Content uploaded by Amrit Lal Singh
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Amrit Lal Singh on Aug 08, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
Groundnut Cultivation Technologies
for North Eastern Hills of India
A. L. Singh and M. S. Basu,
National Research Centre for Groundnut
(Indian Council of Agricultural Research)
P.B. 5, Junagadh - 362 001, Gujarat, India
G. C. Munda1, M. Dutta2, N. P. Singh2, D.P. Patel1
Mausumi Raychaudhuri3
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region
1Umiam 793103, Meghalaya
2Lembucherra-799210, Tripura
3Imphal 795004, Manipur
March, 2006
Citation
:
A.L. Singh, M. S. Basu G. C. Munda, M. Dutta, N. P.
Singh, D.P. Patel and Mausumi Raychaudhuri, 2006.
Groundnut Cultivation Technologies for North Eastern
Hills of India. National Research Centre for groundnut
(ICAR), Junagadh, India. pp 40.
Published
by
:
DIRECTOR,
NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTRE FOR GROUNDNUT
P.B. 5, JUNAGADH 362001,
GUJARAT, INDIA
Telephone
:
91-0285-2673041/ 2672461
Fax:
:
91-0285-2672550/ 267382
E-mail
:
alsingh16@gmail.com
Printed at
:
Metro offset,
Nr Sub Marketing Yard,
Dolatpara, Junagadh
Ph : 0285-2661254
Copyright© with authors
:
No part of this book should be reproduced
in any form without permission of the author
Cover photo
:
Groundnut cultivation in NEH
Back page photo
:
A bumper groundnut crop in Meghalaya
Preface
The groundnut, an important oilseed and food legume crop of tropical
and subtropical areas, is being cultivated on about 25 million hectare of land
in about 90 countries under different agro-climatic regions between latitudes
40ºS and 40ºN. However, on large scale it is mainly grown in India, China,
USA, Senegal, Indonesia, Nigeria, Brazil and Argentina. Presently, India
has the largest groundnut area (32 % of the world) and also till 1992 was the
chief-producer of groundnut in the world. From 1993 onwards China, due to
higher productivity, became the highest producer of groundnut and India
stands second.
There are fluctuating trends in area and production of groundnut in
India, however, it is grown on an area of about 8 million hectare, mostly as
rainfed in dry lands under vagaries of the weather conditions producing
about 8 million tonnes due to its low productivity and so far only about 20
% area could be brought under irrigation. However, the demand of
groundnut is increasing due to increase in population as well as to introduce
the groundnut as food crop. This calls for the tremendous increase of
groundnut production in India. Though the average groundnut yield, in
India, is around 1000 kg ha-1, the non-traditional groundnut area in NE states
harvest 3000-3500 kg ha-1 of pods in about 100-120 days clearly indicating
its potential for introduction in these areas to increase the production and
productivity of groundnut. Thus, since last one decade, joint efforts were
made by the scientists of NRCG, Junagadh and ICAR Research Complex
for NEH Region, to develop suitable technologies for cultivation of
groundnut in the north eastern hill region, where the water is not a limiting
factor.
Now the cultivation of groundnut crop need to be popularized in the
NE states. This bulletin, being brought out by NRCG, Junagadh and ICAR
Research Complex for NEH region, is very timely providing tested
technologies and strategies to promote groundnut cultivation to increase its
productivity and availability in NEH region. The scientists, situated in the
remote areas of extreme north-east and western most part of the country,
have worked very hard, generated valuable informations on various aspect
of groundnut and done a commendable job which have been compiled in
this bulletin.
Authors
Contents
1.
Introduction
1
2.
Soil, Climate and Crop seasons
3
3.
Groundnut areas and its potential in NEH region
6
4.
Cultivation technologies developed
10
4.1. Improved groundnut cultivars
10
4.2. Soil acidity and Al-toxicity tolerance genotypes
14
4.3. Nutrient-efficient genotypes
14
4.4. Cropping seasons and situations
16
4.5. Optimum sowing time
18
4.6. Seed Rate and Spacing
20
4.7. Weed Management
20
4.8. Soil, fertilizer and nutrient managements
22
4.8.1. Soil acidity, liming and Ca fertilizers
22
4.8.2. Macronurtient fertilizers
24
4.8.3. Micronurtients and Biofertilizers
28
4.8.4. Integrated nutrient management
28
4.9. Cropping systems
30
4.10. Irrigation and drainage
32
4.11. Polythene Mulch Technologies
34
4.12. Pest and disease Management
34
4.12.1. Insect and Pests
34
4.12.2. Diseases
37
4.13. Harvesting and storage
38
4.14. Groundnut as fodder crop
38
4.15. Mechanization and Marketing
40
4.16. Economics
42
5.
Organic farming and value addition
43
6.
Constraints and strategic approaches to increase the productivity
45
6.1. Constraints
45
6.2. Strategic approaches
46
6.2.1. Production of quality seed
46
6.2.2. Management approaches
47
6.2.3. Extension and liaison between various agencies
49
7.
Further reading
50
1. Introduction
The groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L) which ranks 13th among the
principal economic crops of the world, is an important food legume and
oilseed crop of tropical and subtropical areas and presently grown in about 90
countries under different agro-climatic regions between latitudes 40ºS and
40ºN. Though world-wide it is being cultivated on about 25 million hectare of
land in several countries, on large scale it is mainly grown in India, China,
USA, Senegal, Indonesia, Nigeria, Brazil and Argentina. It is oil and protein
rich an energy giving crop, but usually grown under energy-starved conditions
of low soil fertility and rain fed areas and about 70 % of the world groundnut
production occurs in the semi-arid tropics with average yield of around 800
kg ha-1.
In India the groundnut, which was introduced around 250 years ago, is
the most important oilseeds crop of the country. Now it is grown on an area
of about 8 million hectare (m ha), in 260 districts, mostly as rainfed crop on
well drained sandy soils in 500-2000 mm annual rainfall areas producing
about 8 million tonnes (m t). Up to 1960s the groundnut, in India, was grown
only in rainy season (Kharif), but from 1971-72 its cultivation started in
winter (Rabi) and summer also where it showed higher yield potential than
Kharif. Between the decades of 60s and 70s, there is practically little
difference in productivity (700-800 kg ha-1) indicating that the increase in
production was largely due to the expansion in areas. But during 80s,
particularly during 1988-89, the productivity has crossed one tonne (1132 kg
ha-1) mainly due to favorable season and transfer of available technologies
through Technology Mission on Oilseeds. The average yield of the crop
during 1990-2000 was 994 kg ha-1 with a maximum of 1214 kg ha-1 during
1998.
