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Octa Journal of Environmental Research April - June, 2013
International peer-reviewed journal ISSN 2321-3655
Oct. Jour. Env. Res. Vol. 1(2): 93-106
Available online http://www.sciencebeingjournal.com
Octa Journal of Environmental Research
Research Article
MARKET CHAIN ANALYSIS OF GUM ARABIC TRADE IN KENYA
C. Wekesaa; * A. M. Luvandaa; M. O. Mugaa; B. N. Chikamaia; P. M. Makenzib
a Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), P.O. Box 20412-0020, Nairobi
bEgerton University, P.O. Box 536-20115, Egerton.
* Corresponding author’s Email: chemuku@yahoo.com)
Received: 21st May, 2013 Revised: 17th June 2013 Accepted: 28th June 2013
Abstract: Quality, quantity, availability and economics are the key factors that affect the marketing
of any product, irrespective of whether it is for domestic, national or international market. The
consumer requires the product to be available in time, be of desired quality and quantity. The
market of gum arabic is a good example of how the interplay of quality, quantity, availability and
economics affect a product market. In Kenya, trade in gum arabic has remained informal due to
inadequate marketing arrangements attributed to limited participation of gum arabic collectors in
the development of the sector and a non-conducive business environment, which does not favor
private sector expansion. This paper looked at the market chains of gum arabic, the stakeholders
participating in the management and marketing of A. senegal products and the constraints to gum
arabic production and collection within the Kenyan drylands. The results confirmed that the market
chain of gum arabic was and is still poorly organized with only one company and a few individual
traders being the major buyers. Wildlife related factors and price were the key constraints to gum
arabic collection while production was limited by unreliable rainfall due prolonged droughts. Quality
of the gum and road network determined the price with different grades attracting different rates
per kilogram in different areas. SALTLICK and AWF were the chief stakeholders involved in A.
senegal tree resources management. The study has shown that there is willingness of the locals to
engage in full time gum collection if ready market can be availed to them. Nevertheless, numerous
constraints need to be addressed to make gum arabic collection an attractive venture to the local
communities’ key among them being the purchase price.
Key words: Acacia senegal, Constraints, Gum arabic, Market chain, Stakeholders.
INTRODUCTION
Gum arabic is a natural exudate obtained from Acacia senegal. Gum arabic is traded on both local
and international markets. Around 90% of the total gum produced worldwide comes from A. senegal. Gum
arabic is used in various industries such as food, beverages, medicine, soft drinks and chewing gums. It is
also applied as an adhesive, as a protective colloid and safeguarding agent for inks, sensitizer for
lithographic plates, coatings for special papers, sizing agent to give body to certain fabrics, and anti-
corrosive coating for metals; it is also used in the manufacture of matches and ceramic pottery (Cossalter,
1991).
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Oct. Jour. Env. Res. Vol 1(2): 93-106
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In Kenyan drylands, A. senegal var. kerensis is the main source of commercial gum arabic, and
grows naturally in the wild where there are no plantations (Chikamai and Banks, 1993); the other varieties
of A. senegal are var. senegal, var. rostrata and var. leiorhachis (Coe and Beentje, 1991). Apart from gum
arabic production, it also enhances soil stabilization and soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation thus
contributing to the environmental conservation (Wickens et al., 1996). The tree provides grazing and
browsing material for livestock. Thus, A. senegal can provide a potential solution to land degradation in the
ASALs. Moreover, its promotion and utilization can offer alternative livelihoods to the pastoralists and agro-
pastoralists contribute to soil fertility and protect these fragile ecosystems from environmental degradation.
In the 1980s, the World demand for gum arabic declined as low as 27,500 metric tonnes annually.
Although drought and insect attack affected many trees, poor prices paid to local producers/collectors were
believed to be the principal cause in diminishing the amounts of gum arabic that were traded (Jamal and
Huntsinger, 1993). However, in 1994, the annual demand picked up to 43,800 metric tonnes and the
present demand stands at between 60,000 to 70,000 metric tonnes annually against current supply of
57,200 metric tonnes. The major suppliers are Sudan, Nigeria and Chad (Fagg and Allison, 2004; ITC,
2004). Sudan effectively controls about 85% of the World Market, with the West African countries Senegal,
Mauritania, Mali, Chad, Niger and Nigeria supplying much of the remainder (Anderson, 1993). The
European Community is the world’s largest gum arabic importer trading in about 35,000 tonnes yearly and
the world imports have risen by 25% in the last 4 years (Muller and Okoro, 2004).
