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Ultrasound Assisted Extraction and Characterization of Pectin from Tomato Waste
... Obtained yields ranged from 4.3% (obtained by classical ammonium oxalate/oxalic acid extraction from black TP) up to 86.4% (obtained by high-pressure homogenizationfacilitated acid extraction of alcohol insoluble residue remaining after blanching of tomatoes) [128]. Taking into account only intact TP, the highest obtained pectin yield was 35.7%, and it was obtained by UAE using ammonium oxalate/oxalic acid extraction [129]. ...
... When optimized to produce the highest yields, green extraction techniques are in the majority of cases significantly shorter compared to CSE. For example, Grassino and coauthors [129] obtained similar pectin yields after 36 h of CSE and 180 min of UAE. In 30 and 45 min extraction protocols, HPE resulted in 14-15% increased yields compared to CSE [115]. ...
... Impact of the type of extraction on tomato pectin quality characteristics has been less investigated. Grassino and colleagues [129] compared chemical characteristics of pectin obtained by CSE and UAE and concluded that they are primarily affected by temperature and duration of extraction, and less by extraction technique. However, pectin obtained by MAE had a significantly higher galacturonic acid (GalA) and lycopene content compared to UAE obtained pectin, in spite of similar extraction conditions [93]. ...
Tomato processing waste (TPW), a byproduct of the tomato processing industry, is generated in significant quantities globally, presenting a challenge for sustainable waste management. While traditionally used as animal feed or fertilizer, TPW is increasingly recognized for its potential as a valuable raw material due to its high content of bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids, polyphenols and pectin. These compounds have significant health benefits and are in growing demand in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Despite this potential, the broader industrial utilization of TPW remains limited. This review explores the influence of various processing, pretreatment and extraction methods on the concentration and stability of the bioactive compounds found in TPW. By analyzing the effects of these methodologies, we provide insights into optimizing processes for maximum recovery and sustainable utilization of TPW. Additionally, we address the major challenges in scaling up these processes for industrial application, including the assessment of their ecological footprint through life cycle analysis (LCA). This comprehensive approach aims to bridge the gap between scientific research and industrial implementation, facilitating the valorization of TPW in line with circular economy principles.
... Within the Solanaceae family, tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplants are the most widely consumed and industrially processed vegetables, whose wastes can be enhanced as a pectin source [31,68]. ...
... Different innovative and traditional methods have been developed to improve the extraction efficiency and pectin quality from tomato waste, consisting of seed, skin, and residual pulp [68]. Among the innovative techniques, UAE, MAE, and ultrasound-microwaveassisted extraction (UAME) were generally applied to treat tomato waste powder and the best conditions involved the use of citric acid under pH 1.0-1.5 and LSR 1:20 (w/v), and the UAE and MAE combination resulted in an increase in the yield [32]. ...
... These findings are important for better understanding the potential industrial The variation in methoxyl content is also observed in Solanaceae-plant-derived pectins. In fact, tomato waste [68], eggplant peels [72], and calyx [73] provided HMP, while LMP was recovered from potato peels and pulp byproducts [74]. Similarly, cucurbit fruits generally contain HMP, with the exception of cantaloupe melon peels [66,67]. ...
Pectin, a natural biopolymer, can be extracted from food waste biomass, adding value to raw materials. Currently, commercial pectin is mostly extracted from citrus peels (85.5%) and apple pomace (14.0%), with a small segment from sugar beet pulp (0.5%). However, driven by high market demand (expected to reach 2.12 billion by 2030), alternative agro-industrial waste is gaining attention as potential pectin sources. This review summarizes the recent advances in characterizing pectin from both conventional and emerging food waste sources. The focus is the chemical properties that affect their applications, such as the degree of esterification, the neutral sugars’ composition, the molecular weight, the galacturonic acid content, and technological–functional properties. The review also highlights recent updates in nutraceutical and food applications, considering the potential use of pectin as an encapsulating agent for intestinal targeting, a sustainable biopolymer for food packaging, and a functional and emulsifying agent in low-calorie products. It is clear from the considered literature that further studies are needed concerning the complexity of the pectin structure extracted from emerging food waste raw materials, in order to elucidate their most suitable commercial application.
... Crude pectin displays a brown-black color, a contrast to the standard pectin which varies from white to light brown [9]. Various research has linked this dark color of crude pectin to the presence of oxidized polyphenols [10], watersoluble pigments [11], and low molecular weight impurities [12]. Moreover, some have suggested that this dark coloration is a result of tissue damage and enzymatic browning leading to melanin biosynthesis. ...
... respectively. As previously noted, the dark color of Saba banana pectin can be attributed to the presence of oxidized polyphenols [10], water-soluble pigments [11], and low molecular weight impurities [12]. While AD managed to remove a fraction of the total phenolics, it did not significantly enhance the color, suggesting that some phenolic compounds may be bound to pectin molecules. ...
Ultrasound-assisted extraction of pectin from Saba banana (Musa acuminata x balbisiana (BBB Group) “Saba”) peels produced crude pectin that requires further purification. Two downstream processes (alcohol washing (AW) and acid demethylation (AD)) were compared. AW involved gelatinous precipitate washing with 85% alcohol and pressing to squeeze out liquids, while AD involved a sequential AW of the dried pectin with 60% acidified alcohol, and 60% and 95% alcohol solutions. Results showed that both methods produced low methoxyl pectins with similar color, yield, and moisture content, with no significant (p>0.05) differences observed. AD, however, produced pectin with better quality in terms of ash content and anhydrouronic acid (AUA) content relative to the control. Fourier transform infrared spectra revealed that the samples contain -OH, C-H, COO⁻, COO, and C-O groups, but only AD has COO-R due to structural modification. Overall, AD has the potential to improve the quality of crude ultrasound-extracted pectin from Saba banana peels. Yet, pre-extraction processing methods are necessary to meet FAO color standards for pectin.
... Pectin consists of a linear chain of α-(14)-linked d-galacturonic acid units [43]. To study for upcycling, Grassino et al. examined several methods of extracting pectin from tomato waste, including conventional extraction with ammonium oxalate/oxalic acid and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) [44]. They concluded that the highest yield of pectin was obtained from conventional extraction at 60 °C while the best quality was yielded using UAE with 15 min of sonification [44]. ...
... To study for upcycling, Grassino et al. examined several methods of extracting pectin from tomato waste, including conventional extraction with ammonium oxalate/oxalic acid and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) [44]. They concluded that the highest yield of pectin was obtained from conventional extraction at 60 °C while the best quality was yielded using UAE with 15 min of sonification [44]. Shivamathi et al. utilized pineapple peel waste to extract pectin through UAE and obtained a maximum pectin yield of 16.2% at a 15.2 mL/g liquid-to-solid ratio [45]. ...
Globally, an estimated 1.3 billion tons of food are wasted each year, according to a report from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. A variety of waste streams constantly generate large amounts of food waste that end up in landfills. As food waste is left to naturally decay in landfills, it emits greenhouse gases that pollute the environment and induce climate change. However, most types of food waste contain valuable components that can be extracted to manufacture industrial products. Therefore, instead of abandoning food waste to decay and harm the environment, there is an alternative to upcycle it as a new raw materials supply source. This review provides a comprehensive update on how environmental sustainability can be improved using diverse types of food waste as sources to generate biomaterials for fabricating medical products, including lignin, cellulose, chitosan, pectin, collagen, hydroxyapatite, and biodegradable polymers. The review also highlights biochemical technologies applied for extracting useful components from food waste and details the current advances for developing medical products, including wound dressings and nanoparticles for tissue engineering and drug delivery.
... Según Du et al. (2021), la aplicación del ultrasonido ha incrementado el rendimiento de extracción de fibra dietética soluble; sin embargo, también se ha observado que modifica algunas propiedades de las fibras dietéticas tales como tamaño y textura. Además la aplicación del ultrasonido tuvo efecto sobre el grado de esterificación siendo inversamente proporcional al tiempo de aplicación en la extracción de pectina de residuos de tomates (Ninčević et al., 2016). Por otro lado, la aplicación de ultrasonido de manera intermitente o pulsada ha demostrado disminuir los efectos de daños a la materia bioactiva, incluida la fibra dietética, dando resultados positivos en la conservación de estas sustancias bioactivas (Chen et al., 2021). ...
... Este efecto fue estudiado en pectina cítrica, en donde se evidenció la reducción del GE por la aplicación de un mayor tiempo de tratamiento con ultrasonido (Zhang et al., 2013). Del mismo modo, Ninčević et al. (2016) observaron que el GE se redujo durante la extracción de pectina a partir de residuos de tomates al usar las ondas de ultrasonido por un periodo de 90 minutos. De ello podemos decir que la cavitación acústica generada por las ondas ultrasónicas generó cambios estructurales y con ello la disminución del GE en la pectina obtenida a partir de cáscara de pitahaya. ...
Journal of Agro-Industry Sciences https://www.redunia.org/revista/index.php/redunia Esta obra está publicada bajo la licencia CC BY 4.0-7-DOI: http://doi.org/10.17268/JAIS.2022.011 Recibido: 25/10/2022 | Aceptado: 12/12/2022 ARTÍCULO ORIGINAL Efecto del ultrasonido en el grado de esterificación de la pectina de cáscara de pitahaya (Hylocereus megalanthus) Effect of ultrasound on degree of esterification of the pectin from dragon fruit (Hylocereus megalanthus) peel * Autor corresponsal: J. de Bruijn [ jdebruij@udec.cl | https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9282-8574 ] W. Vilcapoma [ 20200675@lamolina.edu.pe | https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0247-4715 ] C. Elías-Peñafiel [ celiasp@lamolina.edu.pe | https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5857-2058 ] L. Farfán-Rodríguez [ lfarfan@lamolina.edu.pe | https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7952-033X ] C. Encina-Zelada [ cencina@lamolina.edu.pe | https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6834-7121 ] Resumen En esta investigación se evaluó el efecto del tratamiento de ultrasonido en la extracción de pectina de cáscara de pitahaya. En este sentido, se compararon 13 tratamientos, evaluando el efecto en el grado de esterificación (GE) como variable dependiente. Asimismo, los factores contenidos en los tratamientos evaluados fueron: tiempo de pausa (TP), relación líquido-sólido (RLS) y tiempo total de aplicación (TTA), siendo sus niveles: uno, tres y cinco segundos para TP; 30, 50 y 70 mL/g para RLS; y 15, 37,5 y 60 minutos para TTA. De esta manera, se obtuvo diferencias significativas (p < 0,05) y se encontró que el valor de GE estuvo en el rango de 41,1% a 58,1%; también se evaluó la correlación entre los factores evaluados y el GE mediante el método de Pearson, hallando que el factor que tiene mayor influencia sobre el GE es el TP (0,70). Finalmente, estos resultados podrían ser usados para la obtención de una pectina de bajo GE (< 50 %) y ser aplicadas en la formulación de productos cárnicos bajos en grasa; para este fin, el mejor tratamiento sería con los siguientes parámetros de extracción: 1 segundo para TP, 30 mL/g para RLS y 37,5 minutos para TTA. Palabras clave: Relación líquido sólido; tiempo total de aplicación de ultrasonido; tiempo de pausa; pitaya. Abstract In this research, the effect of ultrasound treatment on the extraction of pectin from dragon fruit peels was evaluated. In this sense, 13 treatments were compared, evaluating the effect on the degree of esterification (DE) as a dependent variable. Likewise, the factors contained in the treatments evaluated were pause time (PT), liquid-solid ratio (LSR) and total application time (TAT), being their levels: one, three and five seconds for PT; 30, 50 and 70 mL/g for LSR; and 15, 37.5 and 60 minutes for TAT. In this way, significant differences were found (p < 0.05) with the DE values in the range of 41.1% to 58.1%. The correlation was also searched between the factors evaluated and DE using the Pearson method, with PT having the greatest influence on DE (0.70). Finally, these results could be used to obtain a low GE pectin (< 50 %) and be applied in the formulation of low fat meat products; for this purpose, the best treatment would be with the following extraction parameters: 1 second for TP, 30 mL/g for RLS, and 37.5 minutes for TTA.
