to sponsor and team identification). A quantitative approach is used for the purposes of this study. Some 445 questionnaires were filled in by fans who watch e-sports in Spain; these are analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The outcomes show that sponsor antecedents are crucial factors if a sponsor wants to change their sponsorship image and influence sponsorship response, and that it is also possible to use participation to improve responses.
... With consumers becoming highly loyal and having a strong emotion to the brand, they are willing to buy more in the future (Aaker and Keller, 1990;Gounaris and Stathakopoulos, 2004). In addition, the connection of the identity also leads addicted consumers to willingness to pay high price to own the product (Levin et al., 2004;Nalbantis et al., 2017). Thus, we posit that: ...
This research explores the role of materialism, and social comparison to brand addiction in relation to compulsive buying. A structural equation modeling was used to analyze data through partial least squares by collecting online data in Vietnam. The research findings explain social comparison is an antecedent leading to addictive behavior. Materialism mediates and increases the addictive behavior when consumers are significantly impacted by social comparison. In addition, brand addiction leads to word-of-mouth and willingness to pay premium price when consumers are set under social comparison and materialistic tendency. The managerial and theoretical application is also provided in this research.
... Here, a person who has identified with a CEO could become a voluntary PR expert who actively informs others of relevant information. We arrive at this conclusion following prior evidence that identification with sports teams affects spectator consumption [87] and that identification with colleges significantly affects fundraising activity [54]. ...
Using the extended theory of planned behavior, this study examined individuals’ cognitive and psychological determinants of their intentions to donate to nonprofit organizations (NPOs) with either a positive or negative chief executive officer (CEO) reputation. With the use of online survey data (n = 371), the similarities and differences in the relationships between the determinants were analyzed for the two NPO CEO reputations. To verify the hypotheses, multiple regression was used to analyze the data. The results reveal that for NPOs with positive CEO reputations, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, moral norms, past behavior, and identification had positive effects on the intention to donate. In contrast, for NPOs with negative CEO reputations, subjective norms and identification had positive effects on the intention to donate. Attitude toward the NPO was not related to donation intentions regardless of the CEO’s reputation. These findings suggest the need for strategies to increase the public’s intentions to donate to problematic NPOs with negative reputations. Additionally, a strategy to further strengthen the intention to donate in the case of a positive CEO reputation is proposed. Theoretical and managerial implications of the results are also discussed, highlighting important considerations for CEO reputations and NPO management in the short and long terms.
... A szerepidentitás vizsgálatok középpontjában emiatt legtöbbször a szurkolók fogyasztói elégedettségének vizsgálata, az elégedettség okainak feltárása kerül. Emellett vizsgálták a hatását olyan társadalmi kérdésekben, mint a többi szurkolóval kapcsolatban megnyilvánuló agresszió , a kollektív önbizalom (Phua, 2010), valamint a mérkőzések médián keresztüli követése (Hu-Tang, 2010;Phua, 2010), a szponzorokhoz fűződő kapcsolat (Chih-Hung Levin et al., 2004), és a turizmus (Smith-Stewart, 2007 A témával is foglalkozó kutatás a sportolóval való azonosulást csupán a csapattal azonosulás kiterjesztéseként értelmezi Trail et al., 2000), vagy a sporttal való azonosuláshoz hasonlóan a sportcsapat irányában való elköteleződés egy újabb pontjaként tekint rá Trail et al., 2003). Trail et al. (2000) a korábbi identifikációs definíció kiterjesztéseként a szelf egy másik személy (a sportoló) ...
The thesis introduces a new approach of the athlete brand, creating a new conceptual approach and link it to Keller's Consumer Based Brand Equity model and Funk's Psychology Continuum Model. It also creates a new type of Athlete Brand Equity scale to measure its dimensions (product-based, non-product based brand attributes, brand benefits and brand attitudes) and link it to the attitudinal and behavioural loyalty of the athlete's fans.
... However, these findings are in contrast with the findings of Amirkhani et al. (2012) who suggested that brand credibility did not have a significant effect on consumer loyalty. Levin, Beasley, and Gamble (2004) believed that brand loyalty is not just continuous purchasing of produces, but a deep commitment to repurchase. In other words, if customers are loyal to a brand, they are likely to pay higher prices for it and the effect of marketing programs on them will be stronger; accordingly, companies will achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. ...