Studies show that the potential production of gum arabic from Kenya is about 3,000 metric tonnes
per year (Muller and Okoro, 2004; Chikamai and Odera, 2002). However, currently, export volumes
averages 300-400 metric tonnes per year, indicating that only 10% of the production potential of gum arabic
is exported. This is largely as a result of bottlenecks related to production, quality, collection and more
notably, poorly developed market organization that causes irregularity in supply (Chikamai, 2001).
Currently, the price per tonne is around US$ 4,500, having risen from US$ 1,500 in the year 2003 and
therefore all collection can be sold immediately at a good rate (Muller and Okoro, 2004; Chikamai and
Odera, 2002). Thus, small producers such as Kenya can penetrate the market and increase their market
share if they produce and export good quality of gum arabic that meet buyers’ expectations and make
profits (Chretin et al., 2008).
Gum arabic production begins with the local farmer who collects the gum oozing out as natural
exudates from the tree. Gum arabic collected in most cases is simply sold in its natural state with little or no
processing. Even though gum arabic has been used and marketed for generations by local inhabitants in
the drylands of Kenya where the commodity is abundantly produced, these activities seem to have gone
unnoticed for a very long time (Chikamai, 2001). The activities continued to be carried out at informal level
until well into the late 1980’s when various organizations especially NGOs working in northern Kenya
realized their commercial significance and the manner in which merchants were exploiting the collectors
that they sought for a concerted effort to develop this important resource.
The market chain for gum arabic in Kenya is currently under-developed. Harvesters do not collect
adequate quantities of gum arabic and the collection is on part time basis because they are not linked to
buyers and they lack awareness on the trends of international market price (Chretin, et al., 2008). As a
result, they think that the prices they receive are low and this discourages the collectors from developing
the sector as an income generating activity. Consequently, pastoralists only collect gum arabic when
herding livestock as a secondary activity and do not tap the trees to enhance production besides using
outdated harvesting techniques (Chikamai and Odera, 2002). The outcome is that Kenyan gum arabic has
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a reputation for low and variable quality reducing its competitiveness in the international market. Moreover,
barely enough gum is collected to meet the current market demand. Different players across the market
chain who include collectors, buyers, agents and exporters stand to benefit from the commodity if they are
more organized and if that business is more developed in the country (Chikamai, 2001).
There is unawareness by the communities living in drylands of Kenya on the profitable potential of
gum arabic and the manner in which the business is carried out in an informal manner as earlier mentioned
have led to the haphazard market structure for the product denying the local people from reaping maximum
benefit from gum arabic. Apart from poor market arrangements, the nomadic communities in the drylands
of Kenya experience a number of constraints ranging from gum arabic collection related difficulties in
addition to environmental and human related factors that hinders gum arabic production from A. senegal
trees. This study was undertaken to establish the market chain of gum arabic, the major players involved in
the marketing of A. senegal trees and identify the constraints to gum arabic production and collection in
order to come up with strategies on how to overcome these constraints for increased yields of good quality
gum arabic and hence provide suggestions on how to improve the market structure for gum arabic to
enhance regular supply to both local and international markets.
The objectives of this study was to build a typology of the actors participating in gum arabic
production, collection and marketing; to carry out an assessment of the gum arabic commodity chain and to
identify factors limiting gum arabic production by A. senegal trees and the subsequent collection.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The data presented below were collected during a field survey on gum arabic market chain,
stakeholders involved in the management of A. senegal trees and the constraints to the production and
collection of gum arabic in Isiolo and Samburu Districts of Kenya. Both primary and secondary data were
collected to complement each other. Primary data were gathered from sampled households or homesteads
from local communities in the study areas. One hundred and forty nine (149) representative households
from the local communities in Ngare Ndare, Daaba, Nantudo and Chumviare in Isiolo District and West
Gate and Sereolipi in Samburu District were randomly selected for the household interviews. Respective
respondents, either the husband or wife or a child aged over 14 years were interviewed using structured
questionnaires. A total of ten focused group discussions (FGDs) were held through peer discussions,
consultations and active participation. These stakeholders included a team of researchers, informed
community members, local leaders and officials from government departments, private sector and NGOs.