... Additionally, bands originating from the stretching vibration of the methyl (CH 3 ) group in the methyl ester around 2800-3000 cm −1 correspond to C-H absorption [31]. The stretching of hydroxyl (O-H) groups was responsible for the wider band ranging from 2400 to 3600 cm −1 due to moisture present in both the commercial pectin and citrus pectin samples [29,32]. ...
... Additionally, bands originating from the stretching vibration of the methyl (CH3) group in the methyl ester around 2800-3000 cm −1 correspond to C-H absorption [31]. The stretching of hydroxyl (O-H) groups was responsible for the wider band ranging from 2400 to 3600 cm −1 due to moisture present in both the commercial pectin and citrus pectin samples [29,32]. As shown in Figure 5, the citrus pectin had a heavy molecular weight average of 32,959 Da, a number average molecular weight of 11,106 Da, and a polymer dispersity index of 2.9677. ...
This paper presents the development of an environmentally friendly, small molecular depressant citrus pectin for improving the recovery of cassiterite resources. Citrus pectin extracted from citrus peel was utilized as the depressant, and it demonstrated significant potential in separating calcite from cassiterite in micro-flotation tests. The molecular weight of the citrus pectin extracted in this paper decreased from 11,485,412 Da to 32,959 Da compared to commercial pectin, resulting in the depressant efficiency of the reagent. The results of a zeta potential and adsorption test indicated that citrus pectin had less and weaker adsorption on the cassiterite surface and could be replaced with NaOL. The chemical adsorption process of citrus pectin on the surface of calcite was determined through FTIR spectroscopy analysis. XPS analysis results indicated that the interaction between the carboxyl groups of citrus pectin and calcium atoms enables adsorption to occur. The AFM revealed that citrus pectin displayed a uniform and dense pattern of point-like adsorption on the surface of calcite. Micro-flotation experiments showed that cassiterite recovery of 80% can be obtained at a citrus pectin dosage of 10 mg/L. Citrus pectin has the advantages of being low-cost, highly selective, and environmentally suitable, making it a promising alternative to conventional reagents.
... However, the peak at 1630-1600 cm −1 , representing carboxylate group [COO − ] stretching in the pectin film, was not observed in the bilayer film. Additionally, configurations in the 625 to 640 cm −1 range, specific to hybrid citrus pectin, were also absent in the bilayer film [8,75]. The layering of pectin with PLA may lead to alterations in the structure and molecular interactions, affecting certain functional groups' vibrational modes, as observed in the spectrum. ...
... However, the peak at 1630-1600 cm⁻ 1 , representing carboxylate group [C stretching in the pectin film, was not observed in the bilayer film. Additionally, confi tions in the 625 to 640 cm⁻ 1 range, specific to hybrid citrus pectin, were also absent i bilayer film [8,75]. The layering of pectin with PLA may lead to alterations in the stru and molecular interactions, affecting certain functional groups' vibrational modes, a served in the spectrum. ...
This study focuses on developing a biodegradable film using a novel hybrid citrus peel pectin. A bilayer approach with PLA was proposed and optimized using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) to complement pectin films’ mechanical and barrier property limitations. The optimized film composition (2.90 g PLA and 1.96 g pectin) showed enhanced mechanical strength with a tensile strength (TS) of 7.04 MPa and an elongation at break (EAB) of 462.63%. In addition, it demonstrated lower water vapor (1.45 × 10−10 g/msPa), oxygen (2.79 × 10−7 g/ms) permeability, and solubility (23.53%). Compared to single-layer pectin films, the optimized bilayer film had a 25% increased thickness, significantly improved water barrier (3806 times lower) and oxygen barrier (3.68 times lower) properties, and 22.38 times higher stretchability, attributed to hydrogen bond formation, as confirmed by FTIR analysis. The bilayer film, effectively protected against UV and visible light, could be a barrier against light-induced lipid oxidation. Moreover, it demonstrated superior seal efficiency, ensuring secure sealing in practical applications. The bilayer pouch containing mustard dressing exhibited stable sealing with no leakage after immersion in hot water and ethanol, making it suitable for secure food pouch packaging.
... The absorption at 1732 cm -1 corresponded to the stretching vibration of the C=O bond of the esterified carboxyl group, while the absorption at approximately 1647 cm -1 was attributed to the vibration stretching of the carboxylate ion bond (non-esterified carboxyl group). The relationships of these absorptions are used to calculate the degree of esterification, according to those reported by Minjares-Fuentes et al. [22] and according to equation 2, showing a degree of esterification that classifies pectin as high methoxy by being greater than 50% [10], [25]. The absorption peaks between 1010 cm -1 and 1150 cm -1 indicate that the sample contains pyranose similar to that reported by Wang et al. [26]. ...
... The absorption peaks between 1010 cm -1 and 1150 cm -1 indicate that the sample contains pyranose similar to that reported by Wang et al. [26]. The results found for coffee pectin both in the form of the infrared spectrum and its absorptions agree with those reported in pectin obtained from tomato residues [25], in banana peel [12], in pomegranate peel [13], and pectin extracted from grapefruit peel [26]. Taking into account that pectin is used as an additive (thickening agent, gelling agent and colloidal stabilizer) [27], [28], raw material that in Colombia must be exported from producing countries such as Germany, Mexico, Brazil, China, India among other producing countries [27], the results found are an approximation to the possibility of generating a suitable waste management proposal for the coffee agroindustry. ...
To present a proposal to reduce the waste generated in coffee agroindustrial production and explore potential applications of by-products, this study presents the effects of different physical factors (pH, temperature, and reflux time) on the extraction of pectin from coffee husks Coffea arabica, discarded in coffee farms of San Juan de Rioseco area after the desiccation process. The extraction is carried out by hydrolysis in an acidic medium using hydrochloric acid, precipitation by coagulation with 96% ethanol, filtration, and subsequent drying at 45 °C. Finally, the quality of the pectin obtained is evaluated by infrared spectrophotometry to determine the degree of esterification as well as the yield of the extractions carried out under different conditions. High methoxyl pectins, between 56% and 75% of esterification and yields that do not exceed 1% are obtained from wet material. An inverse temperature-degree of the esterification relationship and a direct time-yield relationship was found, according to an analysis of the main components and surface graphs, finding that the best extraction conditions are pH 2.0, temperature 90 ° C after 1 hour. The results suggest that byproducts from the coffee agro-industrial process are a promising source of pectin.
... The valorization of tomato processing by-product is of great interest as an alternative pectin source [3,7]. Grassino [7] noted that fresh tomato pomace contains about 32% protein and 30% carbohydrates, making it a valuable by-product. ...
... The valorization of tomato processing by-product is of great interest as an alternative pectin source [3,7]. Grassino [7] noted that fresh tomato pomace contains about 32% protein and 30% carbohydrates, making it a valuable by-product. Several authors have noted that the content of pectin substances in the integumentary tissue of tomatoes can reach 25% [8]. ...
The tomato processing industry is focused on product yield maximization, keeping energy costs and waste effluents to a minimum while maintaining high product quality. In our study, cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) pretreatment enhanced tomato processing to facilitate peelability, a specific peeling process, and enhance peel drying. Peeling force analysis determined that CAP pretreatment of whole tomatoes improved peelability under the conditions used. The specific peeling force after CAP treatment decreased by more than three times. It was observed that cold atmospheric plasma pretreatment reduced the duration of infrared drying of tomato peels by 18.2%. Along with that, a positive effect on the reduction of the specific energy consumption of peel drying was shown for CAP-pretreated tomato peels. The obtained data show that the technology of cold atmospheric plasma pretreatment, in particular, when processing whole tomatoes and tomato peels, has a promising application in industry, as it can significantly reduce the specific energy consumption for peeling and drying procedures.
... The color of the pectin is considered a crucial parameter because it contributes to the appearance of the obtained solution or gel and, therefore, the final appearance of the pectin-added food products and bioformulations [23]. The color parameters are shown in Table 1. ...
... Regarding the a* values, positive scores indicate that the color of the pectin extract shifted toward reddish. Some pectins may contain compounds, such as polyphenols or water-soluble pigments, trapped in their structure during extraction, which confer color to pectins [23]. The extracted wet pectin ( Figure 2A) has a smooth and compact nanostructure with small round shapes. ...
Background:
Food and agricultural wastes constitute a rich source of functional ingredients for the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. In this context, by-products from the red variety of Solanum betaceum fruits (chilto) from Northwestern Argentina are suitable sources for pectin extraction.
Methods:
In this study, pectin from the peels of red chilto fruits was extracted and characterized.
Results:
The recovery yield of red chilto peel pectin was about 24%, and it was co-extracted with 40.0 mg phenolic compounds, 6.5 mg anthocyanins, and 4.7 g proteins per 100 g of pectin. The pectin obtained from red chilto showed proper technological functionality displaying water and oil holding capacities of 4.2 and 2.0%, respectively, an emulsifying capacity of 83%, emulsion stability of 87.5%, foaming capacity of 21.1%, and foaming stability of 79.1%. The pectin displayed antioxidant activity with the ability to scavenge ABTS radical, superoxide anion, and H2O2. The polysaccharide exhibited in vitro hypoglycemic potential and inhibited the α-amylase enzyme, retarded glucose diffusion, and improved the cellular uptake of glucose in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae model. The extract was non-toxic on acute toxicity tests.
Conclusions:
Red chilto pectin showed potential as a new and safe functional ingredient for the design of foods, health products, and cosmetics.