The aim of this study is that by using "Contemplas" measuring instrument and "3D posture compact" testing protocol, determine the degree of postural deformities and differences between boys and girls.
... Such degrees of loyalty are coveted by sponsors, who feed off of this "attitudinal loyalty," enabling them to gain a market advantage over competitors (Levin et al., 2004). This loyalty also represents the potential for a reasonable return on investment (ROI), with the cost of primary sponsorship of one team having increased to upward of $35 million a season (Klara, 2013). ...
... Such degrees of loyalty are coveted by sponsors, who feed off of this "attitudinal loyalty," enabling them to gain a market advantage over competitors (Levin et al., 2004). This loyalty also represents the potential for a reasonable return on investment (ROI), with the cost of primary sponsorship of one team having increased to upward of $35 million a season (Klara, 2013). ...
... On a global basis, $60.1 billion was spent by brand marketers on sponsorship in 2016, an increase of 4.6% from 2015 (IEG, 2017). From the perspective of the sponsoring firm, researchers have proven that investing in sponsorship can positively affect brand awareness (Levin, Joiner & Cameron, 2001), brand image (Gwinner & Eaton, 1999), brand loyalty (Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004), and a firm's financial performance (Mazodier & Rezaee, 2013). At the same time, many sport organizations rely on sponsorship as an essential funding mechanism. ...
With firms spending $60 billion on sponsorship annually, it has become an integral part of the marketing mix and is necessary for the survival of many sport organizations. Despite the importance of these partnerships, conditions that may jeopardize what can be a long-term relationship for both sides are under-researched. Utilizing survival analysis modeling to examine a longitudinal dataset of 69 global sponsorships, the purpose of this research is to isolate factors that predict the dissolution of such partnerships and test a dynamic, integrated model of sponsorship decision-making. From the perspective of the sponsoring firm, congruence and high levels of brand equity were found to reduce the hazard of dissolution. Results indicate that economic conditions, such as an inflationary economy, are a statistically significant predictor of sponsorship dissolution. Increased clutter was also detrimental, with every one sponsor added increasing the hazard of dissolution, demonstrating the importance of exclusivity in global sponsorships.
... However, these findings are in contrast with the findings of Amirkhani et al. (2012) who suggested that brand credibility did not have a significant effect on consumer loyalty. Levin, Beasley, and Gamble (2004) believed that brand loyalty is not just continuous purchasing of produces, but a deep commitment to repurchase. In other words, if customers are loyal to a brand, they are likely to pay higher prices for it and the effect of marketing programs on them will be stronger; accordingly, companies will achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. ...
The purpose of this research is to determine difference of manifestation parameters of football players’ motor abilities at two levels of competition. For research purposes, a sample of respondents was population repre-sented by junior football players (U-19) 8 clubs (4 clubs- 80 football players- Quality Junior League of BiH and 4 clubs- 80 football players of Entity Junior League), total of 160 respondents. Sample of variables used in this research consisted of 12 variables of basal motor abilities. The analysis was conducted between differenes of aritmetic means at univariate level, by using univariate analysis variance (ANOVA) and discriminative differ-ences between I and II level of competition, in the level of motor abilities at multivariate level. 64 At univariate level (central and dispersion parameters) we got information of which variables carry significant differences between groups. Results of ANOVA are pointing to differences and define variables of explosive power, agility and flexibility, which in the highest degree contribute to the differences of two levels of competition. By dis-criminative analysis in manifest space of motor abilities at multivariate level, we got one isolated discriminative function, which is statistically significant at level p < .01, (sig..00). These differences probably occurred as a result of application of different training technologies, and planned and programmed work on higher level of competition.
Keywords: Differences, level of competition, motor abilities, football.
... However, these findings are in contrast with the findings of Amirkhani et al. (2012) who suggested that brand credibility did not have a significant effect on consumer loyalty. Levin, Beasley, and Gamble (2004) believed that brand loyalty is not just continuous purchasing of produces, but a deep commitment to repurchase. In other words, if customers are loyal to a brand, they are likely to pay higher prices for it and the effect of marketing programs on them will be stronger; accordingly, companies will achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. ...