Presently, India has the largest groundnut area (32% of the world) and
also till 1992 was the chief-producer of groundnut in the world. But, from
1993 onwards, China, due to its higher productivity than India, became the
highest producer of groundnut and India stands second. In the present
scenario of increasing population as well as malnutrition problem, the
production of groundnut has to be increased to meet its demand both as
oilseed as well as food crop. As groundnut is an energy rich crop requiring
more energy for oil and protein synthesis, comparative to other crops, its
productivity cannot be increased after certain limit and its area in the
traditional groundnut-growing belt is decreasing, the expansion of groundnut
2
cultivation in the non-traditional areas of north east is area of the alternative
where the yield potential of 3000-3500 kg ha-1 of pods are easily achieved in
100-120 days against 1000 kg ha-1 as the average yield of India.
In north-east, though the roasted groundnut is used for the past 30-40
years, the cultivation of groundnut started only about 25 years ago and till
today it is mainly used as snack food. More over its agronomy and phenology
are not well studied on these acid soils of NEH region which many a times
results in poor yield. Thus efforts were made during the last one decade, to
popularize groundnut in these areas where there is tremendous scope to
increase the production and productivity through introduction of the new crop
varieties in the areas where nutrients and water are not a limiting factor. In
this bulletin an attempt was made to synthesize the important findings,
knowledge of groundnut cultivation and technologies developed so far in the
north eastern states, to identify the proper package of practices and to pin
point the major thrust areas, and strategies for promotion of groundnut
cultivation to increase its productivity and availability in the NE region.
3
2. Soil, Climate and Crop seasons
The north east lies between 21°57' to 29°26' N latitude and 89°45' to
97°17' E longitudes with a total geographical area of about 25 m ha and
constitutes the "Seven Sisters" states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. However, the north east hill
region includes Sikkim and all these states except Assam. These north
eastern hills (NEH) are considered as non-traditional areas for groundnut
cultivation as the crop is not grown traditionally in these areas.
The NEH region is characterized with varied physical and climatological
conditions with an altitude of 50-3000 m above msl and climate ranging from
tropical to temperate. It is a high rainfall area and most of the rainfall is
received under the influence of the southwest monsoon with 75 % of the
annual rainfall occurring in June-September. The topography of the region is
mountainous. The climate is humid subtropical and the mean annual rainfall
varies from 980-11420 mm, with a mean minimum and maximum
temperatures 18.3 and 29.9°C, respectively. With sudden changes in
topography results in climate changes within short distance, the entire NE
region has distinct climate variations and low to medium sunshine hours.
The region has loamy sand to sandy loam textured soil (alfisol
haplaquent) acidic in reaction (pH 4.5-55). There is a good depth of soil in NE
region and most of the soils are low in CEC (cation exchange capacity), pH
strongly to medium acidic, dominated by inceptisol (45%) and entisol (28%).
This region suffers from severe soil erosion due to rugged topography, high
rainfall and shifting cultivation. Both surface and sub-surface soils of the hilly
region are highly leached exhibiting poor base saturation with low CEC
(below 25%) and soil acidity in general and subsoil acidity in particular are
the major limiting factors for low productivity potential of these soils.
About 10 m ha soil of NEH region is having pH less than 5.5 in NE
regions, where Al-toxicity in upland terraces, Fe and Mn-toxicities in valleys
and Ca, P, Mg and K, deficiencies in both situations are major concerns of
crop production. Low water holding capacity, crusting, erosion and
compaction make these soils low productive and poor fertility of upland soils,
which is highly acidic, is due usually to a combination of these factors.
4
Most of the rainfall in these states is received under the influence of the
south-west monsoon between June and October. Kharif is the main cropping
season lasting from April to September, which also coincides with the
monsoon season. Crops are also grown during rabi and summer seasons
utilizing irrigation facilities, residual moisture in the soil. There are following
situations in which groundnut is mainly grown in the NE states:
Seasons Situations
Kharif Rainfed upland
Rabi Rainfed on residual moisture/ minimal irrigation
situations
Summer Irrigated medium land (Rice plains)
Summer River bank and riverbed fallow on residual moisture
Time of groundnut sowing in NE states is little earlier during kharif
season than in plains as it is sown from April and during rabi, it is sown in
September-October and summer season groundnut is sown during January-
February and harvested during May-June.
5
a
b
a. A panoramic view of hills in Manipur showing rice crop in the valley and
groundnut and other crops on Jhum land.
b. A bumper crop of groundnut in upland terrace at Umiam, Meghalaya
6
3. Groundnut areas and its potential in NEH
The entire North East states are considered as non-traditional areas for
groundnut cultivation as the crop is not grown traditionally in the area. The
uplands, rice and maize fallows,flat lands, river valleys and foot hills up to
mid altitude of the region offer the place where groundnut is grown in
patches. Recent experiences with groundnut cultivation in NE states reveals
that during kharif season, groundnut performs well on a well drained soil in
the entire NE states. In Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya and
Mizoram, it was introduced during middle of 1980’s while in Tripura and
Nagaland it was introduced earlier. The crop remains almost disease and pest
free till 80 DAS (days after sowing) and yields more than 1000 kg ha-1. In
lower altitude of Assam, Meghalaya (Garo hills), Manipur, Tripura, second
crop of groundnut is grown during rabi season under residual moisture or with
minimum irrigation. The groundnut crop has high potential in the NE states,
with a good number of varieties found promising under mid-altitude, but none
of them did well under high altitude.
In Arunachal Pradesh, groundnut has found place as kharif crop in the
thin strips of flat land adjoining Assam in East Siang, where it is being grown
since a decade. In Assam, the groundnut cultivation has been reported in
Jorhat, Nagaon, Darrang, North Lakhimpur and North Cachar hills, however,
as rabi crop, it can be grown in all the districts in rice fallows. In Manipur,
groundnut is cultivated in the foot hills of Thoubal, Ukhral and Senapati
districts. In Meghalaya, groundnut is being practiced on the uplands and also
after rice in West Garo hills, East Garo Hills, Ri-Bhoi and Umroi districts. It
is cultivated on Jhum land with very high yield. In Mizoram, the groundnut is
grown mainly in Kolasib area of Aizwal touching Tripura and Assam on the
hill slopes of Jhum lands. In Nagaland groundnut is popular near Kohima. In
Tripura, groundnut is being cultivated in all the three districts south, north and
West Tripura on the uplands and ‘Tilla lands’ during kharif seasons and
medium lands after rice crop during rabi season.
The cropping system, in the NE states, revolves around rice and maize,
the productivity of which under upland terrace and ‘tilla’ land is very low
owing to light texture, Al-toxicity and low P content in soil. Moreover, in
most of the hill region shifting (Jhum) cultivation, is still dominant. The
upland rice crop in the NE region is not remunerative because of low and
erratic yield (650 kg ha-1) as against national average (more than 2500 kg ha-
1). Changeover to groundnut, a more tolerant crop to mineral stresses, with
7
a
b
a. A local watershed and surrounding medium-land ready for rabi-groundnut
cultivation in Tripura after rainy season.
b. Fields showing various stages of rice cultivation (transplanting to harvest)
in Tripura. In one field rice is ready for harvest while in another it has
been harvested and readyd for rabi-groundnut sowing.
8
modern agricultural technologies may bring substantial yield increase in these
areas.