Secondary data and information were collected from previous related studies, government departmental
reports, gum traders and agents, CBOs, private companies and reports from NGOs. Issues covered by the
questionnaire included quantities of gum arabic collected, how the collection is organized, where the locals
sell the commodity, the price per kilogram, the main actors participating in the development of the resource
and the constraints to production and collection of gun arabic. Private companies and NGOs were
interviewed on the institutional arrangements, their associations with local communities and their level of
involvement in promoting the development of gum arabic as an alternative source of livelihoods for poverty
alleviation and environmental conservation in the drylands of Kenya.
Data analyses were conducted by use of SPSS version 11.5 and Excel computer software
programs. All the data collected were summarized and subjected to descriptive statistics involving
computation of sums, means, and standard deviations. This process permitted the production of summaries
of representative practices. The field results were presented by use of graphical and tabular techniques.
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Figure 1. Map of Isiolo and Samburu Districts showing the study sites
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Gum arabic collection
Generally, gum arabic collection was done on individual basis and women were the mainstream
collectors on full time basis. Nevertheless, few people collect gum arabic on part time basis especially
children as they fetch water and fuelwood or when herding livestock. On average, one person per
household was involved in gum arabic collection on full time basis whereas two persons per household
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collected gum arabic on part time basis indicating that presently, only a small number of pastoralists are
involved in that sector to a significant level in spite of the presence of A. senegal in abundance in Kenyan
drylands.
Marketing of gum arabic
There was a significant presence of buying agents in all the areas surveyed. The agents buy the
bulky of the gum collected in its raw form without any value addition. The supply chain of gum arabic in
Isiolo and Samburu Districts is structured in such way that at primary level there are collectors who harvest
the gum arabic from A. senegal trees in their natural stands. Thereafter, these collectors sell the gum to the
local agents of major exporters and few wholesalers in Isiolo and Nanyuki towns who export it to overseas
markets (Figure 2). Largely, the major market for Kenyan gum arabic is the export market. The local market
for gum arabic was limited to only one company known as Arid Land Resources Limited (ALR) based in
Nanyuki town and few individual traders of Somali origin who buy it from the local agents. According to the
local dealers, trade in gum arabic required a minimum sum of Kshs. 2 million as a start up capital. This sum
of money is beyond the reach of many local entrepreneurs leaving very few players in the trade.
Pricing of gum arabic
The minimum price of gum arabic per kg offered by local agents was Kshs. 25 whereas the
maximum price was Kshs. 80. However, the average price was Kshs. 39/kg. The local price for gum arabic
varied by site, agent, grade and quality supplied to the market. At collector level, first grade gum fetched
Kshs. 50 per kg while second grade fetched Kshs. 30 per kg. The exporter at the port received Kshs. 150
and Kshs. 110 per kg for first and second grades respectively after selling the gum to the final consumer
companies overseas. This means the collector gets a third of the final export price (Table 2).
Table 1. Pricing of different grades of gum arabic and frankincense (olibanum) at different
distribution stages (1Kshs/Kg)
Comparing the price in different areas at the period of study, gum arabic collectors received higher
prices at Chumviare of Kshs. 50 per kilogram followed by Sereolipi, West Gate and Daaba (Kshs. 40 per
kg). In Nantudo, a kilogram of gum arabic fetched Kshs.35 when sold to the agents. Ngare Ndare had the
lowest price per kg of Kshs. 30 per kilogram. However, the variation in prices in the sites was not related to
the quality of gum arabic. The difference in the prices can be attributed to the element of accessibility to the
sites of potential buyers and since Chumviare and Daaba are near Isiolo town and the road network is fair
1 1 US$ is equivalent to Kshs 83.50
Distribution stage Olibanum (Frankincense) Gum arabic
Raw Raw 1st Grade 2nd Grade
Collector 60 40 50 30
Agent 75 45 55 35
Wholesaler 90 60 70 60
Exporter (Mombasa) 140 79 120 80
Exporter (Destination Port) 180 110 150 110
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as opposed to Nantudo, which has poor infrastructure and is impassable during rain season besides being
very far, over 60 km away from Isiolo town, they attracted higher prices due to low cost of transport.