Abilities of strong and coordinated performance are important and necessary for function of all football activ-ities. Verhejn (1997) states that footballers need strength for everything they do. Modern football demands of a player proportional development of all muscle body areas through integration of training of strenght into one complete training. Problem of the research is determining the effect of programmed training of isokinetic potentials of dynamic stabilizers in footballers, with the goal of integrating training contents into complete sport preparation of a footballer. Sample subjects used in research are junior footballers (U-18) of quality junior league of B&H in competition; season 2010/ 2011. There were 20 subjects altogether. Criteria was: 15 played games in the last season, participation in training of at least 80% in the last season and at least 4 years of experience in playing football. Biodex Isokinetic System is used for testing strong potentials of footballers (speed 60 °/s). Initial and final testing was performed. Between tests there was programmed training process of strength of dynamic knee stabilizers (12 weeks). 36 training programmed stimulus (3 training stimulus a week) were performed in the introductory preparation part of training. Structure of programmed exercises was consisted of: squats, lunge, duels, pushing, jumps, short sprints and endurance. Functional exercises of strength were used and as they developed, they progressed into exercises for specific situations. Determining quantity differences between initial and final measurement was performed by T-test for dependent samples. Treated variables which include muscle potential of knee extensor and knee flexor: EXTLEF60 - max. torque of knee extensor of the left leg; EXTRIG60 - max. Torque of knee extensor of the right leg; EXTWLF60 – complete work of knee extensors of left leg; EXTWRG60 – complete work of knee extensors of right leg ; AVGPELF60 – average strength of knee extensor of left leg; AVGPERG60 - average strength of knee extensor of right leg; FLXLEF60 - max. Torque of knee flexor of left leg; FLXRIG60 - max. Torque of knee flexor of right leg; FLX-TWLF60 – complete work of knee flexor of left leg; FXTWRG60 – complete movement of knee flexor of right leg; AVGPFLF60 - average strenght of knee flexor of left leg; AVGPFRG60 – average strenght of knee flexor of right leg. Research results have shown statistically significant differences between initial and final measure-ment (p<0.05) in favour of final measurement. Research shows that using exercises and movements based on your own body weight (squats, lunge, duels, sprints, jumps, pushing, endurance) which are specific for football, led by adequate distribution of physical burden and certain periods of time, improve strength perfor-mance without disturbing football performance. We need to look for reasons in adequate functional exercises, which in progress, turned into exercises for specific situations. Generally saying, it is necessary to find com-patibility in exercise and situational performance and to try to accomplish multiple effects with one exercise.
... Further, fans possessing high levels of identification are also more likely to be highly involved with the sport and very loyal to particular drivers. As today's NASCAR drivers are branded (both literally and figuratively), these same fans often form an inextricable link between a driver and his sponsor and (as a result) have been found to demonstrate purchase-related loyalty to the sponsor (Amato et al., 2005;Levin et al., 2004). Thus, NASCAR drivers serve as celebrity endorsers for their sponsor's and are viewed as such by their fans. ...
Despite anecdotal claims attesting to the influence that social responsiveness has on the purchase behaviors of consumers, this article examined if a specific initiative could result in such outcomes. We investigated the extent to which the Drive for Diversity (D4D) initiative affected consumers' perceived image and patronage directed toward NASCAR. This study was partially motivated by the importance of social initiatives in practice to underscore their influence on customer-related outcomes. As such, the findings indicated that the NASCAR's D4D and the perceived image of the organization are key variables in the model. The results also highlighted the mediating role of image and the moderating role of identification on the proposed relationship. More specifically, the authors found that the socially responsive initiative only moderately influenced consumers' intentions but when coupled with the image of the organization, this relationship became far more impactful.
... However, the relationship between brand loyalty and sponsorship has received little attention, possibly as a result of the difficulty in ascribing purchasing behaviours to a single marketing communications tool. Nonetheless, some support has been found for sponsorship's ability to build brand loyalty (Levin et al, 2004). Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: previous experimental sponsorship research: the lack of generalizability to live market settings. ...
Using the theoretical framework of consumer-based brand equity, this paper reports findings from a cross-sectional survey, measuring the comparative brand-building effectiveness of sponsorship for new and established brands. Results suggest that sponsorship is capable only of building awareness for new brands, while for an established brand, sponsorship exposure is found to impact positively on brand associations, perceived quality and brand loyalty. The need for an underlying level of brand knowledge for image transfer to occur is proposed, suggesting that the brand-building role of sponsorship is one of reinforcement, rather than creation. The findings have practical implications relating to sponsorship selection.