The station trials compiled by Munda et. al.,(1997) clearly indicated that,
in Meghalaya, as high as 3000 kg ha-1 pod yield was obtained from ICGS 76
under good management practices. In Arunachal Pradesh (Basar), groundnut
registered pod yield of 3440 kg ha-1 and at Tripura, maximum pod yield of
3970 kg ha-1 was obtained with variety ICGS 44. At Langol foot hills of
Manipur, highest pod yield of 3200 kg ha-1 was obtained. In Mizoram
(Kolasib), bold seeded variety, ICGV 88365 gave as high as 3760 kg ha-1 of
pod yield. Production potential of groundnut found to be very high on silt
loam soils adjoining the river valleys of Nagaland with a production potential
of more than 3000 kg ha-1.
It can be grown in river beds, in potato and mustard fallow during spring
season as sole crop or intercrop with rice and maize, and in the upland acid
soils as an alternative to less remunerative local rice and minor millets. It can
also be grown in sequence after rice or maize or as intercrop within rice and
maize upland situations. Citrus, guava, large cardamom, zinger, cassava,
curcumin and sweet potato, arecanut, and rubber, are major horticultural and
plantation crops and the groundnut can be very easily intercropped with these
crops either regularly or up to three years of start of plantation. The farmers
adoptability to groundnut due to less management problem compared to rice
and maize requires less fertilizer inputs for its production.
The groundnut has got high potential for its cultivation in NE region and
various situations provide scope for expansion of additional 0.5-1 million ha
area in the NE states which may result in additional production of about 1-2 m
t of groundnut. Groundnut in Rice-Based Cropping System (RBCS) is
becoming popular and area is increasing in the entire NE region. Deposition
of silt and nutrient replenishment every year due to flood, the riverbeds
provide an ideal situation for growing groundnut under residual moisture
content. This cultivation is picking up fast in Assam, Manipur and Tripura.
The yield potential of groundnut in river bed is very high and yield of 3000 kg
ha-1 is commonly observed, however, yield up 5-6 t ha-1 are also reported in
the river bed of Brahmputra. In Assam, Meghalaya (Garo hills), Manipur,
Tripura, second crop of groundnut is grown during rabi season under residual
moisture or with minimum irrigation and further expansion in the river beds
and on the terraces after rice is anticipated. Adopting the rice-groundnut
sequence in low land is beneficial as groundnut in the RBCS sustains crop
production, improves soil health, breaks build up of dangerous insect-pests
and pathogens, requires less number of irrigations and provides better
nutritional and financial security than other crops.
9
a
b
a. Groundnut cultivation in terraces in Manipur.
b. Groundnut in terrace-cropping with bunds for raising fodder and
plantations crops in Manipur.
10
4. Cultivation technologies developed
The groundnut crop is new in NE states and for a good harvest, it needs
specific package of practices. The Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat,
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Regions in Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura,
Mizorum, Nagaland, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh in collaboration with
National Research Centre for Groundnut (NRCG), Junagadh and All India
Coordinated Research Project on Groundnut (AICRPG) conducted field
experiments on the varietal selection, INM, optimum agronomy and plant
protection and IPM for realizing maximum yield and developed package of
practices for north eastern states of India. However, these production
technologies are being refined time and again and based on the recent
informations, the sustainable technologies are being highlighted here.
4.1. Improved groundnut cultivars
To introduce a crop in an area it is first and foremost effort to select the
suitable genotypes for the regions through screening and yield trials and once
these are identified one can go for developing high yielding genotypes. In
this mission, several groundnut varieties were tested during mid 80s to mid
90s in the NE region under AICRPG. From mid 90s onwards, in an Inter-
institutional collaborative trial, the recently released varieties were evaluated
for their pod yield, and tolerance of Al and Fe-toxicities and Ca and P-
deficiencies, early and late leaf spot diseases and tested for their suitability
and immediate introduction in NEH regions. The season wise following
groundnut varieties are identified:
Kharif season
:
ICGS 76, ICGS 44, ICGV 86590, BAU 13, CSMG
84-1, TKG 19A, OG 52-1, and Girnar 1
Rabi season
:
ICGS 76, OG 52-1, ICGS 44 and Girnar 1
From a series of trials, nearly 60 groundnut varieties were tested, with
optimum fertilizer and spacing, under various agro-climatic situations of NE
region and the groundnut varieties identified for their cultivation in various
NE states are listed below:
11
a
b
a. A field trial for evaluation of groundnut genotypes at ICAR Research
Complex for NRH at Barapani, Meghalaya.
b. Scientists of NRCG, Junagadh and ICAR Research Complex, Barapani
visiting the groundnut experimental fields at Barapani.
12
NE States
Promising groundnut cultivars
Arunachal Pradesh
ICGS 76, Girnar 1, CSMG 84-1
Assam
ICGS 76, Girnar 1, ICGS 11, GG 2, CSMG 84-1, GG
20
Meghalaya
ICGS 76, ICGV 86590, TKG 19A, BAU 13, CSMG
84-1, GG 13
Manipur
ICGS 76, ICGV 86590, TKG 19A, BAU 13, CSMG
84-1, GG 20
Mizoram
ICGS 76, ICGV 86590, ICGS 44, CSMG 84-1, GG 13,
GG 20
Nagaland
ICGS 76, ICGV 86590, ICGV 87187, CSMG 84-1
Tripura
ICGS 76, ICGV 86590, TKG 19A, DRG 12,OG 52-1,
GG 20
The ICGS 76, is a two seeded Virginia bunch cultivar from ICRISAT,
released during 1989 for southern Maharashtra, A.P., T.N and
Karnataka with 72.0 % shelling, 42.5 % oil and 44 g 100-seed wt.
The ICGV 86590 is a 3-4 seeded, multiple disease and insect pest
resistant, Spanish bunch cultivar from ICRISAT, released during 1991
for peninsular India with 62.0 % shelling, 41.6 % oil and 33 g 100-
seed wt.
The Girnar 1 is an early maturing multiple resistant Spanish bunch
variety of NRCG, released during 1988 for rainfed conditions of
western Maharastra, A.P., T.N., and Junagadh with 71 % shelling, 50
% oil and 33 g 100-seed wt.
TKG 19A is a Virginia bunch, bold and attractive kernel variety of
BARC and K.K.V Dapoli, released during 1993 for R/S and Kharif
season of Konkan region with 63.0 % shelling, 46.0 % oil and 61 g
100-seed wt. qualifies for HPS grade.
BAU 13 is a Virginia bunch, bold seeded cultivar released during 1993
from Birsa Agricultural University, Kanke. It contains 50.1 % oil, and
having a shelling out turn of 64.6 % with 55.1 g 100 seed mass. It is
recommended for cultivation in the states of Bihar, U.P., Rajasthan,
Gujarat, maharastra and T.N.
13
Suitable groundnut Varieties for NEH region
14
CSMG 84-1 is a Virginia runner cultivar released from CSAUAT,
Mainpuri during 1992 having 63.5 % shelling, 46.8 % oil and 38.4 g 100
seed wt. It is recommended for cultivation in the states of Rajasthan,
U.P., Haryana for Kharif season.