The respondents do not keep any record of their earnings. However, the approximate monthly
income from gum arabic per household ranged from a minimum of Kshs. 200 to a maximum of Kshs. 8,000
while from livestock, it was between Kshs. 100 to Kshs. 25,000. Livestock is simply sold whenever there
was a financial problem such as the need for money to buy food or clothing. This means the income earned
from sale of livestock was irregular making it difficult to estimate. The same scenario applies to earnings
from gum arabic as some collectors do it on part time basis and collect gum only when they are in need of
money to buy household basic requirements like food. On average, the total amount of cash earned by full
time collectors was higher than that of part time gum arabic collectors. Ngare Ndare led the other areas in
terms of income received by collectors from the selling of gum arabic. This was attributed to high quantities
of gum arabic collected per day per individual in the site as compared to the rest of the sites.
Comparison between income from gum arabic and other sources
Gum arabic ranked fifth in generating monthly income to the local farmers when compared with
other sources of income fetching a mean average of about Kshs. 2,255 for an individual collector.
Livestock, which earned individual farmer a mean of Kshs. 4,900 ranked first as shown in Table 2 below.
Gum arabic collection was the most popular activity among the local communities. The other source of
income includes resins collection and trade, wages, charcoal production and small-scale business.
Table 2. Estimated monthly incomes from a range of sources
Income source N Minimum Maximum Mean S.D2
Livestock 69 100 25000 4001.67 4853.78
Gum arabic 145 200 8000 2254.83 1472.28
Resins 15 200 5000 1920.00 1746.00
Wages 4 1000 5000 3250.00 1707.83
Charcoal 21 200 7200 2909.52 2290.18
Business 8 320 5000 2802.50 1922.81
2 Standard deviation
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Figure 2. Gum arabic market chain
Legend:
Dominant supply route
Occasional supply route
Figure 2. Chain Analysis
Table 3. Activities, costs and income at different distribution stages for gum arabic
Activity Level Natural form 1st Grade 2nd Grade
Purchase Price (Kshs. /Kg) Collector3 25 25 25
Agent 40 50 30
Wholesaler 45 55 35
Cleaning/packaging Collector In kind In kind In kind
Agent In kind In kind In kind
Wholesaler 4 4 4
Transportation (Kshs. /Kg) Collector 2 2 2
Agent 2 2 2
Wholesaler 2 2 2
Documentation and Freight (Kshs. /Kg) Collector - - -
Agent - - -
Wholesaler 4 4 4
Total costs (Kshs. /Kg) Collector 2 2 2
Agent 42 52 32
Wholesaler 55 65 45
Sale Price (Kshs. /Kg) Collector 40 50 30
3 Indicative cost of collecting 1Kg of gum arabic
Gum Collectors
Local
Agent/Retailers
Wholesaler
Exporter
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Agent 45 55 35
Wholesaler 60 70 60
Profit Margin (Kshs. /Kg) Collector - - -
Agent 3 3 3
Wholesaler 5 5 5
Profit (%) Collector - - -
Agent 7.1 5.8 9.4
Wholesaler 9.1 7.7 33.3
Stakeholders participating in gum arabic trade
The survey established that several stakeholders have come up to assist communities to get
maximum benefits from A. senegal trees and its products (Figure 3). Semi Arid Lands Training and
Livestock Improvement Centers for Kenya (SALTLICK) plays a major part in the management of A. senegal
trees and provides market opportunities of gum arabic to collectors. Arid Land Resources Limited (ALR), a
subsidiary of SALTLICK, is based in Nanyuki was the lead company that regularly buys gum from
collectors. The other organizations actively involved in supporting communities in the management and
utilization of A. senegal resources for increased gum arabic production and it’s flow in the market included;
Africa Wildlife Foundation (AWF), Kenya Forestry Research institute (KEFRI), Ewaso Nyiro North
Development Authority (ENNDA) and Kenya Forest Service (KFS).
A number of government agencies are carrying out research and development work on gum
arabic. Key among them is the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), which leads other organizations
in promoting sustainable management of A. senegal trees for gum production as alternative livelihood to
the pastoral communities through training of farmers on proper methods of establishment and management
of gum trees as well as improved tapping techniques, sorting and storage of gum. Acacia Operation (AOP)
activities are aimed at promoting sustainable management of gum producing trees for improved yield and
quality of gum arabic. Ewaso Nyiro North Development Authority (ENNDA) in collaboration with KEFRI are
involved in the training of local farmers on gum arabic production and marketing with the ultimate aim of
providing an alternative livelihood source for the local communities. This is achieved by imparting proven
technologies and skills to extension staff and gum producers on the sound production of gum arabic.