... Beyond a strictly political economic reading of corporate domination, however, what is there to say about the logo-saturated visual field of NASCAR? Why, rather than protesting this brand saturation, do NASCAR fans have a reputation for being loyal consumers of the brands that sponsor their favorite teams (Levin, Beasley, & Gamble, 2004)? NASCAR's affective comfort with the brand, culminating in a brand-driven fandom, where a fan might even follow the brand rather than the driver (Wright, 2002, pp. ...
What are the cultural logics linking anti-environmentalism with social conservatism and pro-corporate politics? An investigation of NASCAR (the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) reveals the ways in which this sport embodies a relatively common American structure of feeling and corporeal relation to nature. Industrialization and neoliberal globalization have attenuated place-based identities, ecological affordances and subsistence strategies. As an expression of white American cultural citizenship, NASCAR manages this economic and ecological insecurity through a rearticulation of patriarchal familial commodity consumption and mobility. The evacuation of residual meanings and practices tied to specific ecologies makes the heteronormative nuclear family the privileged site for the type of consumption that signifies national belonging. An expectation of mobility underlines this detached consumption and also constitutes an appropriation of national territory. NASCAR thus represents a genre of American cultural citizenship that is implicated in the cultural politics of environmental protection and other public goods.
... Equally, some studies have provided evidence of sponsorship's ability to increase brand loyalty, particularly in the case of NASCAR racing (Levin et al., 2004). In another study relating to NASCAR, Sirgy et al. (2008) found that self-congruity with sponsored sports events positively impacts sponsor brand loyalty when customers are aware of the sponsorship and have some degree of involvement with the sponsored event. ...
Purpose
– The purpose of this study is to assess, in two different live sponsorship environments, the contribution of sponsorship to consumer-based brand equity.
Design/methodology/approach
– The study adopts a quantitative survey methodology, employing self-administered questionnaires at two UK sporting events (athletics and cricket). To isolate the impact of sponsorship, questionnaires were also distributed to comparison sample groups not exposed to the sponsorship activities. The elements of consumer-based brand equity are operationalized in line with Aaker's (1996) brand equity measurement tool.
Findings
– Sponsorship can be an appropriate vehicle through which to build consumer-based brand equity; however brand-building success is not guaranteed and is subject to a range of factors impacting upon particular sponsorships, including strength of the sponsor-event link, leverage activities and clutter. The most successful sponsorship displayed marked contributions to building brand associations, perceived quality and brand loyalty. However, the presence of sponsorship clutter in particular was found to impact negatively upon the perception of quality transferred to a brand through sponsorship.
Research limitations/implications
– The use of live event settings limits the ability to tightly control all variables; therefore replication of this study using experimental methodologies is recommended. Nonetheless, findings indicate managers should consider the above mentioned contextual factors when selecting sponsorships in order to maximize sponsorship success.
Originality/value
– This study explores the contribution of sports sponsorship to consumer-based brand equity in live sponsorship settings, addressing concerns over the generalizability of previous experimental studies. Equally, this study compares the brand equity-building effectiveness of sponsorship for two sponsors, which differ on a range of contextual factors that impact upon sponsorship success.
A qualitative study utilizing interviews was used to identify the core motivations for the origination of collegiate sport fanship and fandom in the American Southeast. The sample included 20 individual adults that reside in the southeastern United States, either Alabama ( n = 2), Arkansas ( n = 3), Kentucky ( n = 3), Mississippi ( n = 5), or South Carolina ( n = 7). The sample only included participants from these particular states due to the unique context they provide, as well as exploring how identity as a Southerner may influence collegiate fanship and fandom. Each of these states house at least two major Division 1 NCAA collegiate athletics department, while also not housing any major-league-level professional sports. Thus, participants were more likely to identify with collegiate sports than those living in a region with a professional franchise. Results informed Social Identity theory, and indicated that there are a number of different factors that lead to the origination of collegiate fanship and fandom. Many of the factors deal with family ties, geography, and feeling a sense of belonging.