GG 20 is a Virginia bunch, bold seeded cultivar released during 1991
from Gujarat Agricultural University, Junagadh. It contains 54.9 % oil,
and having a shelling out turn of 70.3 % with 51.1 g 100 seed mass. It is
recommended for cultivation in the states of Gujarat.
The average yield of groundnut in NEH region is always higher than the
national average yield of India. Five years of study demonstrated that the
groundnut cultivars ICGS 76, ICGV 86590, BAU 13, CSMG 84-1, GG 13
and TKG 19A were high yielding (> 2000 kg ha-1 pod yield) in NEH region.
Due to high rainfall and humidity, three foliar diseases (ELS, LLS and
Rust) were predominantly occurring in NEH region and the cultivars ICGV
86590 and ICGS 76 showed comparatively better resistant to these than other
genotypes. As soil acidity, Al-toxicity, and Ca- and P-deficiencies are the
main problems of the region, the groundnut cultivars showing high yield
could sustain these adversities.
The NEH soil due to high organic matter and loose structure provides
scope for large seeded groundnut and HPS 9704, 9706 and BAU13 are the
promising genotypes.
4.2. Soil acidity and Al-toxicity tolerance genotypes
In a collaborative project between ICAR Research Complex in NEH and
NRCG, Junagadh, 600 groundnut genotypes were tested in various phases and
based on six years of study, the soil acidity and Al-toxicity tolerant and
sensitive genotypes were identified as:
Al-toxicity tolerant genotypes: ICG 813, 1001, 1021, 1048, 1056, 1064,
1355, 3606, 86644, 10271, 10465, 10964, 11183, 11954 and RCG 3.
Al-toxicity sensitive genotypes: ICG 2120, 4407, 6727, 6855, 7288,
7600, 7787, 7821, 10580, 11748.
4.3. Nutrient efficient genotypes
In acid soils of NEH region, the Al-induced P and Ca deficiencies are
main problems and groundnut seed showed low Ca content sometimes below
300 ppm causing low shelling and viability. Thus, an effort was made for the
15
a
b
a. Field evaluation of HPS groundnut genotypes, at Barapani.
b. Pod bearing in some promising bold-seeded groundnut genotypes in
NEH region.
16
selection of nutrient efficient genotypes which can grow and yield well
under low available nutrients where the normal genotypes show
deficiency and identified following nutrient efficient and inefficient
genotypes:
P-efficient
GG 5, NRCG Acc 7085-1, 6919, 1308, 3498, and SP
250A, ICGV 80338, ICGV-88348, ICG (FDRS) 40,
ICG (FDRS) 50
P-inefficient
VRI 3, B 95, PBS 16003, 20012 and 18057
Ca-efficient
ICGHNG 88448, and NRCG Acc. 7085-1, 6155,
Ca-inefficient
BAU 13, TG 26, NRCG 7472 and 162
4.4. Cropping seasons and situations
Kharif and rabi summer are the two groundnut growing seasons being
followed in north eastern hills. Of these, kharif crop is gaining familiarity and
now it is being grown in almost all the states in mid hills. Also, efforts are on
to increase the crop area during rabi season using polythene mulch
technology. During kharif season both the bunch and runner type groundnut
cultivars are grown. However, during rabi and summer seasons only bunch
and sometimes semi-spreading groundnut cultivars are grown. The runner
type being longer in duration and sensitive to high temperature, are not grown
during rabi and summer seasons as it may not set good number of pods and
may caught rain during harvest. Due to low disease pressure and more
sunshine hours, the rabi and summer season crops produce more yield than
the kharif crop. Farmers go for dry sowing on adequate available moisture
during rabi and summer seasons, but kharif is done after good rain.
The rabi crop of groundnut is grown in Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya
and Assam by sowing the same during September to November in the rice and
other fallows. In high rainfall area, such crop is sown on ridges to avoid water
logging. This crop is grown particularly on upland and medium land with
adequate moisture content. The rabi crop is spreading fast in Manipur, Tripura
and Assam, replacing other oilseed crop in rice fallows. Sowing of groundnut
depends on the harvest of rice, maize or any other kharif crops. The time of
sowing again region and situation specific and vary from September to
November. The upland areas known as ‘tilla’ in Tripura, which otherwise
remains fallow from November to March, are suited for groundnut production
during rabi season, if light irrigations are given at the time of moisture stress.
17
a
b
a. Promising Al-toxicity tolerant genotypes (ICG 10465 and 11954) in NEH.
b. Pod bearing in Al-toxicity tolerant genotypes RCG 3 and ICG 86644 at
Barapani.
18
The low temperature during middle of crop growth is the major draw
back, which reduces the growth, affecting yield during Rabi season.
Polythene mulch offset the low temperature effect and have shown the
potential at Manipur, Barapani, Meghalaya, Assam and Sikkim for rabi
season groundnut.
The summer crop of groundnut is mainly grown under assured irrigation
and nutrient management and has less infestation of weed and insects pests
and diseases and has high yield potential. Though the time of sowing varies
from region to region and situations, it is commonly sown during January-
February and harvested during May-June and Assam, Manipur and Tripura
are the main states where groundnut is grown as summer crop. However, it is
also gaining popularity in Garo hills of Meghalaya and Nagaland. In some
area, groundnut is grown during spring season after harvest of potato and
toria.
Due to high productivity, it is worthwhile increasing groundnut area
under summer crop in NE states where water is not a limiting factor. The low
temperature during germination is the main drawback of such cultivation.
However, use of polythene mulch enhances the germination, increase initial
growth by increasing temperature during early growth stages.
4.5. Optimum sowing time
The state-wise optimum sowing time for groundnut under various crop
seasons/situations in NE states is given Below:
Crop seasons
Optimum sowing time
NE States
Kharif
15th May - 15th June
Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland
and Sikkim
1st - 15th June
Assam
5th May - 10th June
Tripura
Rabi (winter)
15th September to 15th
October with
polythene or straw
mulching
Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur and
Tripura,
Spring/
Summer
15 January - 15th Feb.
with polythene or
straw mulching
Assam, Tripura, Manipur
19
a
b
a. Pod bearing in recently released (ICGS 76 and DRG 12) and old (JL 24),
groundnut varieties grown in acid soils of Tripura.
b. A NRCG scientist with a groundnut farmer of Pegilekha village in Thoubal
district of Manipur.
20
4.6. Seed Rate and Spacing
Maintenance of optimum plant population, by using of optimum seed
rate, is a key aspect in groundnut cultivation as about 70% groundnut seed
germinate under field condition. Select good quality pods, shell them
manually or by using hand decorticator just before sowing as the viability in
the stored kernel deteriorates fast and also there is a problem of storage pests
attack on seeds. There is no need to select for larger seed, however the seed
must be tested for their germination and should be treated with Thiram @ 3 g
kg-1 seed or Bavistin @ 2 g kg-1 seed before sowing to control collar rot and
other seed born diseases. In NE states, the optimum spacing has been workout
to be 40 x 10 cm for bunch groundnut and 60 x 10 cm for semi-spreading and
spreading groundnut during rainy season and 30 x 10 cm for bunch groundnut
and 60 x 10 cm for semi-spreading and spreading during rabi and summer
seasons. As the seed rate depends upon the seed weight of the cultivars and
spacings, the recommended seed rate for different botanical type groundnut
and seasons are given below:
Botanical types
Seasons
Spacing
(Row x Plant cm.)