... UAE was used by Grassino et al. (2016) to evaluate the recovery of pectins from tomato waste. They reported that UAE is a valid alternative to recover pectins compared to conventional extraction for its small time of extraction (from 15′ to 90′). ...
Nowadays, there is a growing interest in food waste recovery by both consumers and companies. Food waste of plant origin is a source of bioactive compounds, such as phenolic acids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, phytosterols, carotenoids, and tocopherols, with well‐known antioxidant, anti‐glycemic, and antimicrobial properties. The use of green and sustainable technologies to recover bioactive compounds from food waste is a possible solution to valorize waste following the principles of green chemistry. Furthermore, today's consumers are more attracted, informed, and aware of the benefits associated with the consumption of functional foods, and with this in mind, the use of extracts rich in beneficial compounds obtained by green technologies from food waste can be a valid alternative to prepare functional foods. In this review, the recovery of polyphenols and fibers with green technologies from food waste for the formulation of functional foods was presented.
... The pectin GalA content was measured using the m-hydroxydiphenyl determination method and verified by the result of monosaccharides. A titration method was used to measure the degree of esterification (DM%) and the methoxyl content (MeO%) of pectin [12]. ...
RG-I pectin has excellent health benefits, but its raw materials are relatively scarce, and its complex structure often breaks down its side-chain structure during the extraction process. In this study, the physicochemical and antioxidant properties of a branched-chain-rich pectin gained from watermelon peel were demonstrated, and the structure–function relationships of RG-I-enriched pectin and emulsification properties were investigated. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, high-performance anion exchange chromatography, high-performance gel permeation chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and methylation analyses reveal it as acetylated, low-methoxylated pectin, rich in RG-I side chains (MW: 1991 kDa, RG-I = 66.17%, methylation degree: 41.45%, (Ara + Gal)/Rha: 20.59%). RPWP outperforms commercial citrus pectin in emulsification and stability, significantly preventing lipid oxidation in emulsions. It also exhibits free radical scavenging abilities, contributing to its effectiveness in preventing lipid oxidation. Emulsions made with RPWP show higher viscosity and form a weak gel network (G′ > G″), enhancing stability by preventing phase separation. These findings position watermelon peel as a good source of RG-I pectin and deepen our understanding of RPWP behavior in emulsion systems, which may be useful in the food and pharmaceutical fields.
... The absorbance was checked at a resolution of 8 cm −1 . It was recorded for 12 scans to remove the interference of the noise [39]. ...
Telluric plant waste contains a large volume of pectin, a versatile colloidal polysaccharide used as a thickener in jellies and jams. This work investigates a unique method for extracting pectin from the mesquite plant, specifically the Prosopis juliflora pod peel (PJPP), using the strong technique of acoustic cavitation. The Acoustic Cavitation-Mediated Pectin Extraction (ACMPE) technique was rigorously optimized with the Response Surface Methodology’s face central-composite design. Key process variables such as liquid-to-solid ratio, temperature, reaction duration, and pH were thoroughly investigated to maximize yield. The procedure produced a maximum of 18.84% pectin under ideal conditions: a liquid-to-solid ratio of 18.8 mL/g, an ultrasonic reaction temperature of 65 °C, a reaction time of 26 min, and a pH of 1.5. The extracted pectin was thoroughly characterized, indicating a high moisture content, flavonoid presence, reducing sugars, phenolic content, and lack of antinutritional characteristics. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy validated the functional group makeup of pectin. These impressive results establish PJPP as a highly promising and sustainable source of pectin production with enormous potential for industrial applications. This study not only confirms the efficacy of the ACMPE technique but also demonstrates Prosopis juliflora’s untapped potential as a valuable resource in pectin extraction.
Graphical abstract
... This band shifts to 2920.8 cm −1 during extraction using MAE and at 2919.4 cm −1 for HD. Peaks observed at 1738 cm −1 , 1739 cm −1 , and 1743 cm −1 , corresponding to HD, MAE, and SFE, respectively implies the stretching of the carbonyl group bond (C=O) (Grassino et al., 2016;Elakremi et al., 2022). Conversely, a stretching band corresponding to the carbonyl elongation of esters is identified at 1709.19 cm −1 for SFE, 1718.12 cm −1 for HD, and at 1721.12 cm −1 for MAE. ...
The research delves into the extraction of the essential oil from Pistacia lentiscus stems using three methods: hydrodistillation (HD), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and supercritical fluid
extraction (SFE). Comparing the yields, MAE achieved 0.163%, HD 0.15%, and HSFE notably 2.4%. Analysis via GC/MS identified various chemical compositions: HD (38 compounds), MAE
(35), and HSFE (40). MAE's composition turned out to be rich in oxygenated terpenes, contributing to its potent antioxidant activity (IC50 = 17.24 mg/mL), followed by HSFE (IC50 = 13.28 mg/mL), and HD (IC50 = 23.719 mg/mL). Antibacterial testing against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Listeria monocytogenes demonstrated MAE's effectiveness with the largest inhibition zones and lowest MIC values, indicating its potential in pharmaceutical applications. IR analysis uncovered distinct functional group variations among the extraction methods. These findings highlight the significance of selecting the appropriate extraction method to optimize essential oil yield, chemical composition, and bioactivity
... These values agree with previous AUA reports on pectin from citrus peels [4,54]. These values indicate a high purity degree, owing to it having been established that pectin is composed of at least 65 % of galacturonic acid [56,57]. The ability of pectin to form gel depends on the amount of AUA present. ...
... Since UAE has been shown to provide higher extraction efficiency of target compounds compared to conventional reflux extraction [47,48], the aim of this study was to use UAE for the extraction of proteins from fresh and dried pumpkin pulp. CE was also used to compare the extraction efficiency of UAE. ...
The effects of hot air (HAD), vacuum (VAD) and conductive (CD) drying on the chemical and textural profiles of Cucurbita maxima pulp were investigated to find suitable drying conditions to avoid postharvest losses of pumpkin. The results showed that the drying methods had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the chemical and textural profiles of pumpkin pulp. The ash content was lower in VAD (up to 7.65%) than in HAD (up to 9.88%) and CD pulp (up to 9.21%). The samples of HAD, CD and VAD had a higher fat content, up to 3.07, 2.66 and 2.51%, respectively, than fresh pulp (1.55%). The total fibre content is lower for VAD (up to 8.78%) than for HAD (up to 15.43%) and CD pulp (13.94%). HAD pulp at 70 °C (~15.51%) and VAD and CD pulp processed between 50 and 60 °C (~22%) are good sources of protein. HAD and CD pulp at 70 °C and VAD at 50 °C resulted in a high sugar content (up to 83.23%). In addition to drying, the extraction time of 40 min used in ultrasound-assisted extraction is optimal, especially for protein and sugar recovery in dried samples. Drying also led to strong changes in the textural properties of the pulp, so that an excellent dried intermediate product is the one obtained using HAD at a temperature of 70 °C and an airflow of 0.5 m/s.
... Moreover, phenolic compounds and anthocyanins such as malvidin-3-O-glucoside, peonidin-3-glucoside, petunidin-3-gucoside, and delpinidin-3-glucoside were extracted by Barba, Brianceau [119] from fermented grape pomace using UAE. Pectins, carotenoids, and lipids have been successfully extracted using UAE [147][148][149]. Furthermore, previous studies have suggested that UAE requires less energy, reduces extraction time, and improves extraction yield compared to conventional extraction technologies. ...
Globally, fruits and vegetables generate almost half of total food waste, which has become a major environmental concern. Though the ample amounts of fruit by-products are considered as industrial waste and usually disposed of or used as animal feed and biofuel, they can be a great source of nutraceuticals and bioactive compounds. Studies have suggested that bioactive compounds from fruit by-streams can be extracted using conventional methods such as solvent extraction, maceration, and enzyme-assisted extraction and emerging technologies such as supercritical-fluid extraction, pressurized-liquid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, and electric pulse field. This chapter discusses the potential of extraction of nutraceuticals and bioactive compounds from fruit waste and their possibilities for further application in the food, feed, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries, with their future perspectives.
... 44 The different MeO content of JR pectin proven the significant role of the extraction method. In fact, Grassino et al. 48 demonstrated that temperature applied during UAE may affect the MeO content of extracted pectin. In the current study, the high temperature used during UAE may degrade and reduce the MeO content of JR pectin. ...
Jackfruit rags (JR) are an abundant source of pectin, which offers promising health benefits. They can be valorized into a functional ingredient to reduce food waste and supply the local market demand. This research aimed to optimize and characterize the pectin extracted from JR using an ultrasound-assisted method with hydrochloric acid. A central composite design (CCD) was employed to optimize the solid-to-solvent ratio (1:25 to 1:35) and extraction time (15 to 45 mins) to obtain high yield of pectin. The optimal conditions for JR pectin extraction were found to be a solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:34.97 g/mL and an extraction time of 34.69 min, resulting in a pectin yield of 12.53%. The yielded pectin exhibited ash content of 3.64%, galacturonic acid content of 35.79 µg/mL, equivalent weight of 1950.88, methoxyl content of 1.39, anhydrouronic acid content of 31.12%, and degree of ¬esterification of 70.08%. FTIR analysis showed similar chemical group stretching and vibrations in both commercial pectin and JR pectin. The extracted pectin was then applied into model food gel and compared with commercial pectin. JR pectin formed a firm gel structure at low pH as compared to control pectin,¬ however both are classified as high methoxy pectin. Under optimum conditions, the experimental value was in close proximity to the predicted values with no significant difference, thereby validating the regression model. The potential of JR pectin to emerge as a fresh and sustainable source within the food industry is significant, given its comparable quality to commercially available pectin.
... The peak at 1026 cm − 1 is ascribed to HC-O-CH stretching vibration of pectin. The peaks at 771.61 cm − 1 and 622.44 cm − 1 are due to the pectin ring skeleton [55] (pyranose and furanose rings in the polymer chain). ...
... Pectin yield was accomplished according to method described by Grassino et al. (2016). It was expressed as the ratio of dried pectin mass (Wp) obtained after extraction to the initial mass of fresh peels (Wc) used for extraction: ...
In stored wheat products, Rhyzopertha dominica (F) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) is an important pest that results in significant economic losses. Insect physiology and behavior can be affected by bioactive compounds extracted from plant wastes, which are important tools for developing bioincesticides. The purpose of this study is to develop an insecticidal packaging film based on pectin and essential oil (EO) extracted from Citrus aurantium (L., 1753) fruit peels.The encapsulation efficiency (EE) and cumulative release (CR) of C. aurantium EO into pectin film were determined. Further, Film packaging was tested against Rhyzopertha dominica adults reared on Karim and Khiar durum wheat (Tritichum durum Desf.) varieties. The fumigant toxicity was assessed after 10, 20, 30 and 40 days of storage. Moreover, emergence inhibition of R. dominica adults was determined. In addition, germination rate, weight loss and grain damage were examined.