Purpose
The primary purpose of this study is to examine how fan attendance at team special events and player appearances impact fan consumption (as measured by merchandise sales). Insights obtained could shed light on opportunities for professional soccer teams to expand revenues through enhanced fan consumption of goods and services.
Design/methodology/approach
A sample of 499 season ticket holders were used to assess fan consumption by measuring merchandise sales. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions were run for merchandise sales as the dependent variable of fan consumption. The control variables were age, gender (male = 1, 0 otherwise), and whether an individual has children.
Findings
The key independent variables of attending special events and fan–player bonding were both found to have a statistically significant impact on merchandise sales. Results show that each additional special event attended generates up to $33.71 in merchandise sales for the club. Similarly, each fan–player bonding experience attended also has a direct impact, increasing merchandise consumption by $23.00.
Social implications
The results of this study provide insights that can help fan consumption grow within the professional United States soccer industry and better allow team managers to make decisions about the possible benefits of holding more special events and fan–player bonding experiences. The findings also confirm the impact personal relationships with fans can have on the bottom line of sport franchises.
Originality/value
Though this study adds to the body of literature by expanding previous work on fan consumption, there are limited studies on the social aspects of consumption which are examined and analyzed within this study, particularly of note is the study of merchandise sales as proxy for fan consumption.
The sports industry seems to be embedded in the global culture to such a degree that many activities positioning or using sports elements seem to emerge every day, such as esport, competitive video games. At the same time, other activities, which have the legal status of a sport, such as chess, are mostly not considered as sports by consumers. A paradox thus seems to exist between the classification of an activity as a sport and the categorization and mental representation that consumers have of it.Based on this observation, the first objective of this research is to understand and measure the elements that influence the perception of leisure activities as sports by consumers. This measurement, called perceived sportivity, is carried out through an initial historical and sociological review of the concept of sport. We go back to its origin and analyze its evolution to understand its components and influences. Then, based on a series of qualitative and quantitative studies, we develop a measurement instrument to measure this perception and categorization as a sport by consumers. This measurement instrument consists of 8 items divided into two dimensions called physicality (5 items) and equipment (3 items).Once this instrument measuring perceived sportivity has been created and validated from a convergent and discriminating point of view, but also within a nomological network, we propose to test it in two contexts. First, we test the effects of perceived sportivity in a field study. This field study uses one of the most-watched and most-played video games in the world: League of Legends. In this field study, we test and confirm the effects of perceived sportivity on brand perception, i.e. brand personality, brand identification, and perceived brand legitimacy. Finally, we also measure and confirm the influence of brand perception on 3 variables: consumer engagement, perceived value, and purchase intention. These results are then replicated in an experiment where the two dimensions of sportivity are manipulated through visual and textual stimuli.
Sponsorluk, iyi tanımlanmış hedef kitleye ulaşmak ve markanın mesajını iletmek amacıyla pazarlama iletişim araçları arasında en çok kullanılan araçlardan biridir. Sponsor
olan marka için tüketici açısından bilinirliği ve tercih edilebilirliği artırma, satın almaya
yönlendirirken, sponsor olunan marka için ise ekonomik olarak katkı sağlama, marka işbirliği yapma, destek olma konularında katkı sağlamaktadır. Hedef kitleye kolay ulaşım
açısından sponsor markalar en çok futbol takımlarına sponsor olmakta ve giderek büyük