Seed rate
(kg ha-1)
Bunch type
Rabi
30 x 10
100-120
Bunch type
Kharif
40 x 10
90-110
Semi-spreading type
Kharif / Rabi
45 x 10 or 30 x 15
90-100
Spreadings
Kharif/ Rabi
60 x 10
90-100
4.7. Weed Management
The weed infestation is a severe problem of groundnut in North-Eastern
region during kharif season due to high rainfall. However, during
rabi/summer season there are lesser weeds. The dominating weeds of the
NEH region are Digitaria marginata, Panicum repens, Bidens pilosa,
Eleusine indica, Galinsoga parviflora, Ageratum conyzoides, Boerria hispida
and Ambrossia artemissifolia L.
It is essential to keep the crop weed free up to 60 days after sowing
(DAS), as the maximum damage is caused during this period and removal of
these weeds by hand weeding up to 60 DAS results in the highest net returns.
One weeding and hoeing or earthing up of soil at 25 DAS followed by one
hand weeding at 40 DAS found to be effective and economical. Application
of 1 kg ha-1 pendimethalin or butachlor at the time of sowing + one hand
weeding, at 40-50 DAS was the best.
21
a
b
a. A farmer exhibiting excellent pod bearing in cv. JL 24 with the groundnut
crop in the background in Thoubal district (Manipur).
b. A Naga farmer showing his rich harvest of groundnut (cv. JL 24) in his
Jhum land in Ukhrul district (Manipur).
22
After comparing several combinations of manual and mechanical
weeding, herbicides (pendimethalin and butachlor) applications, two hand-
weeding twice at 25 and 50 DAS and pendimethalin (@ 1 kg a.i. ha-1 with) +
one hand-weeding at 40-50 DAS were found equally effective practices in
reducing weed population and increased groundnut yield pod yield to 2.49
and 2.36 t ha-1, respectively, as compared with 0.71 t ha-1 in un-weeded
controls. Pendimethalin controlled all categories of weeds and produced more
than 2000 kg pod ha-1.
4.8. Soil, fertilizer and nutrient managements
Groundnut crop does best on well drained, light textured loose and
friable soil, having reasonably high calcium, pH 5.5 to 7.0, and a moderate
organic matter and can be grown at all sites of NE states. However, the soils
having pH less than 5.5 need to be corrected by furrow application of 2 t ha-1
lime. Make good tilth of soil with two ploughing to obtain optimum
germination. In terrace and flat lands of high rainfall areas, raised beds of 10-
15 cm height are to be prepared to avoid water-logging problems.
4.8.1. Soil acidity, liming and Ca fertilizers
Most of the soils of NEH region are acidic in reaction with low basic
ion and cation exchange capacity making them of poor fertility. This is mainly
due to high rainfall followed by excess leaching of basic element. Some of
these are Mg deficient with less than 4 % Mg saturation. To bring the acid soil
to neutral and productive, it requires liming which increases mineralization of
soil nutrients. A good soil has about 75 % Ca saturation, 10 % Mg saturation
and 2.5-5.0 % K saturation. The critical limit of exchangeable Ca2+ is 1.5 meq
100 g-1 soil, Mg2+ is 0.5 meq 100 g-1 soil, and K is 108 kg ha-1 for groundnut.
The soil acidity and Al-toxicity induced P-deficiency (stunted growth,
lower leaves with green-violet coloration) and Ca-deficiency (stunted growth,
under developed upper leaves, chlorotic, small with rusty spots and the not in
proper shape) in groundnut in NEH Region. Severe acidity and Al-toxicity
caused seedling mortality that resulted in very poor yield (only 388 kg ha-1
pod). Application of lime and FYM increased the nutrient contents
particularly of Ca and P in the plant facing Al-toxicity and increased growth
and yield thus ameliorating the Al-toxicity and any one of these could be
used.
The Lime requirements (LR) of NEH region varies from 3.2-27.2 t ha-1
depending upon the texture, pH and organic matter content, however, furrow
application of lime (CaCO3)equivalent to 25 % (2 t ha-1) of LR was good
23
a
b
a. Landscape showing acid soil of a ‘tilla’ land and its erosion due to
construction of a road and heavy rainfall in Tripura.
b. Liming of acid soil before sowing of groundnut.
24
enough. The CaCO3at 1/4 of LR applied in rhizosphere at sowing was
at par with surface application of full LR for groundnut. Liming is more
economical and easy to adopt by farmers and in case of groundnut
return per rupee invested on lime is twice when applied in furrows. The
CaCO3and gypsum are two sources and both increased yield and
exchangeable Ca, but the pH was increased due to CaCO3only. The
liming increases solubility of Fe and Al phosphates and helps to retain
phosphates in Ca-phosphates form.
Besides lime, the press mud from sugar factory and basic slag from paper
and other factories are the other liming material. The paper corporation of
India, Nogon paper mill in Assam, and sugar mills in Assam and Mizorum
produce a lot of Ca rich material which could be used in place of lime. The
sludge of paper mill contain 60-80 % CaCO3. Press-mud, a waste product of
sugarcane mill possessing nearly 13 % organic matter and 42 % Ca, is an
effective source of ameliorant. Some of them are sold as IRL-clay
conditioner, Bhushakti and Tata slag powder. Basic slag applied on the basis
of LR doses contained as much P2O5as SSP. The lime should be fine enough
to pass 10 mesh sieve, but for basic slag the recommended size is 30-40
meshes. The effectiveness of basic slag, lime sludge and dolomite are 111 %,
108 % and 98 % as against 100 % for limestone with groundnut. Lime at 1/4th
of LR (2000-2500 kg ha-1 CaCO3or equivalent paper mill sludge) in furrows
every alternate year sustains the productivity of rice-groundnut system.
Application of 2-2.5 t ha-1 lime increased upto 50 % yield of groundnut.
The ameliorative role of lime and FYM was noticed in the experiments
conducted at Barapani to overcome the Al-toxicity and 10 t ha-1 FYM alone
increased pod yield varying from 28-100%. Addition of 2.0 t ha-1 of lime, on
the other hand, increased 31-46%, pod yield over control. The soil pH
increased from 4.9 to 5.6 by liming, exchangeable Ca + Mg increased by lime
and lime + FYM whereas exchangeable Al was drastically reduced by lime,
FYM and lime + FYM application.
4.8.2. Macronurtient fertilizers
Groundnut is capable of meeting 60-80 % nitrogen requirements from
symbiotic nitrogen fixation by root nodules and only 20-40% by soil nitrogen.