Results revealed that the lethal concentration that killed 50 % of the exposed adults developed into karim and khiar varieties were 278.45 and 688.79 μL/L air, respectively. Moreover, high encapsulation efficiency of C. aurantium essential oil into pectin film with an EE = 80.6 %. Moreover, pectin: EO film achieved complete (100%) mortality and emergence inhibition of R. dominica adults for all storage periods. Also, pectin: EO film
represent the better treatment which preserve the quality and quantity of wheat grains as well as grain damage, weight loss and germination rate.
To conclude: pectin- C. aurantium EO film showed a significant fumigant effect against R. dominica adults and the emergence of their descendants after different storage periods and could be recommended as an active ingredient for a natural packaging against stored product insects.
... The majority of commercial PPs, more than 90%, are derived as by-products from fruit processing waste such as citrus peel and apple pomace (Cui et al., 2021). Recently, PPs have also been isolated from novel sources including ginseng, mango, carrot, tomato, potato, and pumpkin (Bai et al., 2020;Deng et al., 2020;Grassino et al., 2016;Jonker et al., 2020;Xue et al., 2019;Yang et al., 2018). It has been reported that PPs from different sources exhibit distinct structural characteristics . ...
Obesity has emerged as a global health epidemic, demanding a comprehensive understanding of its etiology and potential interventions. Recent studies have highlighted the crucial role of gut microbiota in maintaining host health. Additionally, dietary polysaccharides (DP), such as pectic polysaccharides, sulfated polysaccharides, glucan‐like polysaccharides, and fructan‐like polysaccharides, have been identified as crucial regulators that influence gut microbial composition, function, and metabolite production, thereby improving obesity and mitigating its complications. This review comprehensively summarizes the latest findings regarding the sources and structural characteristics of different DP, their shared and distinct effects on gut microbiota and associated metabolites, and the consequent influence on obesity and its complications. By unraveling the complex interplay among DP, gut microbiota, and obesity‐related outcomes, we strive to offer valuable insights that can inform the development of precise dietary interventions and therapeutic strategies aimed at tackling obesity and enhancing public health.
... DE value of the GalA units of the isolated APP was found to be 63.5%, which was higher than 50%, meaning that the extracted APP should be categorized as a high methoxyl pectin (HMP) like pectin obtained from passion fruit peel (60.36%; Oliveira et al., 2016), and tomato waste (88.98%; Grassino, Brnčić, et al., 2016). HMP forms gel at a low pH (2.2-2.8) in the presence of high sugar concentrations (>65%) (Oliveira et al., 2016;Sengar et al., 2020). ...
This study aimed to valorize apple pomace (AP) for the production of value-added products in a zero-waste
system. A Box-Behnken design was used to optimize the microwave-assistant extraction factors on simultaneous
extraction of pectin (APP) and phenolic compounds (APPC). Under optimum conditions (microwave power
of 600 W, irradiation time of 6 min, liquid/solid ratio of 45, and pH of 1.5), the APP and APPC yields were 28.37
± 1.19% and 3.42 ± 0.48%, respectively. The solid residue after co-extraction was used as a carbon source for
microbial production of pullulan and single cell protein (SCP) and the maximum production yields of pullulan
(43.7 g/L) and SCP (33.5%) were gained after sequential homogenization, ultrasonication and enzymatic
treatment (H + U + E). The molecular weight of APP and pullulan were found to be 690.293 and 366.246 kDa,
respectively. Also, the FT-IR and 1H NMR analysis confirmed the presence of pectin and pullulan in the resulting
sample and their XRD pattern showed an amorphous structure. The results of DPPH, ABTS and FRAP assays
indicated that the antioxidant capacity of apple pomace phenolics was comparable with vitamin C and BHA at
high concentrations. Moreover, the coating with 50:50 ratios of APP and pullulan enriched with 15% APPC was
selected as the best edible coating for strawberry that prolonged its shelf life until 24 days at 4 ◦C. The outcomes
revealed that the extraction of these valuable compounds from AP in line with the sustainable agriculture
development not only reduces environmental problems, but also the obtained products can be used to coat fruits.
... The same experimental condition carried out under PUAE conditions at RT (21.5°C) resulted in a 9.83% yield of pectin (entry 4 inTable 1). As mentioned above, this result is due to the increasing release of pectin from the insoluble parts of onion waste at higher temperatures(Grassino et al., 2016;Nguyen & Pirak, 2019). Consumed energy value also enhanced with increasing extraction temperature, and this value was calculated to be 288 kJ for the PUAE method carried out at 90°C in a 15 min extraction duration (entry 86 ...
The aim of this study is to compare the physicochemical properties and yields of pectins extracted from onion waste under hot acid (HAE) and pulsed ultrasound‐assisted extraction (PUAE) methods using different organic–inorganic acids, their mixtures, and pure water. The extraction temperature for experiments carried out under HAE was kept at 90°C for 90 min, whereas PUAE experiments were accomplished at RT in 15 min. In general, HAE gave better pectin yields compared with PUAE due to the significance of the increasing extraction temperature for the release of pectin from the plant matrix. While the maximum pectin yield from onion waste was 16.22% for HAE, the highest yield for PUAE was 9.83%. PUAE provides less time‐ and energy‐consuming extraction of pectin within 15 min and thus seems to be more economic compared with the HAE. According to the physicochemical properties (equivalent weight (EW), degree of esterification (DE), methoxyl (MeO), and galacturonic acid (Gal‐A) contents) of obtained pectins, extracted pectins were mostly high methoxy pectin. While the DE and MeO values of pectins extracted in organic acid conditions under HAE were higher, these values were found to be higher for pectins extracted in inorganic acids under PUAE. For acid mixtures, the DE and MeO values of pectins under HAE were mostly found to be lower than those under PUAE. Sequential PUAE and HAE methods for the extraction of pectin from onion waste were also found to be useful in terms of obtaining higher yields and better physicochemical properties. The highest pectin yield was 20.32% for the sequential PUAE and HAE methods. FT‐IR analyses of the extracted pectins by both HAE and PUAE methods showed similar vibration bands compared with those of commercial citrus pectin.
... Which are important parameters in the gelling properties of pectin. Additionally, the extracted pectin increased in the L parameter, indicating that the lightness samples may have a favorable sensory impact on food applications [46]. ...
Food is a must for all life to survive. Global food production has increased owing to population augmentation, increasing the generation of food and agricultural residues. Agro-wastes are important sources of natural compounds such as biopolymers that can be used to develop value-added products contributing to replacing synthetic compounds. Biopolymers like pectin, starch, and chitin, have multiple functional properties, useful to improve the sensorial properties of foods, and provide a sustainable alternative to conventional materials in food processing and packaging. Researchers and the industrial sector have successfully converted agricultural residues into valuable edible biopolymers with prebiotic potential, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties by using emerging technologies such as ultrasound, microwave-assisted extraction, enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation, and/or bioconversion. The variation of the extraction conditions using emerging technologies allows the modification of the structural properties of the polymer giving a wide range for their application in the food sector. Besides, the incorporation of Industry 4.0 in these processes allows the optimization, automatization, and obtention of high yields of polymers of improved quality. This review highlights the potential of emerging technologies to convert agricultural waste into valuable biopolymers to promote a greener and more innovative food sector.
Graphical Abstract
... A fourth FTIR fingerprint is the region of 1500-1200 cm −1 . Here, the shifting and broadening of the band 1419(Ci)/1423(Co) cm −1 toward lower frequencies could be related to the demethylation of pectin; the band was previously reported for esterified pectin or pectin in salt form [134,176] and also for changes in cellulose crystallinity. The band with the frequency 1429 cm −1 is considered as a "crystalline" absorption band [177]. ...
The main aim of this study is to find relevant analytic fingerprints for plants’ structural characterization using spectroscopic techniques and thermogravimetric analyses (TGAs) as alternative methods, particularized on cabbage treated with selenium–baker’s yeast vinasse formulation (Se-VF) included in a foliar fertilizer formula. The hypothesis investigated is that Se-VF will induce significant structural changes compared with the control, analytically confirming the biofortification of selenium-enriched cabbage as a nutritive vegetable, and particularly the plant biostimulant effects of the applied Se-VF formulation on cabbage grown in the field. The TGA evidenced a structural transformation of the molecular building blocks in the treated cabbage leaves. The ash residues increased after treatment, suggesting increased mineral accumulation in leaves. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) evidenced a pectin–Iα-cellulose structure of cabbage that correlated with each other in terms of leaf crystallinity. FTIR analysis suggested the accumulation of unesterified pectin and possibly (seleno) glucosinolates and an increased network of hydrogen bonds. The treatment with Se-VF formulation induced a significant increase in the soluble fibers of the inner leaves, accompanied by a decrease in the insoluble fibers. The ratio of soluble/insoluble fibers correlated with the crystallinity determined by XRD and with the FTIR data. The employed analytic techniques can find practical applications as fast methods in studies of the effects of new agrotechnical practices, while in our particular case study, they revealed effects specific to plant biostimulants of the Se-VF formulation treatment: enhanced mineral utilization and improved quality traits.
... Under these conditions, both energy savings and hydrochloric acid volume reduction have been achieved [52]. Grassino et al. [53] compared the conventional method of pectin extraction (with ammonium oxalate/oxalic acid as their solvent) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (at 37 kHz) under two different temperatures (60 • C and 80 • C, respectively). As a source of pectin for extraction, tomato waste was used. ...
The amount of waste generated by the production of food products has increased over the years, presenting economic and environmental problems. To minimize these problems, it is necessary to valorize food waste in order to explore its further utilization in the food industry and also in other industries. Such waste usually represents a valuable raw material in terms of dietary fibers or bioactive components. Dietary fibers, especially pectin, are usually derived from apple pomace or citrus peel. Currently, sources of dietary fibers include novel food waste streams and by-products. Also, the utilization of novel extraction techniques is in demand to limit conventional processes. This review provides information about the conventional and innovative extraction approaches for dietary fibers from different food wastes. The extraction of these fibers depends on the materials used and the extraction conditions, such as temperature, solvents, time, pH, and liquid/solid ratio. Novel green techniques may ensure an increase in fiber yield and better quality, as well as a reduction in operating time and toxic solvents.
... They found out that at maximum ultrasound amplitude and lower pH, PEC extraction yield and degree of esterification presented the higher values (9.1% and 88.5% respectively). Compared to the MWAE and RFAE, the ultrasound assisted procedure allows to preserve the physico-chemical structure of the extracted pectin [19]. ...