oranlarda bu yönde harcama yapmaktadır. Gerçekleştirilen marka sponsorluklarının, tüketici açısından taraftarların marka tercihine, satın almış olduğu markayı değiştirme davranışına etkisi ise yapılan sponsorluğun etkinliğinin değerlendirilmesi açısından önemlidir. Bu amaçla hazırlanan çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden odak grup çalışması yürütülmüştür. Amaçlı örneklem yöntemi kullanılarak Türkiye’deki 4 büyük futbol takımı taraftarından toplam 4 kişi olmak üzere birer kişi örnekleme dahil edilmiştir. Katılımcılara araştırma amacına yönelik 5’er soru sorulmuştur. Araştırma sonuçlarında futbol takımına sponsor olan markanın, marka tercihi ve önceden satın alınan markayı değiştirme üzerindeki etkisinin bazı ürün/hizmet gruplarına göre farklılaştığı tespit edilmiştir. Futbol takımı başarısına bağlı olarak sponsor olan markanın hatırlanma oranının arttığı ve marka tercihi ve marka değiştirme üzerinde daha fazla etkili olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Ayrıca yansıtılan anlam ve duyguların aktarımına bağlı olarak sponsor olan markayı daha çok satın alabilecekleri belirtilmiştir. Futbol ile yüksek uyumlu sponsorluk algısının o markayı tercih etme ve değiştirme üzerinde daha fazla etkisi olduğu, futbol takımına ek bir destek olması durumunda sponsor olan markayı daha çok tercih etme ve marka değiştirme davranışında bulunabileceği belirlenmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Futbol Takımı, Sponsor Marka, Marka Tercihi, Marka Değiştirme Davranışı
Abstract
Sponsorship is one of the most used marketing communication tools to reach a well defined target audience and convey the brand's message. For the sponsoring brand while it contributes to increase awareness and preferability in terms of consumers, to guide them to purchase, for the sponsored brand it contributes to economically, to cooperate with the brand and to support them. In terms of easy access to the target audience, sponsor brands mostly sponsor football teams and spend large amounts in this direction. The effect of the brand sponsorships on the brand preference of the fans and the brand switching behavior that have been purchased isimportant in terms of evaluating the effectiveness of the sponsorship. In the study prepared for this purpose, focus group study, which is one of the qualitative research methods was carried out. Using the purposive sampling method, 1 people were included from every team in the sample, and totally 4 of whom were fans of the 4 big football teams in Turkey. 5 questions were asked to participants for the purpose of the research. In the results of the research, it has been determined that the effect of the brand sponsoring the football team on brand preference and brand switching behavior differs according to some product/service groups. It has been concluded that the recall rate of the sponsor brand increases depending on the success of the football team and this has a greater effect on brand preference and brand switching. In addition, it was stated that they could buy the sponsoring brand more depending on the transfer of the reflected meaning and emotions. It has been determined that the perception of high fit sponsorship has more effect on preferring and switching and if there is an additional support for the football team, they may prefer the sponsor brand more and switch previously that have purchased brand.
Keywords: Football Team, Sponsor Brand, Brand Preference, Brand Switching Behavior
In recent years we have seen an increase in corporate and media interest in women’s sport leagues and events. Despite the increase in commercialism and professionalism of women’s sport, there is a lack of research focusing on the marketing of and through women’s sport. This current study addresses this gap, examining the motivations of sponsors involved in the women’s Australian Rules football national league. Exploratory in outlook, this paper presents insights from key sponsorship decision-makers. It was found that sponsorship was motivated by a desire to promote gender equality at a firm, industry and broader societal level. Sponsorship of women’s football provides convergence of corporate social responsibility and commercial benefits. The paper provides insights for sport marketing and initiates the conversation of women’s sport sponsorship.
Sportsponsoring ist in den verschiedensten Ausprägungsformen allgegenwärtig in unserer Gesellschaft. Dies reicht vom Einsatz prominenter Sportler in der Werbung bis hin zu Sportstätten, die den Namen eines Sponsors tragen. Sportsponsoring ist eine Partnerschaft zwischen Sponsor und Gesponserten zum beiderseitigen Vorteil auf der Basis einer vertraglichen Vereinbarung. Charakteristisch ist hierbei das Prinzip von Leistung und Gegenleistung. Der Sportsponsor strebt an, die besonderen, teilweise einzigartigen Werte und Eigenschaften des Sports sowie das große Interesse der Konsumenten am Sport für seine eigenen Marketing- und Kommunikationsziele zu nutzen. Für den Gesponserten handelt es sich demgegenüber um ein wichtiges Beschaffungs- bzw. Finanzierungsinstrument für das Erreichen sportlicher Zielstellungen. Um Sportsponsoring erfolgreich zu nutzen, bedarf es eines systematischen Vorgehens im Rahmen des Sportsponsoringmanagementprozesses. Voraussetzung dafür ist ein fundiertes Verständnis der Wirkungsprozesse und -voraussetzungen des Sportsponsorings.