However, the nitrogen supply to groundnut is very crucial and deficiency is
observed in between 10-45 DAE and at pod formation stages. For these
reasons 30-40 kg ha-1 of the nitrogen should be supplied externally through
any available N sources half at the start of the crop cultivation and half at the
time of pod filling as booster. The Spanish and Valencia bunch groundnut,
because of lesser crop duration and nitrogen fixation respond more to nitrogen
25
a
b
a. Groundnut crop showing effect of liming on the plant growth in Tripura
b. Groundnut plant with (left) and without (right) lime in acid soil.
26
than the Virginia. The Native Bradyrhizobium is not abundant to fix
adequate N at most of the places in NEH region thus inoculation with
Bradyrhizobium is must to meet the nitrogen requirement.
The requirement of phosphorus and potassium in groundnut is very high
as these fertilizers promote plant growth, enhance pod filling, shelling
percentage and yield,and also enhance resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses
and Bradyrrhizobium multiplication. For groundnut, the critical level of P in
acid soils of NE region is 6.5 ppm available P in soils and 0.17% in plant
shoots. Due to high P and K requirement of groundnut and their low
availability in acid soils of NE region, the optimum economic dose enhancing
pod yield was 60 kg P2O5ha-1 as SSP and 40 kg K2O ha-1as MOP.
The single super phosphate (SSP) and rock phosphate (RP) both are
recommended for NEH region. It is desirable to use ground rock phosphate
with particle size of 60–100 mesh 3-4 weeks before sowing. Among the cheap
source of phosphorus like insoluble rock phosphate (Mussorie RP, Udaipur
RP) a mixture of RP and SPP at 3:1 was best. In soil having pH 5.5-6.5 rock
phosphate (RP) and SSP at 60 kg P2O5ha-1 along with 20 kg N ha-1 + 40 kg
K2O ha-1 showed similar results. However, in strongly acidic soil below 4.5
pH, if single super phosphate (SSP) is used majority of its water-soluble P is
fixed to unavailable form. But, this soil acidity on the other hand helps the
release of phosphate from RP. Thus, depending upon soil acidity blending of
these two, as shown below, is beneficial to make readily available form of P.
Soil acidity (pH)
Rock phosphate (RP)
SSP
4.0-5.0
90%
10%
5.1-6.0
80%
20%
6.1-7.0
50%
50%
Amendment of 5 t ha-1 FYM, poultry manure or pig manure with 60 kg
P2O5ha-1 either as SSP or rock RP was found to be best in increasing soil
available P, P uptake and yield. The rock phosphate coated urea is also
superior to prilled urea and urea super granule in these soils.
For groundnut, sulphur is as important as phosphorus and its deficiencies are
now appearing in acid soils. Its deficiency symptoms are like nitrogen, but occur on
young leaves and extend to middle showing pale yellow colour with vein showing
white. To get prevent the S deficiency,30 kg S ha-1 was optimum which may be
applied through any sources either as single super phosphate, elemental
sulphur, gypsum or ammonium sulphate.
27
a
b
a. Field showing acute Ca deficiency as chlorosis (control) and healthy crop
in limed field in acid soil of north-east states.
b. P deficient groundnut crop with stunted growth in the plot without P
fertilizer and PSM is seen in the upper and healthy crop in P fertilised
and PSM inoculated lower plot in the acid soil of north-east states,
28
4.8.3. Micronurtients and Biofertilizers
The groundnut grown in acid soils often face B and Mo deficiency.
However, the Fe and Mn are present in plenty and some times cause toxicity
to groundnut. The response of Zn and Cu are also observed in some of the
soil. The deficiency of B causes low filling of pod resulting in less shelling
and the most common B deficiency symptom is hollow-heart of kernel in
which the inner faces of the cotyledons are depressed and discolored reducing
the quality of seed. To meet the requirement of Mo, seed dressing with 0.5-1.0
kg ha-1 ammonium molybdate is advisable. However, soil application of 1 kg
B ha-1 (5 kg borax ha-1) corrects B deficiency increasing pod yield. The pod
and haulm yields increased by application of 12.5 kg ZnSO4ha-1 over control.
There is an excellent response of biofertilizers such as Bradyrhizobium,
phosphorus soloubilising microbes (PSM) and plant growth promoting
Rhizobacteria (PGPR) in groundnut in NEH region due new introduction of
its cultivation and submergence of field for quiet some times. The responses
are more with phosphatic fertilizer and lime. The groundnut crop inoculated
with PSM (Bacillus polymixa) and Bradyrhizobium (NC 92,IGR 4), show
green canopy but the crop without Bradyrhizobium and PSM show stunted
growth with chlorotic leaves, poor nodulation and N and P deficiency
symptoms (Fig. 12). Thus the inoculation of biofertilizers along with lime and
phosphatic fertilizer is essential to save the chemical fertilizer and effective
use of P fertilizers. These biofertilizer packets are available with the several
standard agencies certified by the regional office of the organic farming
board situated in Imphal.
As the groundnut cultivation in NE region is new, biofertilizers
inoculation with nitrogen fixing Bradyrhizobium and phosphorus solubilizing
microbe (PSM) is essential
4.8.4. Integrated nutrient management
As groundnut pod is formed in soil, it requires loose soil and the
integrated use of both organic and inorganic fertilizers shows best groundnut
yields with sustainable soil fertility and productivity. Various organic
manures (FYM, poultry manure and pig manure) increased the pod yield over
the optimum dose of NPK fertilizers in NEH region.
The collaborative experiments on integrated nutrient management
conducted at Imphal, (Manipur), Tripura and Barapani to compare the effects
of inorganic nutrients (P, K, Ca) and biofertilizers (Bradyrhizobium and PSM)
and their interactions in acid soils, reveals that Ca and P are the key nutrients
for groundnut in acid soils of NEH region and based on the several years of
29
a
b
a. Groundnut crop without (left) and with (right) phosphorus solubilizing
microbes in acid soils of Barapani.
b. Effect of inoculation of Bradyrrhizobium and PSM on the root growth,
nodulation and podding in groundnut in acid soils of Tripura.
30
experimentation, an INM practice including application of lime (2.5
t/ha) or FYM (10 t ha-1) or half of both these, NPK (20:25:25) doses
and inoculation of PSM and Bradyrhizobium is recommended
throughout NEH region.
However, based on the field experiments following INM practices are
being recommended for groundnut:
In tilla land of Tripura, application of lime + P + Bradyrhizobium or
lime + P + PSM is useful.
In Meghalaya, FYM (10 t ha-1), NPK+ Bradyrhizobium and NPK+ PSM
were at par.
In Manipur, the maximum yield was obtained by combined application
of 2.5 t ha-1 lime + 50 kg ha-1 P2O5+ inoculation with Bradyrhizobium
and PSM (>80 % increase over control) followed by P +
Bradyrhizobium + PSM (67 %), P (50 kg ha-1 )+ Bradyrhizobium (51
%) and P+ PSM (49 %).