Biomass resulting from food production represents valuable material to recover different biomolecules. In our study, we used apple pomace to obtain pectin, which is traditionally extracted using mineral acids. Our hypothesis consisted of carrying out extractions with organic acids, assisted by ultrasound, by varying processing parameters including time, temperature, and type of acid. The analytical determinations of galacturonic acid content, methoxylation and esterification degree, ζ-potential and extraction yield were used as pectin quality indicators. Pectins extracted using treatment conditions with better performance were assessed biologically in vitro for their potential to be used in biomedical applications. Overall, the extracted pectin presented a galacturonic acid content, methoxylation and esterification degree ranged from 19.7 to 67%, 26.8-41.4% and 58-65.2% respectively, and were negatively charged (-24.1 to -13.2 mV). It was found that factors of time and temperature greatly influenced the response variables excepting the esterification degree, while the acid type influenced the ζ-potential, methoxylation and esterification degrees. Additionally, it was seen that the longer extraction time (50 min) and higher temperature (50 °C) exhibited the better extraction yield (∼10.9%). Finally, the selected pectin showed high cytocompatibility up to 500 μg/mL of concentration when seeded with Neonatal Normal Human Dermal Fibroblasts.
... The peel and albedo of remaining fruits are ~50% of the total fruit, with 25 to 30% (dry weight of citrus peel) composed of pectin (134,(188)(189)(190). Other alternatives sources can be used to obtain pectins, such as sugar beet and sunflower seed head (191), tomato waste (192), cocoa husks (193), grapefruit peel, pomegranate peel, passion fruit peel, mango peel, banana peel, and kiwi fruit pomace (194)(195)(196)(197)(198)(199). ...
In the last decades, evidence has indicated the beneficial properties of dietary polyphenols. In vitro and in vivo studies support that the regular intake of these compounds may be a strategy to reduce the risks of some chronic non-communicable diseases. Despite their beneficial properties, they are poorly bioavailable compounds. Thus, the main objective of this review is to explore how nanotechnology improves human health while reducing environmental impacts with the sustainable use of vegetable residues, from extraction to the development of functional foods and supplements. This extensive literature review discusses different studies based on the application of nanotechnology to stabilize polyphenolic compounds and maintain their physical–chemical stability. Food industries commonly generate a significant amount of solid waste. Exploring the bioactive compounds of solid waste has been considered a sustainable strategy in line with emerging global sustainability needs. Nanotechnology can be an efficient tool to overcome the challenge of molecular instability, especially using polysaccharides such as pectin as assembling material. Complex polysaccharides are biomaterials that can be extracted from citrus and apple peels (from the juice industries) and constitute promising wall material stabilizing chemically sensitive compounds. Pectin is an excellent biomaterial to form nanostructures, as it has low toxicity, is biocompatible, and is resistant to human enzymes. The potential extraction of polyphenols and polysaccharides from residues and their inclusion in food supplements may be a possible application to reduce environmental impacts and constitutes an approach for effectively including bioactive compounds in the human diet. Extracting polyphenolics from industrial waste and using nanotechnology may be feasible to add value to food by-products, reduce impacts on nature and preserve the properties of these compounds.
Pectin is a soluble dietary fiber with several health benefits, such as antibacterial, antioxidant, gastrointestinal-protective, and anticancer properties. Pectin is becoming an important class of materials owing to their inherent structural and functional properties such as biodegradability, binding potential, self-assembly, high nutritional value, gelling properties, non-toxicity, and good biocompatibility. Pectin is highly beneficial in microencapsulation since it allows for better control over the toxicity of the active substances and ensures the safety of the customer. Pectin offers a safe route for drug delivery due to its well-designed molecular architecture based on the changes in the biological process’s fundamental mechanisms. The current arising insight into the chemical structure and associated health advantages of pectin opens new opportunities for the use of pectin in nutraceutical encapsulation and drug delivery. Pectin can be obtained from various plant sources at a lower cost. Thus, pectin is a promising biopolymer when designing materials that may achieve the highly desired dual objectives of being environmentally friendly and economically sustainable. This chapter emphasizes pectin-based nano and microencapsulation systems, their tailor-made functionalities, and their applications in the pharmaceutical and food industry.
Mango (Mangifera indica) has been one of the most cultivated fruits in Thailand and other South and Southeast Asian countries. ‘Bao’ mango is a distinct petite mango variety that is available all year round. This study aimed to investigate the antioxidant and anti‐breast cancer activities of Bao‐mango peel extract (MPE). The total phenolic content (TPC) of MPE was 280.57 ± 7.95 mg quercetin per g of powder. Based on antioxidant activity analyses, MPE had IC50 values of 35.09 and 23.80 ± 0.48 mg/mL for 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′‐azino‐bis‐3‐ethylbenzthiazoline‐6‐sulphonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging activities, respectively. Additionally, MPE exerted an inhibitory action against MDA‐MB‐231 breast cancer cells with an IC50 of 39.08 ± 5.22 mg/mL. Furthermore, nanoencapsules loaded with MPE using chitosan‐coated poly lactic‐co‐glycolic acid (CS‐PLGA‐(MPE)) were also prepared. It exhibited spherical morphology with an average size of 251.90 ± 19.61 nm. Encapsulation efficiency (EE) of nanoparticles was 30.48%. Moreover, the CS‐PLGA‐(MPE) exhibited higher anticancer activity by affecting cell viability and inhibiting the cell migration and invasion of MDA‐MB‐231 breast cancer cells, compared to the free MPE. Therefore, these findings indicated that MPE and CS‐PLGA‐(MPE) nanoparticles could be promising alternatives to chemicals used for breast cancer treatment.
Carbohydrate biopolymers have drawn much attention due to their eco-friendly approach and origin from agro-food-based industry waste which solves the problem of waste material disposition. Biopolymers exhibit similar properties to petroleum-based polymers that replace existing polymers in several applications. However, such biopolymers show poor essential physicochemical and mechanical qualities. Integration of nanotechnology with biopolymers strengthens the essential qualities of such biopolymers. The present review gives deep knowledge about the recent trends in extracting biopolymers from agro-food waste. The development of various carbohydrate nanopolymer films was discussed through the blending of biopolymers with other nanoparticles and the reapplications of agro-food waste-derived carbohydrate nanocomposite to the food and agriculture sectors.
Graphical abstract
Extraction is an important step in the route of phytochemical processing for the discovery of bioactive constituents from plant materials. The extraction technique plays a significant role in the yield, chemical structure, and bioactivity of the extracts. Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) has been widely applied as a novel, green, and rapidly developing extraction method suitable for upscaling and improving the extraction efficiency of bioactive compounds. UAE has substantial advantages such as low consumption of solvent and energy, simplification of manipulation and work-up, high extraction yield and purity of the final product, and fewer damages of active compounds, over the conventional Soxhlet extraction and cold maceration. UAE can also provide the opportunity for enhanced extraction of heat-sensitive bioactive and food components at lower processing temperatures. Ultrasound-assisted herbal extracts exhibit higher anticancer, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic activities than extracts prepared through conventional methods. Nowadays most of the industry-based extractions are carried out using UAE as full extraction can be completed in minutes with high reproducibility. UAE of herbal, oil, protein, polysaccharide, bioactive compounds, such as phenolics, flavonoids, and natural colors, which have importance in food, pharmaceutical, and allied industries, is discussed here.
Kinnow is a species of citrus family. Pectin has been declared as a safe substance. However, conventional methods are practiced in some industries for pectin extraction from citrus peel. Innovative techniques like ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), sonication, and thermos-sonication may play a vital role in increasing the yield of pectin from peels of citrus. Objective: To conduct a comparative analysis of Kinnow peel pectin extracted through conventional, Sonication, and Thermosonication techniques. Methods: For this purpose raw materials (Kinnow) purchased from the local market of Faisalabad, Kinnow peels were dried and made into fine powder. This fine powder is used further to extract pectin by conventional, sonication and thermos-sonication extraction methods. Results: Different qualitative analyses of pectin like solubility of dry pectin in cold and hot water, and solubility in cold and hot alkali, pH, pectin color, quantitative analysis of pectins like yield and equivalent weight, and methoxyl content. During pectin testing, thermos-sonication techniques proved their excellence. Among all treatments during analysis, Moreover, thermos-sonication was found to be the best extraction technique among all treatments. The yield is maximum (15.55%) through thermo-sonicated extracted samples. The highest value of equivalent weight (345±13.08) was seen in the thermos-sonication-treated sample. The upper limit (5.33±0.12) of methoxyl content was held by thermos-sonication-treated samples. Pectin’s capacity to bind sugar and spreading quality increases with increasing methoxyl content. Conclusions: It was concluded that the best extraction method of pectin is the thermos-sonication method for better qualitative and quantitative output.
Food waste presents a continuous challenge for the food industry, leading to environmental pollution and economic issues. A substantial amount of waste, including by-products from fruits and vegetables, non-edible food items, and other waste materials, is produced throughout the food supply chain, from production to consumption. Recycling and valorizing waste from perishable goods is emerging as a key multidisciplinary approach within the circular bio-economy framework. This waste, rich in raw by-products, can be repurposed as a natural source of ingredients. Researchers increasingly focus on biomass valorization to extract and use components that add significant value. Traditional methods for extracting these bio-compounds typically require the use of solvents and are time-consuming, underscoring the need for innovative techniques like ultrasound (US) extraction. Wastes from the processing of fruits and vegetables in the food industry can be used to develop functional foods and edible coatings, offering protection against various environmental factors. This comprehensive review paper discusses the valorization of waste from perishable items like fruits and vegetables using US technology, not only to extract valuable components from waste but also to treat wastewater in the beverage industry. It also covers the application of biomolecules recovered from this process in the development of functional foods and packaging.
Pectin's physicochemical, structural, and functional characteristics vary widely depending on the source of extraction. In this study, pectins were extracted from seedless quince and pomegranate peel, and their physicochemical, structural, and functional properties were investigated. A Box-Behnken Design with three factors and three levels was applied to optimize the pectin extraction yield from each matrix. As a result, the best extraction yields for quince pectin (QP) and pomegranate peel pectin (PPP) were 11.44 and 12.08 % (w/w), respectively. Both extracted pectins exhibit a linear structure, with the homogalacturonan domain dominating the rhamnogalacturonan I. Both pectins are highly methyl-esterified (DM > 69 %) with a higher degree of acetylation for PPP than QP, with 12 and 8 %, respectively. Unlike QP, PPP has a narrow, homogenous distribution and greater molecular weight (120 kDa). Regarding functionality, 1 g of QP could retain 4.92 g of water, and both pectin emulsions were more stable at room temperature than at 4 °C. When the concentration of QP is increased, rheological measurements demonstrate that it exhibits pseudoplastic behavior. Finally, QP can be used as a thickener, whereas PPP can be utilized as starting material for chemical changes to create multifunctional pectins.