Farmers are also trained on improved gum harvesting techniques and value addition in order to increase
returns for the collectors of gum. The training is organised at two levels: Training of trainers (TOTs) and
training of local communities. However, KFS’s involvement is only limited to protecting the acacia trees
against illegal cutting. Center for Training and Integrated Research in ASAL Development (CETRAD) is
another government stakeholder whose mandate is the development of ASALs, and focuses on the
assessment and evaluation of the potential and the utilization of the resources in the ASAL areas.
However, CETRAD’s involvement in promoting gum arabic production and collection is restricted to Daaba
where they have constructed a store in collaboration with a local community-based organization (CBO)
known as Mandate the Future (MTF).
Mandate the Future (MTF) is a registered as a community-based organization (CBO), which was
started, in 2000 and has seven active members distributed in Oldonyiro, Daaba, Chumviare, Ngare Mara
and Garba Tulla. The objective of the group is to improve the livelihood of pastoral communities through
increasing their income hence reduce environmental degradation, to envision the community through the
protection of gender where women and children participate in collection and packaging of gums and to
enhance gums and be realized as a source of income to the communities. The CBO has been full of life in
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community training that covers aspects of species protection, tapping techniques, grading (cleaning and
sorting), packaging and carrying out surveys on existing and potential gum arabic markets, linking the
community to the market and information sharing.
Malakino Women group is another CBO that is enthusiastically engaged in gum arabic trade. The
word Malakino means “I will never be defeated”. The CBO is situated in Sereolipi, Waso Division, in newly
created Samburu East District. Major roles of the group include; gum collection, A. senegal plantation
establishment and livestock marketing. The CBO buys gum from the collectors in the neighborhood and
sells it to Arid Lands Resources limited Company at Nanyuki. It is also involved in the management of A.
senegal plantations established under the Acacia Operation project. Various NGOs are as well involved in
the management of A. senegal resources key among them being Africa Wildlife Foundation (AWF) which
has put up gum arabic collection stores in Chumviare and Nantudo. Africa Wildlife Foundation also trains
collectors on how to sort, store and package gum in order to preserve quality by holding seminars and
workshops with the farmers. Through its effort, committees have been formed in most areas producing gum
to oversee the management of the stores and promote marketing of gum arabic.
32%
40%
15%
3% 2% 3% 5%
AWF SALTLICK KEFRI MWG CETRAD KARI OTHERS
Figure 3. Stakeholders participating in Acacia senegal management
Legend:
AWF Africa Wildlife Foundation
CETRAD Center for Training and Integrated Research in ASAL Development
KARI Kenya Agriculture Research Institute
KEFRI Kenya Forestry Research Institute
MWG Malakino Women Group
SALTLICK Semi Arid Lands Training and Livestock Improvement Centers for Kenya
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Constraints to gum arabic production
Climatic factors were cited as the main constraints to gum arabic production. Unreliable rainfall
pattern (51.0%) and drought (7.4%) were cited as the key factors limiting gum production/yield. 13.4% of
the respondents attributed that both rainfall and drought influenced yields of gum arabic while 28.2%
declined to give any response (Table 4).
Table 4. Environmental limitations to gum production
Factors Rainfall Drought Rainfall and drought N/R4
Frequency 76 11 20 42
Response (%) 51.0 7.4 13.4 28.2
Water is essential to growth and survival of the A. senegal trees. The average annual rainfall in
Isiolo and Samburu Districts was perceived to have a huge impact on the amount of gum arabic collected.
The effect of long-term droughts causes great reduction in gum arabic production. Historically, gum
collection seasons that follow droughts in the two Districts have been characterized with reduced output of
gum arabic. This confirms earlier reports by several authors including Anderson (1993) and Luvanda et al
(2006) who confirmed that long and severe droughts resulted into low gum arabic yields. The length of the
rainy season is also a limiting factor. Longer rainy seasons extend the growing period for the trees eating
into gum production season and hence reduction in quantity collected agreeing with Jackson (1968) who
stated that for wet and cooler climates, though the tree may flourish; it yields no gum.
Constraints to gum arabic collection
Several factors discouraged the local communities to engage in gum arabic collection. These
constraints are presented below in Table 5.