This chapter firstly aims to introduce the notion of sports sponsorship and the effect it has on the commercialization of products and services with society and, more importantly, its use by companies to project a positive image associated with their brand and objectives. Secondly, the chapter explains the various measurement and evaluation tools available for efficacy transmission of image in sponsorship. It provides a process model for the implementation of the sport sponsorship model based on Irwin and Asimakopoulos (1992) and later adapted by Karg (2007). Finally, the chapter compares sports sponsorship investment in Chile with more advanced countries such as Spain and the United States and how companies allocate funding towards sports with the aim of increasing their brand in associated markets.
Sports sponsorship is perceived as important in developing relationships with key clients. However, few companies set relationship marketing objectives when sponsoring sports. This paper aims to examine whether sports sponsors are pursuing the right objectives. It concludes that a deeper understanding of the sponsor's relationship marketing objectives could heighten the sponsor's success, thereby reinforcing and sustaining their own relationship with the sponsoring organisation.
NASCAR (The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) has instituted an aggressive growth campaign. NASCAR's compelling challenge is to retain its core fan base south-eastern US consumers - while also attracting a new upscale demographic and an international following. One targeted initiative was a three-year commitment to feature the NASCAR Busch Series at the Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez, near Mexico City. This paper explores the assimilation of NASCAR's core product into a Hispanic subculture, observes the media's depiction of the expansion, and discusses the US fan reaction to racing in Mexico.
This research examined fans' purchase intentions towards the sponsor of a NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) event and towards the previous sponsor. The study shows that fans are more likely to purchase from the current sponsor and less likely to purchase from the previous sponsor. Fan identification and perceived group norms were significant predictors of purchase intentions towards the current sponsor, but only perceived group norms predicted purchase intentions towards the ex-sponsor. Additionally, perceived group norms partially mediated the relationship between fan identification and purchase intention.
This study approaches corporate sponsorship of sport as identification rhetoric to further understand the relationship created between consumers and corporate sponsors. The focus is on the corporate sponsorship of the NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) Sprint Cup Series, examining how sponsorship messages utilise identification tactics. The study finds that messages rhetorically create identification through common ground and unifying symbol strategies between the sponsor and sponsored activity, and between the sponsor and consumer.
Evaluating sponsorship activities at elite intercollegiate sporting events has become critical to determining sponsorship effectiveness and maximizing the relation-ships between athletic departments and their corporate partners. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the sponsorship of an elite intercollegiate football program by analyzing the effects of the constructs of attitude toward the sponsor, goodwill, and fan involvement on consumer purchase intentions. In this study (N=394), there were 52% males, 11% Caucasians, and 71% per-cent of the participants ranging from 18-24 years of age. Purchase intentions served as the dependent vari-able while attitude toward the sponsor, goodwill, and fan involvement served as the independent variables. According to the multiple regression analysis, goodwill had the most impact on consumers' intentions to sup-port the corporate sponsors via purchasing behaviors. Although attitude toward the sponsor and fan involve-ment are important facets of sponsorship effectiveness, goodwill may be one of the keys to transforming avid fans into loyal consumers.
Investments in sponsorship strongly increased during the last decades. Therefore, it is valuable to determine which factors determine sponsorship effectiveness. This paper presents a literature review that forms the foundation for the development of an integrated framework of sponsorship outcomes. This paper extends previous conceptual work in that all kinds of sponsorship effects are considered, not only brand equity effects. Furthermore, recent findings and insights are incorporated. It can be concluded that although empirical research on sponsorship's effects advanced, several areas remain unexplored, in particular the effects of sponsorship on the relations between sponsor and stakeholders. Opportunities for further research have been translated in specific research propositions.
Despite the growing role of sponsorship in the marketing activities of firms worldwide, academic research in this area has been limited. Adopting a classical conditioning framework, this research examines the effects of consumers’ attitudes about a sports event, their perceptions of sponsor-event fit, and their attitudes about the sponsor on a multidimensional measure of sponsorship response. The results suggest that sponsor-event fit, perceived sincerity of the sponsor, perceived ubiquity of the sponsor, and attitude toward the sponsor are key factors in generating a favorable response from sponsorship. Liking of the event and perceived status of the event have differing significance depending on how response is measured. Sponsorevent fit also has interaction effects with perceived status of the event and personal interest in the event. The implications of these findings for sponsors and event managers are examined, and future research directions are outlined.