Polymers-based drug delivery systems constitute one of the highly explored thrust areas in the field of the medicinal and pharmaceutical industries. In the past years, the properties of polymers have been modified in context to their solubility, release kinetics, targeted action site, absorption, and therapeutic efficacy. Despite the availability of diverse synthetic polymers for the bioavailability enhancement of drugs, the use of natural polymers is still highly recommended due to their easy availability, accessibility, and non-toxicity. The aim of the review is to provide the available literature of the last five years on oral drug delivery systems based on four natural polymers i.e., cellulose, pectin, carrageenan, and alginate in a concise and tabulated manner. In this review, most of the information is in tabulated form to provide easy accessibility to the reader. The data related to active pharmaceutical ingredients and supported components in different formulations of the mentioned polymers have been made available.
The aim of present study was to extract pectin from dried citrus fruit peels. In order to increase profits for citrus fruit growers and processors, citrus fruit peels, a by-product of citrus fruit processing, were investigated as a source of pectin. Pectin extraction was optimized from this by-product. Pectin was extracted under pH 2; Ethanol ratios(ER) 1:1 and extraction periods 120 min, at this condition highest yield was obtained 18.21%. Pectin assess its binding property in tablets using paracetamol as a model drug. Thereafter, four batches were formulated using pectin in different proportions. A reference batch of starch was also prepared to carry out the comparative study and to assess the binding property of pectin. Pre-compression and post-compression studies were performed for each formulation and compared to range as per pharmacopoeias. In vitro dissolution studies revealed that batch M3 showed 81.88% drug released. In-vitro release kinetic of all four batches followed korsmeyer-peppas models. Citrus peel pectin can act as excellent binder in dosage forms. Since it is of natural origin and citrus peels available at low cost it may prove to be better binder over commercially used synthetic binders.
The aim of the present study was to reveal an effective extraction procedure for maximization of the yield of steviol glycosides and total phenolic compounds as well as antioxidant activity in stevia extracts. Ultrasound assisted extraction was compared with conventional solvent extraction. The examined solvents were water (100°C/24 h) and 70% ethanol (at 70°C for 30 min). Qualitative and quantitative analyses of steviol glycosides in the extracts obtained were performed using high performance liquid chromatography. Total phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and radical scavenging capacity by 2, 2-azino-di-3-ethylbenzothialozine- sulphonic acid) assay were also determined. The highest content of steviol glycosides, total phenolic compounds, and flavonoids in stevia extracts were obtained when ultrasound assisted extraction was used. The antioxidant activity of the extracts was correlated with the total amount of phenolic compounds. The results indicated that the examined sonication parameters represented as the probe diameter (7 and 22 mm) and treatment time (2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 min) significantly contributed to the yield of steviol glycosides, total phenolic compounds, and flavonoids. The optimum conditions for the maximum yield of steviol glycosides, total phenolic compounds, and flavonoids were as follows: extraction time 10 min, probe diameter 22 mm, and temperature 81.2°C.
The research was conducted to find out the various extraction conditions of pectin from lemon pomace under different of solvents (6M HCl, 1N H 2 SO 4 , 1N HNO 3 , 6.2g/100g citric acid, 1N acetic acid, combination with acetic acid and ammonium oxalate and distilled water), temperatures (70, 80, 90 and 100 0 C), times (30, 60, 90 and 120 min) and maturity stages (premature, mature and over ripen). Preliminary results showed that optimum conditions for extraction of pectin were found at a temperature of 100 0 C by 60 min on the basis of pectin yield and equivalent weight extracted with distilled water. Pectin extracted with distilled water was characterized in terms of yield, moisture content, ash content, equivalent weight, methoxyl content, degree of esterification and neutral sugar contents. There were significant differences (p< 0.05) in yields, equivalent weights, degree of esterifications and neutral sugars among the lemon pomace pectin extracted from premature, mature and over ripen maturity stages. The degree of esterification and methoxyl contents were varying depending upon the maturity stages. Therefore, the premature lemon pomace can be considered as rich source of pectin in terms of yield, methoxyl content, degree of esterification and anhydrouronic acid content.
Electromagnetic induction (EMI) and conventional (CV) heating have been employed to extract pectin from citrange (Citrus sinensis × Poncirus trifoliata) albedos under the same extraction conditions (pH 1.2, temperature 80 °C and extraction time 90 min). The electromagnetic induction heating process was investigated at different extraction times (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and 90 min) and at different power levels. The high pectin yield obtained with this process was found to be 29% (w/w) of dried albedos, which was almost equal to that found using conventional heating (24% (w/w)). However, a considerable reduction in the extraction time was observed. It was found that 30 min of electromagnetic induction extraction of pectin from dried albedos yielded the same amount (24% (w/w)) of pectin obtained by conventional heating process for 90 min. Also, the electromagnetic induction heating at higher power and for only 2.09 min gave half the amount of pectin extracted by conventional heating for 90 min. Moreover, it was found that both extracted pectins showed almost similar compositions and physicochemical properties, presenting a galacturonic acid content of 29.10–29.40% and an esterification degree of 61.00–62.50%. The average molecular weight for both pectins extracted by EMI and CV heating ranged from 0.84 × 105 to 1.63 × 105. Hence, the electromagnetic induction heating can be suggested as a promising method for the extraction of pectin from citrange albedos at a short time, with a remarkable yield and keeping the composition and the physicochemical properties of the pectin unchanged.
Recent research suggesting the existence of potential source of pectin from roselle calyces. Pectin was successfully extracted from seven different varieties of roselle calyces. Pectin extraction was conducted using hydrochloric acid (HCl, 0.03 N, pH 1.5) or ammonium oxalate (0.25% w/v, pH 4.6) at 85oC for 1 h. Chemical characteristics of the HCl- and ammonium oxalate extracted pectin were compared. Results indicated that ammonium oxalate exhibited greater efficiency in pectin extraction than HCl. Highest pectin yield at 18.7% was obtained by ammonium oxalate extraction of roselle calyx variety Acc.6 compared to only 9.77% by HCl extraction. The lowest pectin yield at 11.3% and 5.78% were observed respectively in ammonium oxalate and HCl extractions of roselle calyx variety UKMR-3. Some important characteristics of ammonium oxalate extracted pectin of roselle Acc.6 were 5.98% moisture, 3.81% ash, 4.64% methoxyl content, 42.24% anhydrouronic acid (AUA) and degree of esterification (DE) 60%. This study suggested that the high DE% roselle pectin is an alternative source of pectin for food industry.
Pectin extracted from the apple pomace was evaluated for the in vitro inhibition of pancreatic lipase (steapsin). Pectin was extracted from two different varieties of apples, i.e., Malus pumila and Spondias dulcis using two extractants, i.e., hydrochloric acid and citric acid (CA), separately at pH 2.5. The effect of the extraction process on the structure of the extracted pectin was evaluated by the physico-chemical parameters and different techniques such as XRD, 13C NMR, FTIR or Raman spectroscopy. The lipase inhibition was observed to be dependent both on the source as well as the extractant process used. The maximum lipase inhibition (94.30%) was obtained with the pectin extracted from Malus pumila by CA process, which is comparable to that of the commercial pectin, i.e., 94.15%. Tetrahydrolipstatin was used as reference steapsin inhibitor. Therefore, the extracted pectin has potential use in the anti-obesity formulations and other applications like personal care products.
Recently, a lot of investigations have been focused on development of the novel food processing techniques with the aim to obtain the high quality food products. High intensive ultrasound applied to the milk can destroy some microorganisms and save energy and process time significantly, using milder thermal treatment and obtaining product with higher nutritive value. Therefore, ultrasound treatment has proved to be potentially very successful technique of milk sterilization, particularly in combination with increased temperature.
This research study aimed at comparing the characteristics of three different pectins and to see which one is more suitable for industrial applications. Pectin, which is a family of complex polysaccharides that contains 1, 4-linked x and &betagalactosyluronic acid residues was extracted using alcohol precipitation method from peels of lemon, grape and sweet orange after which it was characterized using both qualitative and quantitative analysis to determine and compare the color equivalent weight methoxyl content, each content solubility in cold and hot alkali, pH as well as sugar and organic acid. The result showed that the colors of the pectin from these 3 sources were the same i.e., Brown they were all soluble in hot and cold alkali and water, the moisture content, the methoxyl content and the ash were all higher in the pectin extracted from peels of sweet orange with 95.25, 5.79 and 35%, respectively. However, the equivalent weight of the pectin extracted from peels of grape was higher with 793.6 mg/mol. The overall results showed that the pectin from these sources were suitable for industrial use.
The effects of three independent variables in pectin extraction process, including extraction time (60 & 90 min), pH of extraction solution (1.5 & 2.0) and water bath temperature (75 & 90°C) on yield and quality of apple pomace pectin were investigated. The highest pectin yield of 15.20% was obtained at pH 1.5 for 90 min at 90°C, but the highest pectin quality factors were obtained at pH 2.0 for 60 min at 75°C Statistical analysis indicated that variations of tem-perature, pH and time had the strongest effects on yield and quality of pectin, respectively.
Industrial recovery and application of valuable mango (Mangifera indica L.) peel constituents, such as dietary fiber and pectins, require the conversion of the yet under-utilized and highly perishable by-product into a stable commodity. Focusing on efficient pectin recovery, the impact of different cultivars and ripeness degrees as well as various technological procedures on pectin quality by affecting pectin yield, molecular size distribution of pectic polymers, galacturonic acid content, degree of esterification, and content of interfering substances was analyzed. Cultivar and ripeness degree revealed a significant effect on pectin quality. Preservation processes, i.e. oven drying and lyophilization each with and without previous blanching of integral fruits as well as gamma irradiation, notably influenced the quality of the obtained pectin. Blanching prior to drying reduced arabinogalactan and ash impurities, whereas galacturonic acid contents were increased. Most importantly, grinding of dried mango peels to obtain a particle size of ca. 42 μm (d43) significantly enhanced both extraction yield (+70%) and galacturonic acid content (+20%) without increasing the contents of the above mentioned impurities as compared to a peel particle size of ≥10 mm. Mango pectin produced from such peel powders with a small particle size (≤120 μm) improved breaking and sugar binding capacities as well as gelling units (up to 5476 GU). The production of mango peel pectin and its applications were favored by implementing the proposed procedures into the valorization cascade of mango peels.