Table 5. Constraints to gum collection
Constraint Response (%) N=149
Price 100.0
Wildlife related problems 71.8
Labour and water shortage 68.5
Cultural beliefs 39.6
Poor infrastructure 28.9
Tribal border conflicts 20.1
Conflicting roles 2.7
Low producer price of gum arabic
Price act as an incentive to collect or not to collect gum arabic and determine the actual amount
collected. Prices paid to the collectors in the various producing areas are determined by the global market
trends. This detailed survey carried out in the two Districts confirmed that the decisive factor determining
the level of collection was the level of local producer prices. According to this survey, the local producer
price had declined from 60 Kshs. per kg in 1990s to between 35-40 Kshs. per kg in 2008, a similar figure
that was reported in earlier studies (Chretin et al., 2008). This decline resulted in about 73.2% of the
collectors suffering from a reduction in income forcing them to contemplate abandoning this activity. If the
4 Number of respondents who did not answer the question
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current trend continued, then over 50% of those responding declared that they would not collect gum during
the coming years. This study approves previous results by Jamal and Huntsinger (1993) that poor prices
paid to the local collectors were the principal cause in diminishing the amounts of gum arabic traded.
In these areas, it has been estimated that the collector/producer receives about one third of the final export
price for his production. If this is the case, and on the assumption of a maximum yield of 1 kg per tree and a
collection from 500 trees per person per season, then the 20,000 Kshs. is earned per person per season,
which translate to 40,000 Kshs. annually because there are two seasons in a year. Thus, on average,
monthly income from gum is 3,330 Kshs., a very small amount to support essential livelihood of family
members involved in one month. Under these conditions, gum arabic can only be considered as a
supplementary source of income in a holding that associates gum collection with livestock keeping. The
only advantage of the income that comes from the gum source is in its timing because it arrives in the
middle of the dry season when the needs of the collector are the greatest and can at least to a degree;
carry over his or her family until the severe dry season is over.
Wildlife related factors
Elephants posed the greatest threats to the survival of A. senegal trees. They break the tree
branches when browsing and at times uproot the trees thereby reducing its population and consequently,
gum production. Baboons on the other hand feed on fresh gum oozing out naturally from the trees causing
a reduction in the quantity collected by collectors. Wild animals such as lions, leopards, cheetahs,
elephants and snakes attack gum collectors hampering their efforts. Collectors have therefore been
engulfed with fear of collecting gum individually due to these attacks. They cannot go beyond some hours
because of this wildlife coercion. Results of the present study confirm previous reports by Chikamai and
Odera (2002) on the constraints to gum arabic collection.
Limited availability of water and labor in the production zones
In the dry areas of Isiolo and Samburu Districts where we have natural populations of A. senegal
trees, it was noted that there was a lack of labor for undertaking the tapping and collection of natural
exudates of gum arabic due to conflicting household chores especially for women who are the ones actively
involved in gum arabic collection. Inadequate labor is directly related to the lack of water in these areas.
This is because lack of water forces women who are the majority collectors of gum to spend more time
looking for it at the expense of gum collection. Men on the other hand herd their livestock moving from one
place to another in search of pasture and water leaving little room for gum collection (Table 5).
Cultural beliefs
Traditional beliefs especially among the Samburus whereby young boys (morans) who have
undergone initiation into adulthood are not allowed taking up gum collection as an economic activity. This
was attributed to the cultural beliefs that limit morans to herding of livestock hence relegating gum
collection responsibilities to women and girls. The involvement of women in gum collection remained
constant throughout the six study areas irrespective of tribe. This clearly showed that women are the major
collectors of gum arabic. However, among the Turkana community, there was no cultural beliefs barring
family members from collecting gum on the grounds of gender and/or age and as a result, all family
members undertook collection; men, women and even children.
Poor infrastructure
The importance of a reliable road network for easy collection of the gum arabic cannot be over-
emphasized. In the remote production areas of the two Districts like Nantudo, the road network is non-
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existent. The only access is by an uncovered road that is impassable during the rainy season due to the
presence of intermittent rivers that do not have bridges. Many other areas with gum producing trees are in
a similar situation and suffer generally from isolation from the rest of the region on the account of poor
roads. This situation hinders regular collection of gum by buyers/traders from their agents disconnecting
collectors/agents and buyers and as such further discourages gum collection.
