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Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and hyperpersonal

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Joseph B. Walther at University of California, Santa Barbara
Joseph B. Walther
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Dear Colleague,
Thank you for your interest in my research. The article you requested, and a number of others, are
available by request on http://cmcresearch.org/articles.html
Joseph B. Walther, PhD
Wee Kim Wee Professor in Communication Studies
Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information
Nanyang Technological University
31 Nanyang Link, Singapore 637718
jwalther@ntu.edu.sg
... Online communication means disclosures should theoretically be deliberate because the affordances permit more selective self-presentation and self-disclosure. Unintended and unavoidable disclosures are reduced online by the ability to select which nonverbal cuespredominantly photos and videosare made available (Gibbs et al., 2006;Walther, 1996). Additionally, individuals may choose not to participate in social media or to participate only in select channels (Tufekci, 2008), further reducing the opportunity for accidental self-disclosure. ...
... The vast majority of the studies clearly provide a context for respondents or base their coding scheme around social media data sources. One exception to fulfilling this guideline is studies measuring intent; these studies rarely question the assumptions underlying intent in self-disclosure and tend to include items that assume users may be unaware that they're posting information to a social media channel; this contradicts other research that finds individuals exert great control over their online presence (Gibbs et al., 2006;Kim & Dindia, 2011;Qian & Scott, 2007;Walther, 1996;Wang & Stefanone, 2013) and still experience some degree of inhibition in online communications (Ma et al., 2016). Thus, studies including the intent dimension generally do not satisfy the third guideline. ...
... Of the traditional dimensions, intent is one of the most often measured and the one most impacted by the affordances of online communication media. Although an accidental post may happen on occasion, extant research generally finds that individuals exercise great control over how they present themselves online (Gibbs et al., 2006;Kim & Dindia, 2011;Qian & Scott, 2007;Walther, 1996;Wang & Stefanone, 2013). There are several possible reasons why the assumptions underlying intent have gone unexamined, leaving it uncontextualized to online environments. ...
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... Compared to real-person streamers, avatar-mediated live streaming caused reduced non-verbal cues [19,30,57,84], which often lead to the exaggeration of VTuber performances. However, such exaggerations may not have translated into selective and optimised self-presentation as suggested by the hyper-personal model [81,82] and previous studies on social media [41,90]. This is because the synchronicity, interactivity, and high fidelity of live streams forces VTubers to maintain an authentic and engaging identity. ...
... On the one hand, this could be attributed to the 'sense of distance' proposed by Lu et al. [53] that makes the Nakanohito invisible behind the scenes and reminds viewers that the inflated presentation is acting. On the other hand, the reduced non-verbal cues of VTubing may lead viewers to inflate and idealize their perception of a VTuber, as suggested by the hyper-personal model [81], which translates into a tolerant and inclusive environment. ...
Investigating VTubing as a Reconstruction of Streamer Self-Presentation: Identity, Performance, and Gender
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Jul 2023
VTubers, or Virtual YouTubers, are live streamers who create streaming content using animated 2D or 3D virtual avatars. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the number of VTuber creators and viewers across the globe. This practise has drawn research attention into topics such as viewers' engagement behaviors and perceptions, however, as animated avatars offer more identity and performance flexibility than traditional live streaming where one uses their own body, little research has focused on how this flexibility influences how creators present themselves. This research thus seeks to fill this gap by presenting results from a qualitative study of 16 Chinese-speaking VTubers' streaming practices. The data revealed that the virtual avatars that were used while live streaming afforded creators opportunities to present themselves using inflated presentations and resulted in inclusive interactions with viewers. The results also unveiled the inflated, and often sexualized, gender expressions of VTubers while they were situated in misogynistic environments. The socio-technical facets of VTubing were found to potentially reduce sexual harassment and sexism, whilst also raising self-objectification concerns.