A tremendous growth in the use of multi-item scales in marketing research has occurred over the past two decades. Concurrently, there is increasing concern about the quality of these measures. Although the majority of marketing-related articles now discuss the reliability of the scales administered, few address the issue of scale validity. One aspect of scale validity, which should be of particular concern to marketing researchers, is the potential threat of contamination due to social-desirability response bias. However, a careful review of nearly 20 years of published research suggests that social-desirability bias has been consistently neglected in scale construction, evaluation, and implementation. The purpose of this article is to discuss the nature of such a bias, methods for identifying, testing for and/or preventing it, and how these methods can and should be implemented in consumer-related research. ©: 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Customer loyalty is viewed as the strength of the relationship between an individual’s relative attitude and repeat patronage.
The relationship is seen as mediated by social norms and situational factors. Cognitive, affective, and conative antecedents
of relative attitude are identified as contributing to loyalty, along with motivational, perceptual, and behavioral consequences.
Implications for research and for the management of loyalty are derived.
Both practitioners and academics understand that consumer loyalty and satisfaction are linked inextricably. They also understand that this relation is asymmetric. Although loyal consumers are most typically satisfied, satisfaction does not universally translate into loyalty. To explain the satisfaction-loyalty conundrum, the author investigates what aspect of the consumer satisfaction response has implications for loyalty and what portion of the loyalty response is due to this satisfaction component. The analysis concludes that satisfaction is a necessary step in loyalty formation but becomes less significant as loyalty begins to set through other mechanisms. These mechanisms, omitted from consideration in current models, include the roles of personal determinism ("fortitude") and social bonding at the institutional and personal level. When these additional factors are brought into account, ultimate loyalty emerges as a combination of perceived product superiority, personal fortitude, social bonding, and their synergistic effects. As each fails to be attained or is unattainable by individual firms that serve consumer markets, the potential for loyalty erodes. A disquieting conclusion from this analysis is that loyalty cannot be achieved or pursued as a reasonable goal by many providers because of the nature of the product category or consumer disinterest. For some firms, satisfaction is the only feasible float for which they should strive; thus, satisfaction remains a worthy pursuit among the consumer marketing community. The disparity between the pursuit of satisfaction versus loyalty, as well as the fundamental content of the loyalty response, poses several investigative directions for the next wave of postconsumption research.
The authors examine two aspects of brand loyalty, purchase loyalty and attitudinal loyalty, as linking variables in the chain of effects from brand trust and brand affect to brand performance (market share and relative price). The model includes product-level, category-related controls (hedonic value and utilitarian value) and brand-level controls (brand differentiation and share of voice). The authors compile an aggregate data set for 107 brands from three separate surveys of consumers and brand managers. The results indicate that when the product- and brand-level variables are controlled for, brand trust and brand affect combine to determine purchase loyalty and attitudinal loyalty. Purchase loyalty, in turn, leads to greater market share, and attitudinal loyalty leads to a higher relative price for the brand. The authors discuss the managerial implications of these results.
A television clip of a NASCAR race, complete with commercials, was used to assess the impact of brand sponsorship on consumer attitude and recall. Attitudes towards the brands that appeared as logos on cars were higher for those who watched the video than for those who did not, but only for subjects scoring high in involvement. When equated for total time of exposure, recall was higher for brands exposed through logos than for brands exposed through traditional ads. However, the most effective strategy seems to be one in which traditional advertising is combined with sponsorship.
Companies have increasingly turned to sponsorship as a marketing communications vehicle in the hopes that the goodwill that consumers feel toward an event, cause, or sports team will rub off on their brands. The current study tests a beliefs–attitude–intentions hierarchy in the context of the corporate sponsorship of a major university's sports teams. The direct and indirect effects of social identity with the university's teams (i.e., team identification) on intentions to purchase products from a corporate sponsor are also considered. A random-digit dialing methodology was used to collect data from 368 individuals. In general, the results supported the hypotheses. Of special interest was team identification's ability to moderate the effect of attitude on purchase intentions. As predicted, attitude toward purchasing a sponsor's products was more highly related to purchase intentions for low identifiers than for high identifiers. Specifically, among those with an unfavorable attitude, high identifiers had significantly more positive intentions to purchase than did low identifiers. For high identifiers, it appears that team identification acts as a heuristic that favorably predisposes them to want to buy products from a sponsor in spite of their evaluation of that action. Marketing implications are discussed. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.