Insecurity
Insecurity is a serious limitation to gum collection in the Districts. Cattle rustling and banditry were
the main causes of insecurity in the sites. When these unfortunate events occur, collection is stopped until
the situation cool down. Other bottlenecks to gum collection included; injures caused by thorns of A.
senegal trees, denying collectors access to tree hence hampering smooth collection of gum arabic, tribal
border inter community wars and trekking very long distances to reach areas inhabited with large
population of gum producing trees.
Overcoming constraints to gum arabic collection
Majority of the respondents (26.8%) reported that they carry water and food to the bush whenever
they went to collect gum. Carrying packed food and water to the sites during collection of gum arabic was a
strategy that was observed in all the six survey sites. However, this strategy was deeply entrenched in
Ngare Ndare followed by Daaba, Nantudo and Sereolipi in that order. Notwithstanding, 23.5% reported that
they were always watchful when collecting gum for any attacks from wild animals like elephants, cheetah,
snakes and lions. Another 25.5% entrusted their security in God’s hands especially in Chumviare because
there was very little they could do to protect themselves. They argued that the government had neglected
them by failing to stump out insecurity in the area resulting from cattle rustling, banditry and human-wildlife
conflict. In addition, collectors walked in groups (16.8%) to enhance their safety. Only 7.4% of the
respondents camped in the sites with high population of gum arabic producing trees for days to collect gum
and while in the camp, they lit borne fires to scare away wild animals.
Table 6. Strategies used in overcoming constraints to gum collection
Strategy Response (%) N=149
Carrying water and packed food 26.8
Protection from God 25.5
Taking precautions 23.5
Walking in groups 16.8
Camping in collection sites 7.4
CONCLUSION
The study has shown that there is potential for high gum arabic production in the two Districts
because of high population of A. senegal trees and willingness of the locals to engage in fulltime gum
collection if ready market can be availed to them. Nevertheless, numerous constraints need to be
addressed to make gum arabic collection an attractive venture to the local communities’ key among them
being the purchase price. This problem can be addressed urgently through creating public awareness on
the international trends of the commodity prices to make the collectors understand that the amount being
offered at any given time is in tandem with global market prices trends and therefore local traders/agents
do not in any way exploit them. Moreover, the infrastructure needs to be developed and/or improved to
ease the problem of accessing the gum producing zones by potential buyers to create a link between
collectors and buyers. International and local NGOs as well as CBOs have played and still play a major role
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in the management of A. senegal trees as well as in the training of farmers on better gum arabic harvesting
techniques in addition to constructing gum stores for the locals. The impact of NGOs and CBOs is being felt
on the ground and much has changed for the better since their entry into developing gum arabic as a
dryland resource. Improvements can be made to harvesting and marketing of gum arabic. This can be
achieved through training with specific attention to quality issues and international market trends in prices,
establishing of stores in gum arabic producing areas and developing of direct links between collectors and
traders. Once the above concerns are addressed, Kenya can penetrate the international market of gum
arabic and improve its market share. Various initiatives have been undertaken by a number of stakeholders
mainly CBOs, NGOs, private sector operators and government agencies in the industry and are already
showing promising results. SALTLICK through its subsidiary company; Arid Land Resources Limited (ALR),
Africa Wildlife Foundation (AWF) and Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) are leading the pack in
ensuring that the resource is developed for the benefit of local communities and the country at large. There
is need to formulate policies and investments that will support improved gum arabic collection and market
structure since this will generate additional income for collectors, thus contributing significantly to extreme
poverty alleviation in the ASALs. Such measures will also help increase the level of domestic value-added;
which would have a positive effect on the country’s export volumes and hence overall economic growth.
There is an urgent need to strengthen the capacity and ability of gum collectors and other
stakeholders to produce, collect and market high quantities of gum arabic of good quality in order to
increase income, create jobs and diversify Kenyans foreign exchange earning.
Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank the following people who were very instrumental
during data collection: Mr. Abdi Somo who was our field assistant, Mr. Kalapata of MTF and Mrs. Pauline of
MWG. Gratitude also goes to Arid Lands Resource Management Project (ALRMP), Kenya Forestry Service
(KFS), local communities, collectors, traders, and various NGOs and CBOs involved in the gum arabic
sector. Special thanks to KEFRI, which funded this study through ACACIAGUM project.
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