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... Presumimos que a atuação do impostor, ademais do fato de representá-lo falsamente, será enganosa em outros aspectos(GOFFMAN, 2002), e sabendo que a internet proporciona isso para quem quer se esconder na anonimidade do ciberespaço (YOUNG, 2011), chegamos a esta conclusão quando trazemos a discussão de Goffman para o contexto atual, o da criação de avatares e personas em comunidades virtuais e sites de redes sociais. A criação de um avatar não é exclusiva de quem joga, sendo uma ferramenta constantemente utilizada por quem assistee os perfis fakes -, igualmente para disseminar o discurso de ódio e agir com uma falsa liberdade sem que haja consequências reais, e distanciando-se do que faria em uma situação offline 66 , pois não há tanta facilitação do anonimato.A comunicação interpessoal mediada pelo computador envolve maior anonimato, mais tempo criando e editando mensagens verbais e maior controle sobre a auto apresentação, bem como manejo da impressão causada(WALTHER, 1996 apud YOUNG, 2011. Valkenburg e Peter(2007)afirmaram que se a internet influencia o bem-estar é por seu potencial de alterar a natureza da comunicação e da interação social. ...
A publicidade no contexto da ilegalidade e da violência dos jogos online: a ativação de marcas no GTA 5 roleplay
Research
Full-text available
  • Jul 2022
O objetivo deste trabalho é provocar reflexões acerca da emergência da publicidade dentro de servidores do jogo Grand Theft Auto Roleplay (doravante GTA RP), modificação ilegítima do jogo Grand Theft Auto V da desenvolvedora Rockstar Games. O GTA RP é um massively multiplayer online (MMO), jogo que suporta um grande número de jogadores simultaneamente e que combina a tradicional jogabilidade de mundo aberto da série GTA com elementos e mecânicas inspirados nos jogos de Role Playing Games (de agora em diante RPG). O jogo utiliza a plataforma base do GTA V, porém com modificações nos arquivos originais que permitem a personalização parcial do game. Sendo o GTA V um jogo cujo contexto narrativo é centralizado em violência e criminalidade, buscou-se identificar elementos que pudessem justificar e explicar a presença e permanência de usuários e de marcas nesses servidores de GTA RP. Optou-se por realizar um estudo de caso, de cunho qualitativo, das ativações das marcas Jeep, iFood e Pfizer na temporada 2021-2022 do servidor Cidade Alta. O estudo mostrou que a visão das marcas acerca do metaverso e de como fazer publicidade no jogo online apresenta traços de precipitação, uma vez que suas ações, além de não demonstrarem inovação, insistem em fomentar visões próximas às que as mídias tradicionais difundem acerca de grupos minoritários. As ações das marcas supracitadas levantam um questionamento acerca do futuro da comunicação que, ao que tudo indica, tem abdicado de ética e de cuidado ao atuar em contextos de violência e ilegalidade, por exemplo, para comunicar ao público jovem.
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... Indeed, communication on a Dating app, which is computer-mediated, is an act of interpersonal influence. Walther (1996;2012) argued that computer-mediated communication (CMC) relies heavily on information management and careful self-presentation. Thus, CMC aims to successfully manage information and the communicative behaviours by which information is managed. ...
Dating App Communication: Personal Characteristics, Motives and Behavioural Intent
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2023
Guided by the uses and gratifications theory ( Katz et al., 1973 ) and the goals-planning-action model of interpersonal influence ( Dillard, 1990 ), two studies are presented to examine aspects of Dating app communication. Study 1 ( N = 526) investigates proximal relations between a personality trait and motives and motives and behavioural intent. Study 2 ( N = 200) further probes elements of study 1 in a new sample and investigates new personality traits to motives. Collectively, these studies provide an initial look at and explain the relations between personality traits, motives and behavioural intent, which advance understanding of Dating app use from an interpersonal communication perspective. Implications, limitations and future directions are also discussed.