In general, for obtaining high yield of groundnut, application of well-
decomposed 5-10 t ha-1 FYM followed by 40 kg N (urea or ammonium
sulphate), 60 kg P2O5as single super phosphate, and 40 kg K2O ha-1 as
muriate of potash is recommended. All these amount of N, P and K should be
placed in the furrows below the seed at sowing. Furrow application of lime at
2 t ha-1 as CaCO3or CaSO4every year is recommended. Gypsum at 500 kg
ha-1 at the time of flowering should be applied to supply Ca and S to
groundnut. Soil application of 10 kg Mg as MgSO4corrects Mg deficiency.
4.9. Cropping systems
The cropping intensity and productivity is low in NEH region and to
increase the same it is essential to grow two to three crops either in sequence
or as intercrop. In crop sequence a crop, which is highly responsive to liming
and tolerant of soil acidity, is included as a first crop in rotation. Rice is a
main component of acid soil cropping system and groundnut very much fit in
the system as second crop as it is medium response. Groundnut can be
successfully adapted as a companion crop with upland rice, maize and sugar
beet. The short duration semi-dwarf rice, maize, pigeon pea and groundnut
varieties are promising for intercropping. The groundnut varieties identified
for intercropping systems are JL 24, Girnar 1, ICGS 76 and ICGS 44. Sole
crop of groundnut produced 2.5-3.0 t ha-1 and its performance as intercrop in
31
a
b
a. Intercropping groundnut with rice (2: 4 rows) in upland at Barapani.
b. Intercropping-mixedcropping groundnut with sweet potato in Jhum land of
NE states.
32
rice also gave 1.0-1.2 t ha-1. Intercropping of groundnut in upland rice
and maize increased maize and rice equivalent yields.
The cropping systems study on the intensity and productivity of
individual crop evaluated at ICAR Res. Complex, Barapani, Meghalaya
reveals that cropping intensity upto 300 % with higher productivity was
possible with fodder maize followed by rice + groundnut and mustard
cropping systems in terms of net economic return. The cropping system
containing maize for green cobs followed by groundnut and mustard was
found profitable.
The profitable crop sequences and intercrops for NEH region are:
Crop sequences
Intercropping
Rice-groundnut
Rice + Groundnut (4:2)
Rice-potato-groundnut
Groundnut + Maize (1:1)
Rice - mustard-groundnut
Groundnut + Pigeon pea (5:1)
Maize - groundnut
Groundnut + Chili (2:2)
Groundnut + Citrus
Groundnut + Pineapple
4.10. Irrigation and drainage
Generally there is no moisture stress and irrigation is not required for
groundnut in NEH region, but in dry years, irrigations at pre-sowing, pegging
and pod formation are recommended, if there is no rain during these stages.
The kharif crop in NEH is mainly rainfed, hence it may require occasional life
saving irrigation, the rabi crop is grown either on residual moisture with life
saving irrigation or under totally irrigated condition depending upon the
situations and availability of moisture and irrigation. However, the summer
crop is totally irrigated except of a few riverbeds, which sustain on residual
moisture and with one or two life saving irrigation can yield high.
However, due to high rainfall, drainage is essential in NEH region and
to maintain a good crop and avoid damage to root system, it is generally
grown on ridge and furrow system made parallel to the slope. Groundnut
grown on bunds produces highest yields.
33
a
b
a. An experimental field with various INM practices in groundnut, at
Barapani.
b. The promising INM practice (FYM) for groundnut, in highly acidic soils at
Barapani.
34
4.11. Polythene Mulch Technology
The polythene mulch technology plays an important role for rabi
groundnut in cold areas of NEH region specially in Manipur, Meghalaya and
Tripura where crop face winter and temperature goes below 15°C. In
Manipur, the groundnut cultivar JL 24 produced 6-7 times higher pod yield
with polythene mulch in flat bed (2193 kg ha-1) and broad bed furrow (1592
kg ha-1) system of sowing without mulch with only 263 kg ha-1. At low
temperature, the germination was a week earlier, in polythene mulch, showed
better soil-moisture conservation and temperature balance capacity in soil,
which resulted in higher number of pods, kernel weight and higher pod yield
As polythene mulch shows better soil-moisture conservation it is useful
for kharif season also. The accumulated temperature by polymulch was 3.7oC
higher from 0600-1400 hrs but little lower at 1400-2000 hrs; and wind speed
in groundnut rows was faster by 0.01-0.03 ms-1 as compared to non-mulched
plots. Faster wind speed favoured air exchange and CO2movement and all
these interlinked factors increased NAR and photosynthetic efficiency of
poly-mulched groundnut.
Thus, it is apparent to use polythene mulch for rabi groundnut under rain
fed condition of NEH region to achieve higher yield per unit area.
4.12. Pest and disease Management
4.12.1. Insect and Pests
The green foliage cover of NEH region, due to a high rainfall, provides
food and shelter to various insects and invites a large number of insects and
pests in succession during the groundnut growing season which otherwise
may not be the regular pest of groundnut. Like disease, the insect pest
infestation is more during kharif than rabi and summer seasons. The major
insect pests of groundnut in NEH region are leaf folder (Nacclea vulgaris),
leaf miner (stomepteryx subsivell Aproraemid modicella), red hairy caterpillar
(Amsacta moori and A. albistriga), leaf hopper (Empoasca sp.), flower beetles
(Hylabris pustulata), white grubs (Holotrichia consomoina), termites
(Odonototermis sp), pod borers (Euborellia stalli, E. annulipes), and mealy
bugs.
35
a
b
a. Groundnut cultivation on polythene covered raised bed system at
Barapani during Rabi season (Initial stage of crop, no weed).
b. Groundnut under polythene mulch cover in pre-rabi at Umiam, Meghalaya
36
The jassids are serious pest from June-August after that the defoliators
attack the plant, later on leaf miner, leaf folder incidence start and continued
till maturity. The severe attack of leaf folder causes 16-19% yield loss and
root grubs cause 12-15% of pod damage of the crops in NEH regions. White
fly, field cricket and cutworm are the other insects causing considerable losses
in yield. The Decamethrin and Monocrotophos are the effective
insecticides against leaf folders, leaf miners and white fly, resulting in
high pod yield. The thrips infestation and collar rot of groundnut are
reduced by decis (0.003%) spray and bavistin seed treatment. For leaf
eating pests carbaryl (0.1%) and for sucking pests monocrotophos,
quinolphos and methyl parathion all at 0.05% was most appropriate.
Use of aldicarb was most effective against pod borers and soil pests.
The Aphids (Nymph and adults) suck the sap from the leaves and other
tender parts and also act as vectors of virus diseases (rosette). Highly infected
leaves turn yellow and fall down. The jassids are green soft-bodied insects,
the adults and nymphs of which suck the sap from the leaves and other parts
turning the leaf yellowish, cut and dry up. Thrips are polyphagus, the nymph
and adults of which lacerate the leaves and tender growing parts, causing
white silvery sheens. Spray of Monocrotophos 0.05% (1.4 ml Monocil 35 EC
per liter water) or Dimethoate 0.05% (1.7 ml Rogar 30 EC per liter water)
controls all these.