A three-level, four-factor Box–Behnken response surface design was used in this study to investigate the influence of process variables (extraction temperature, ultrasonic power, extraction time and solid-liquid ratio) on the ultrasound-assisted extraction of natural pigments (betacyanin and betaxanthin) from Amaranthus tricolor L leaves. Second-order polynomial mathematical models were developed from the experimental data in order to predict the experimental data. Extraction temperature, ultrasonic power and solid-liquid ratio significantly influenced the extraction of natural pigments from A. tricolor L leaves. The optimal extraction was extraction temperature of 56C, ultrasonic power of 86 W, extraction time of 39 min and solid-liquid ratio of 1:14 g/mL, respectively.Practical ApplicationsAmaranthus tricolor L (red amaranth) is widely available in South/South East Asia and eastern/south eastern regions of Africa. However, most of this precious plant was only used as cuisine materials and many of its functional components, such as betacyanin and betaxanthin, healthful natural food colorant, were not fully developed and used. In this paper, ultrasound-assisted extraction was applied to extract pigments from red amaranth leaves. This research helps to develop a new and economical method of extracting natural pigments and to fully use this edible plant. The process studied could be an alternative method for the production of natural colorant in the food industry.
The increase of waste quantities from tomato processing industry is an important ecological and also financial problem. Seeds are the major component of this waste and one valuable alternative of transforming them into raw materials is oil extraction. The isolated oil can be used for nutritive or industrial purposes. In this research, the influence of some extraction parameters (time, solvent and granularity of tomato milled seeds) on the fatty acid (FA) composition, water content and water reaction rate has been evaluated. The FA composition of tomato seed oil, determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, has shown a high content of linoleic acid (20.8-39.9 mg/mL), followed by palmitic acid (6.3-19.3 mg/mL), oleic acid (2.5-14.2 mg/mL), linolenic acid (0.7-4.9 mg/mL), stearic acid (0.1-0.8 mg/mL), palmitoleic acid (0.03-0.5 mg/mL), arachidic acid (0.08-0.4 mg/mL), myristic acid (0.05-0.2 mg/mL) and margaric acid (0.02-0.11 mg/mL). The oil content of tomato seeds was registered in the range of 13.3-19.3 %. For evaluation of water content, a method using Karl Fischer titration (KFT) has been established. Comparing with the physical methods that do not distinguish the water content from volatile matter, KFT is an important technique, very accurate, that determines water content by a chemical reaction.
Ultrasound assisted extraction of pectin from waste pomegranate peel was investigated and optimized using Box-Behnken response surface design coupled with numerical optimization technique. The individual and interactive effect of process variables (solid-liquid ratio, pH, extraction time and temperature) on the pectin yield was studied. The experimental data obtained were analyzed by Pareto analysis of variance (ANOVA) and second-order polynomial models were developed using multiple regression analysis. The models developed from the experimental design were predictive and good fit with the experimental data with high coefficient of determination (R(2)) value. The optimal extraction condition was found to be 1:17.52g/ml of solid-liquid ratio, 1.27 of pH, 28.31min of extraction time and 61.90°C of extraction temperature respectively. Under the optimal conditions, experimental yield was very close to the predicted values.
Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
An increased interest has been shown by both food technologists and food industry regarding Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni leaves (Stevia) for their high content of bioactive components (phenolic compounds, vitamin C, carotenoids). The aim of this work was to study the effect of emerging technologies such as high voltage electrical discharges (HVED) and pulsed electric fields (PEF) and ultrasounds (US) on the intensification of the extraction of valuable compounds from Stevia leaves. The proposed processes combined pretreatment (HVED, PEF and US) and extraction of intracellular compounds using water as solvent at ambient temperature. The energy inputs of the treatments varied from 24 to 141 kJ/kg and the results were compared to control diffusion experiments. Chlorophyll a, and b, total carotenoid, total phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity (DPPH) were determined. A significant increase in soluble matter and antioxidant compounds was found after HVED, PEF and US-assisted extraction as compared to control samples. Results showed that HVED, PEF and US treatments improved both kinetics and extraction yield of soluble matter. These results show the ability of HVED to be used as a potential technology to enhance protein recovery using water and avoiding the use of other solvents and grinding. Chlorophyll content was significantly higher (3-fold increase) after HVED assisted extraction at 141 kJ/kg in comparison to control sample (0.352 and 0.355 mg/L for chlorophyll a and b, respectively). The same energy input for HVED permitted attain highest extraction diffusivities of total soluble matter (D = 3.06 × 10−09 m2/s), followed by total phenolic compounds (D = 2.60 × 10−10 m2/s) and then proteins (D = 6.00 × 10−11 m2/s).
The tomato processing industry generates annually high amounts of waste. In respect of a possible recycling of these materials, the seeds of the two tomato varieties Waltinger and Red Currant were analysed. Contents of carotenoids and vitamin E were determined by HPLC. The antioxidant capacity was analysed by several assays (Folin–Ciocalteu, TEAC, ORAC), whereby hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds were gathered separately. The fatty acid profile was determined by gas chromatography. The seeds contained only little amounts of (all-E)-lutein and (all-E)-zeaxanthin. Vitamin E content of Waltinger seeds was nearly twice as high as that of Red Currant seeds with γ-tocopherol as the main vitamer. Red Currant seeds showed always higher antioxidant capacity. Hydrophilic extracts contributed mainly to the total antioxidant capacity. The oil of the seeds was rich in unsaturated fatty acids, especially in linoleic acid. Finally, the results showed that tomato seeds contain some important substances. So concerning waste management, they can serve as a secondary raw material for new products such as edible oil.
In this study, an efficient ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of pectin from sisal waste was investigated and optimized. Response surface methodology (RSM) based on a three-level four-factor Box-Behnken response surface design (BBD) was employed to optimize the extraction conditions (ultrasonic power, extraction temperature, extraction time and solid-liquid ratio). Analysis of variance showed that the contribution of a quadratic model was significant for the pectin extraction yield. The experimental yield (29.32%) was obtained under the optimal condition (ultrasonic power of 61W, temperature of 50°C, time of 26min and SL ratio of 1:28g/ml) was well agreement with predicted values. Therefore, ultrasound-assisted extraction could be used as an alternative method to extract pectin from sisal waste with the advantages of lower extraction temperatures, shorter extraction time and reduced energy consumption.
Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Microwave assisted extraction (MAE) technique was employed for the extraction of pectin from dragon fruit peel. The extracting parameters were optimized by using four-variable-three-level Box-Behnken design (BBD) coupled with response surface methodology (RSM). RSM analysis indicated good correspondence between experimental and predicted values. 3D response surface plots were used to study the interactive effects of process variables on extraction of pectin. The optimum extraction conditions for the maximum yield of pectin were power of 400W, temperature of 45°C, extracting time of 20min and solid-liquid ratio of 24g/mL. Under these conditions, 7.5% of pectin was extracted.
Pectin-enriched material (PEM) was extracted from sugar beet pulp using subcritical water combined with ultrasonic-assisted treatment. Optimisation of the reaction parameters for maximum extraction yield of PEM was carried out using response surface methodology. Optimum modification conditions were as follows: liquid/solid ratio 44.03, extraction temperature 120.72 °C, extraction time 30.49 min and extraction pressure 10.70 MPa. Under optimal conditions, the maximum yield of PEM was 24.63%. The composition of the PEM was determined. The data showed that the contents of galacturonic acid and arabinose were 59.12% and 21.66%, respectively. The flow behaviours were investigated by a rheometer. The effects of PEM on the pasting and thermal properties of maize starch were also conducted. The results showed that the addition of PEM increased pasting temperature and decreased other pasting parameters. Increasing PEM concentrations resulted in increased gelatinisation temperature and enthalpy.
In this study, ultrasound-assisted extraction technology was employed to investigate and optimize the crude polysaccharide extraction from Nephelium lappaceum L. fruit peel using three levels, four factors (LS ratio, ultrasonic power, extraction temperature and extraction time) Box-Behnken response surface design. The results showed that, highest polysaccharide yield of 8.31% was obtained with an LS ratio of 32:1ml:g, ultrasonic power of 110 w, extraction temperature of 53°C and extraction time of 41min. The experimental yield of polysaccharide (8.29±0.03%) at optimal condition was well agreed with predicted value. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) was used for the identification of functional groups present in the extracted polysaccharide. The results suggest that ultrasound-assisted extraction could be a good alternative for the extraction of polysaccharide from Nephelium lappaceum L. fruit peel at industrial level.
Hydroxyapatite [HAP, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2] is the main inorganic component of natural bone and is widely used in various biomedical applications. In this paper, we have reported the synthesis of HAP nanoparticles by banana peel pectin mediated green template method. The pectin extracted from the peels of banana and its various concentrations were exploited in our study to achieve a controlled crystallinity, particle size as well as uniform morphology of HAP. The extracted pectin was characterized by spectral techniques like Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) for the functional group analysis, proton-1 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H NMR) and carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((13)C NMR) for the identification of H and C atoms in the extracted pectin, respectively. The HAP nanoparticles were synthesized using different concentrations of the as-extracted pectin. The purity, crystallinity and morphology of the as-synthesized HAP nanoparticles were evaluated by FTIR, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), respectively. Moreover the antibacterial activity of HAP nanoparticles was evaluated against the gram positive and negative bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli), respectively. The experimental results revealed that the HAP nanoparticles synthesized in the presence of an optimized concentration of pectin are pure, low crystalline, spherical and discrete particles with reduced size. Also, the HAP sample derived in the presence of pectin showed an enhanced antibacterial activity than that of the HAP synthesized in the absence of pectin. Hence, the HAP nanoparticles synthesized using pectin as a green template can act as a good biomaterial for biomedical applications.
Chemical modification of pectin was successfully accomplished as a solvent free process. It involved acylation of alcoholic functions of the polysaccharide by using several fatty acid anhydrides. The reaction was performed by simply mixing the reagents with a catalytic amount of the inorganic base potassium carbonate and heating the obtained mixture at a temperature of 160 °C. The desired esters were fully characterized by NMR and FT-IR spectroscopy.
Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa L.) yellow variety is composed of 50–55g peel per 100g of fresh fruit which is discarded as waste during processing. Utilization of passion fruit peel for pectin extraction was studied. Passion fruit peel obtained after juice extraction was blanched in boiling water for 5min, dehydrated in a cross flow hot air drier at 60±1°C to a moisture content of 4g/100g of dried peel. The dehydrated passion fruit peel was used for extraction experiments of pectin. The effect of pH, peel to extractant ratio, and number of extractions, extraction time and temperature on the yield and quality characteristics of pectin were investigated. The optimized conditions for extraction of pectin from passion fruit peel yielded 14.8g/100g of dried peel. Pectin extracted from the dried peels had a methoxyl content of 9.6g/100g, galacturonic acid content of 88.2g/100g and jelly grade of 200. Extraction of pectin from dried peels of passion fruit may be considered for effective utilization of passion fruit processing waste.