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Understanding and Influencing Responsibility Attribution when Experiencing Technical Issues in Video Conferencing
Article
  • Nov 2024
During video conferencing, technical issues such as network impairments can unexpectedly hinder remote collaboration for distributed teams. However, it remains unclear how such issues affect the impression formation process between unacquainted interlocutors in situations like job interviews or kick-off meetings. Having first encounters online without prior in-person interaction has become prevalent nowadays. Therefore, examining the impact of technical issues on remote unacquainted interlocutors and exploring design solutions to reduce the negative impact of technical issues on the impression is essential in informing the design of future communication systems. With three controlled experiments simulating an online job interview, we discovered that technical issues made people give low credibility ratings to remote job applicants (Study 1). We further examined two intervention approaches to reduce the negative impact of technical issues in video conferencing, including a virtual agent represented in a human-like avatar to actively take responsibility for the technical issues (Study 2), and forewarning messages to inform people about the technical issues in video conferencing (Study 3). Results demonstrated that introducing an agent that represents a communication system to take responsibility for technical issues actively could reduce the responsibility people assign to remote job applicants, but without increasing their positive credibility rating for remote job applicants. Furthermore, showing forewarning messages, which explicitly made people aware the cause of technical issues was unidentifiable and its potential negative impacts on impression formation, enabled people to rate the credibility of the remote counterpart without being influenced by technical issues. We discussed how interventions can be designed to mitigate negative attribution outcomes when encountering uncontrollable technical issues in computer-mediated communication.
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A Systematic Review on Extended Reality-Mediated Multi-User Social Engagement
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2024
The metaverse represents a post-reality universe that seamlessly merges physical reality with digital virtuality. It provides a continuous and immersive social networking environment, enabling multi-user engagement and interaction through Extended Reality (XR) technologies, which include Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR). As a novel solution distinct from traditional methods such as mobile-based applications, the technical affordance of XR technologies in shaping multi-user social experiences remains a complex, multifaceted, and multivariate issue that has not yet been thoroughly explored. Additionally, there is a notable absence of mature frameworks and guidelines for designing and developing these multi-user socio-technical systems. Enhancing multi-user social engagement through these technologies remains a significant research challenge. This systematic review aims to address this gap by establishing an analytical framework guided by the PRISMA protocol. It analyzes 88 studies from various disciplines, including computer science, social science, psychology, and the arts, to define the mechanisms and effectiveness of XR technologies in multi-user social engagement. Quantitative methods such as descriptive statistics, correlation statistics, and text mining are used to examine the manifestation of mechanisms, potential system factors, and their effectiveness. Meanwhile, qualitative case studies identify specific measures by which system factors enhance multi-user social engagement. The study provides a pioneering framework for theoretical research and offers practical insights for developing cross-spatiotemporal co-present activities in the metaverse. It also promotes critical reflection on the evolving relationship between humans and this emerging digital universe.
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Investigating VTubing as a Reconstruction of Streamer Self-Presentation: Identity, Performance, and Gender
Article
  • Apr 2024
VTubers, or Virtual YouTubers, are live streamers who create streaming content using animated 2D or 3D virtual avatars. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the number of VTuber creators and viewers across the globe. This practice has drawn research attention into topics such as viewers' engagement behaviors and perceptions, however, as animated avatars offer more identity and performance flexibility than traditional live streaming where one uses their own body, little research has focused on how this flexibility influences how creators present themselves. This research thus seeks to fill this gap by presenting results from a qualitative study of 16 Chinese-speaking VTubers' streaming practices. The data revealed that the virtual avatars that were used while live streaming afforded creators opportunities to present themselves using inflated presentations and resulted in inclusive interactions with viewers. The results also unveiled the inflated, and often sexualized, gender expressions of VTubers while they were situated in misogynistic environments. The socio-technical facets of VTubing were found to potentially reduce sexual harassment and sexism, whilst also raising self-objectification concerns.
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Effects of computer conferencing on the language use of emotionally disturbed adolescents
Article
  • Mar 1987
This study compared the computer-mediated communications among 18 severely disturbed adolescents with their small-group, face-to-face discussions. A content analysis was performed to explore psychological, interpersonal, and expressive differences between the two communication modes. The findings indicated that computer involvement tended to improve communication in these areas.
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