Skin, rich in lycopene, is an important component of waste originating from tomato paste manufacturing plants. A central composite design with five independent variables, namely solvent/meal ratio (20:1, 30:1, 40:1, 50:1, and 60:1v/w); number of extractions (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5); temperature (20, 30, 40, 50 and 60°C); particle size (0.05, 0.15, 0.25, 0.35 and 0.43mm); extraction time (4, 8, 12, 16 and 20min) was used to study their effects on lycopene extraction. The experimental values of lycopene ranged between 0.639 and 1.98mg/100g. The second order model obtained for extracted lycopene revealed a coefficient of determination (R(2)) of 0.99 and a standard error of 0.03. Maximum lycopene (1.98mg/100g) was extracted when the solvent/meal ratio, number of extractions, temperature, particle size and extraction time were 30:1v/w, 4, 50°C, 0.15mm and 8min, respectively.
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Cocoa husks, a by-product of cocoa processing, were investigated as a source of pectins. Preliminary results of pectin recovery and characterization are shown; they constitute the first part of a study for the optimization of pectin extraction from this by-product. Husks of two different origins (Ghana and Venezuela) were used whole or minced and pectins were extracted under various conditions (pH 7.0, 4.0, 2.5, 1.5 and 1.0; extraction periods 1–3h): the highest yield is obtained with minced husks after 1h of extraction at pH 2.5. A preliminary characterization of pectins, in terms of methyl and acetyl ester contents, was also carried out in order to investigate the influence of different extraction conditions on the chemical composition of the extracts.
Aliphatic components of tomato, pepper, and apple fruit cuticles, and the leaf cuticles of mature olive trees, were characterized using elemental analysis, carbon (C) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Cuticular fractions isolated for analyses included bulk, dewaxed, nonsaponifiable, and nonhydrolyzable cuticles. Results from C NMR and FTIR spectra indicate that the cuticles of all the plant materials studied are comprised of extractable lipids, polysaccharides, and cutin, whereas the cuticles extracted from the olive leaf, pepper fruit, and apple fruit also contained nonsaponifiable, nonhydrolyzable residues, likely to be cutan. Hydrogen (H)/C and [oxygen (O)+nitrogen(N)]/C atomic ratios for the olive leaf, pepper fruit, and apple fruit cuticle fractions indicate that their bulk cuticle, dewaxed cuticle, and lipid fractions are more aliphatic than but have a similar polarity to their respective cutan‐like fraction. These results provide evidence that pepper fruit, apple fruit, and olive leaf cuticles each contain a cutan‐like fraction, but in the olive leaf and apple fruit, this fraction has a slightly different chemical structure from that of the pepper fruit and makes up a smaller percent of the total cuticle.
The influence of ultrasound treatments of tomato pulp on microstructure and lycopene in vitro bioaccessibility was investigated. To this purpose, samples were subjected to ultrasound at a frequency and amplitude of 24kHz and 100μm, respectively, for increasing lengths of time. Results showed that ultrasound was responsible for loss of tomato cell integrity, as well as a decrease in the degree of pectin esterification. In contrast, rheological measurements showed that ultrasonically treated tomato pulp had greater gel-like properties than an untreated sample. It was inferred that ultrasound promoted the formation of a new network due to hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions among the de-esterified pectin molecules. Such a reinforcement of the tomato pulp structure resulted in a decrease in lycopene in vitro bioaccessibility of the ultrasonically treated tomato pulp, probably due to the fact that the presence of a stronger network may make lycopene less available to the digestion process.
There is a rapidly growing body of literature covering the role of plant secondary metabolites in food and their potential effects on human health. Furthermore, consumers are increasingly aware of diet related health problems, therefore demanding natural ingredients which are expected to be safe and health-promoting. By-products of plant food processing represent a major disposal problem for the industry concerned, but they are also promising sources of compounds which may be used because of their favourable technological or nutritional properties. The purpose of this review is to highlight the potential of selected by-products as a source of functional compounds.
Phenolic compounds, ubiquitous in plants are an essential part of the human diet, and are of considerable interest due to their antioxidant properties. These compounds posses an aromatic ring bearing one or more hydroxyl groups and their structures may range from that of a simple phenolic molecule to that of a complex high-molecular weight polymer. Flavonoids, which bear the C6–C3–C6 structure, account for more than half of the over eight thousand different phenolic compounds. The antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds depends on the structure, in particular the number and positions of the hydroxyl groups and the nature of substitutions on the aromatic rings. Fruits, vegetables and beverages are the major sources of phenolic compounds in the human diet. The food and agricultural products processing industries generate substantial quantities of phenolics-rich by-products, which could be valuable natural sources of antioxidants. Some of these by-products have been the subject of investigations and have proven to be effective sources of phenolic antioxidants. When tested in edible oils, and in fish, meat and poultry products, phenolic-rich extracts have shown antioxidant activities comparable to that of synthetic antioxidants. Practical aspects of extraction and production of sufficient amounts of natural antioxidants from most of these sources remain to be elucidated.
Eleven fruit and vegetable byproducts and two minor crops were screened for industrial polyphenol exploitation potential by determination of their extraction yield, total phenolic content (TPC, Folin–Ciocalteu), and antioxidant activity (NTZ/hypoxanthine superoxide assay, ferric thiocyanate method). Extracts with the highest activity, economic justification and phenolic content were obtained from apple (TPC maximum 48.6 ± 0.9 mg Gallic acid equivalents g−1 dry extract), pear (60.7 ± 0.9 mg GAE g−1), tomato (61.0 ± 3.0 mg GAE g−1), golden rod (251.4 ± 7.0 mg GAE g−1) and artichoke (514.2 ± 14.9 mg GAE g−1). Apple, golden rod and artichoke byproducts were extracted at pilot plant scale and their antioxidant activity was confirmed by determination of their free radical scavenging activity (DPPH) and the inhibition of stimulated linoleic acid peroxidation (TBA and Rancimat® methods). The preservative effect of the three extracts (determination of the peroxide value in test crème formulations with 0.1–1.0% extract concentrations) was similar to the established antioxidants Oxynex® 0.1%, Controx® KS 0.15%, and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) 0.01%. This study demonstrates the possibility of recovering high amounts of phenolics with antioxidant properties from fruit and vegetable residuals not only for food but also cosmetic applications.
Two different options for the combined recovery of pectin and phenolic compounds from mango peels, a byproduct of industrial mango processing, were developed. After extraction of dried mango peels with diluted sulfuric acid, the phenolic compounds were adsorbed using a styrene-divinylbenzene copolymerisate resin, and pectin was obtained from the effluent by precipitation with ethanol. Phenolic compounds were recovered from the resin with methanol and the eluate was lyophilized (Process I). Alternatively, the pectin was precipitated by adding the crude extract to ethanol. After removal of the organic solvent, the phenolic compounds were obtained from the aqueous phase of the precipitation bath using the adsorbent resin as described before (Process II). While in total, 129.4 mg/g polyphenols were detected in the lyophilizate obtained from Process I, only 71.0 mg/g dm could be recoverd from Process II. The profiles of the polyphenols were almost identical, revealing that during pectin precipitation preferential adsorption of polyphenolic compounds to the pectin may be excluded. Besides the characterization of the pectins and the phenolic compounds, investigations into the influence of the drying temperature on the polyphenolic content of the peels were carried out, indicating a significant loss of flavonol glycosides depending on heat exposure. On the other hand, some xanthone glycosides were formed during the drying process. Furthermore, antioxidative capacities of the lyophilized eluates were investigated using the DPPH, TEAC and FRAP assays. The antioxidative capacity of the extracts exceeded that of mangiferin and quercetin 3-O-glucoside, respectively, thus demonstrating mango peels to be a suitable source of health-beneficial compounds. The lyophilizates obtained from Process I showed higher antioxidative capacities in all three assays. These findings indicate a correlation between the amount of phenolic compounds and the antioxidative capacity.
Apple pomace which is the main waste of fruit juice industry was utilized to extract pectins in an environmentally friendly way, which was then compared with chemically-extracted pectins. The water-based extraction with combined physical and enzymatic treatments produced pectins with 693.2 mg g(-1) galacturonic acid and 4.6% yield, which were less than those of chemically-extracted pectins. Chemically-extracted pectins exhibited lower degree of esterification (58%) than the pectin samples obtained by physical/enzymatic treatments (69%), which were also confirmed by FT-IR analysis. When subjected to steady-shear rheological conditions, both pectin solutions were shown to have shear-thinning properties. However, decreased viscosity was observed in the pectins extracted by combined physical/enzymatic methods which could be mainly attributed to the presence of more methyl esters, thus limiting polymer chain interactions. Moreover, the pectins which were extracted by combined physical/enzymatic treatments, showed less elastic properties under high shear rate conditions, compared to the chemically-extracted pectins.
Plant cell walls consist of carbohydrate, protein, and aromatic compounds and are essential to the proper growth and development of plants. The carbohydrate components make up approximately 90% of the primary wall, and are critical to wall function. There is a diversity of polysaccharides that make up the wall and that are classified as one of three types: cellulose, hemicellulose, or pectin. The pectins, which are most abundant in the plant primary cell walls and the middle lamellae, are a class of molecules defined by the presence of galacturonic acid. The pectic polysaccharides include the galacturonans (homogalacturonan, substituted galacturonans, and RG-II) and rhamnogalacturonan-I. Galacturonans have a backbone that consists of alpha-1,4-linked galacturonic acid. The identification of glycosyltransferases involved in pectin synthesis is essential to the study of cell wall function in plant growth and development and for maximizing the value and use of plant polysaccharides in industry and human health. A detailed synopsis of the existing literature on pectin structure, function, and biosynthesis is presented.
The gelling properties of pectins are known to be closely related to the degree of methylation (DM) and the distribution of the ester groups. In order to investigate this dependency, a natural citrus pectin (DM 64%) has been methylated to pectins with higher DM or saponified to achieve pectins with lower DM. A simple method for determination of DM by 1H NMR spectroscopy is presented. New modified pectins have been prepared by treatment of pectins having different DM with NaBH(4) to reduce selectively the methyl esters to primary alcohols in the presence of free acids. The degree of reduction (DR) and the DM of the remaining carboxylic acids could likewise be determined by 1H NMR spectroscopy. The new reduced pectins are recognized by the pectin degrading enzymes polygalacturonase PGI and PGII as well as by pectin lyase, all from Aspergillus niger, but the enzymes exhibit lower specific activities as compared with unmodified pectin. The new reduced pectins exhibit high gelling properties.
2012 laying down specifications for food additives listed in Annexes II and III to Regulation (EC) No 1333
Regulation (EU) No. 231/2012 laying down specifications for food additives listed in
Annexes II and III to Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament
and of the Council 1, European Commission 9 March 2012.
EU) No. 68/2013 on the Catalogue of feed materials 1, European Commission 16
Regulation (EU) No. 68/2013 on the Catalogue of feed materials 1, European
Commission 16 January 2013.
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A new approach for pectin extraction: Electromagnetic induction heating
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- K Y Ettoumi
- M Krea
- N Moulai-Mostefa