Leaf miner is the small dark brown moths with conspicuous small pale-
white spots on the interior margins of the forewings, the smooth greenish
caterpillars of which mines the tender leaves and later on fold the adjacent
leaves to feed within. To avoid damage by the leaf miner, set up light trap for
attracting and destroying moths, or spray carbaryl 0.2% (4 g Sevin 50 WP
liter-1 water).
Red hairy caterpillars are bright orange colour moths with black spots,
which feed gregariously on the foliage. Dusting of carbaryl or parathion @
25-30 kg ha-1 controls young larvae and spray of 2000 ml ha-1 Dichlorophos
100 EC dissolved in 400 liters of water controls the grown up caterpillars.
White grub cut the root and feed leading to wilting and death and to
control these, treat the seed with chloropyriphos 20 EC @ 12.5 ml kg-1 of
kernel or soil treatment with thimet (10 G) @ 20-25 kg ha-1 or apply
carbofuran (1.5 kg a.i. ha-1) during attack. Termites feed on roots, killing the
plant and to control these, apply 40-45 kg ha-1 chloropyriphos (2%) before
sowing.
37
4.12.2. Diseases
In NE region, there is comparatively lesser pressure of disease than
plains mainly due to low temperature. However, due to the high rainfall and
humidity during kharif season whenever the temperature goes high, the foliar
diseases develop in groundnut and some time it is devastating too. The
pressure of disease is more in valley and tropical region than in hills in NE
states mainly due to high temperature. The early leaf spot (ELS) by
Cercospora arachidicola Late leaf spot (LLS) by Phaeoisariposis personata
and rust by Puccina arachidis are the major foliar disease of groundnut in NE
states during kharif season. The other disease occurring in NE states are
bacterial wilt by Pseudomonas solanacearum Smith, stem rot by Sclerotium
rolfsii Saccardo and Alternaria leaf spot by Alternaria sp. Among all ELS
also known as ‘Tikka’ is most devastating causing some times more than 50
% leaf area damage, whereas others cause non-significant damage. During
rabi and summer groundnut, there is lesser disease.
For the effective control of these diseases, the Derosal and Bavistin are
most effective, however for controlling leaf spot, a fungicide mixture of
carbendazim 0.05% + mancozeb 0.2% is useful and sprayed up to 50 DAS
gave maximum returns with benefit cost ratio of 4.1 to 8.1. The sowing dates
affected the spread of leaf spots and rusts and the crop showed least incidence
of these diseases and highest pod yield when planted on May 5, but the late
sown crop, of June 24 and July 4, recorded the highest incidence of leaf spots
and rust and least yield. Thus, the early and late leaf spots are best avoided by
early sowing in April and early May, but after that the chemical control
becomes necessary in NEH region.
Dark spot surrounded by a bright-yellow ring on the leaves followed by
pre-mature leaf shading is the typical symptom of Tikka. Spraying bavistin
0.05% (1.0 g Bavistin 50 WP liter-1 water) + Dithane M 45 0.2% (2.0 g
Dithane M 45 liter-1 water) at 2-3 weeks interval for 2-3 times starting 4-5
weeks after sowing controls the same. A white weft or mycelium appears at
the base of the affected plants, known as color rot in which plant turns yellow
and dry up. To avoid these, treat the seeds with Thiram @ 3 g kg-1 seed or
Bavistin 2 g kg-1 seed before sowing.
Several groundnut genotypes and cultivars were screened against the leaf
spot and rust under natural epiphytotic infection conditions on 1 (resistant) to
9 (susceptible) scale where different disease reactions were observed by
various workers who found few genotypes as tolerant, but none resistant to
both the diseases. The high yielding disease tolerant genotypes are: ICGV
86687, ICGV 86675, ICGV 86680, ICGV 86590, ICGS 76 and TKG 19A,
CSMG 84-1.
38
4.13. Harvesting and storage
In NEH region of India, rain starts during last week of April and
continues till October and the groundnut crop sown during April-May mature
in September, but due to high soil moisture does not show yellowing of
foliage, which is the prominent maturity symptoms. Moreover, due to low
temperature the groundnut takes 10-15 days more time for maturity in NEH
region, thus the bunch varieties mature in about 120-135 days and the semi
spreading in 130-145 days. At maturity, the pods become hard and tough and
inside shell surface becomes rough with net venation and give crack sound
when pressed below thumb and under finger.
Harvesting before maturity, lowers yield, oil percentage and quality and
there are more chances of damage from fungi particularly Aspergillus.Delay
of harvest after maturity, many a time results in stem rot and weakening of
pegs, thus pod losses in the soil. Moreover, the Spanish and Valencia bunch
varieties are of non-dormant type and will germinate in the field and reduce
the yield. The bunch and semi spreading varieties are usually harvested by
hand pulling when there is adequate moisture in the soil. The spreading types
are harvested by digging with spade or running the blade and collected.
The produce is dried in sun as quickly as possible to bring down the
moisture content 5-7 % as higher moisture level in the produce causes
production of aflatoxin by Aspergillus flavus (Fig. 17a). The dry pods
cleaned, filled in polythene lined gunny bags and stored on racks. The bags
should be piled on wooden planks to avoid damage from dampness.
Loss of seed viability in rabi-summer produce is a serious problem in the
NEH region. The drying and storage technologies developed at NRCG to
prevent rapid loss of seed viability in the rabi-summer groundnut produce are
useful. In this technology, the pods are dried under shade using conventional
method and Directorate of Oilseeds Research (DOR) method and stored with
CaCl2(100 g/ 30 kg of pods), in polyethylene lined gunny bags. This method
of storage retains more than 80 % germinability even after six months of
storage (at the time of rabi sowing). These drying and storage technologies
have potential for groundnut growing farmers in the northeastern part of the
country and hence may be used.
4.14. Groundnut as fodder crop
Groundnut haulm is also considered as an important fodder in view of its
high leaf protein and easy digestibility. Groundnut shell is also used as fuel
besides its use in poultry feed. While increasing the cropping intensity by
39
a
b
a. A view of the threshing floor being used for drying groundnut pod and
maize cobs under natural sunlight.
b. Luxuriant growth of perennial, rhizomatous wild groundnut species, with
excellent fodder quality for rabbitry at ICAR Res Complex, Barapani.
40
bringing rice fallows under winter (rabi) cultivation, the pressure on
land for grazing is likely to increase which, could be minimized by
introducing perennial, multi-cut, rhizomatous groundnut species, as
green fodder contains as high as 26 % leaf protein. Several perennial
wild groundnut species are self propagating and capable of quick land
coverage with excellent fodder quality.
Presently NRCG is maintaining as many as 10 wild species of groundnut
at Junagadh containing range of 12-20 % protein, 1.2- 6.2 % sugar and 23-35
% crude fiber. These wild species could be obtained from NRCG on demand.
Of these four wild species namely Arachis prostrata,Arachis marginata,
Arachis appressipilla, and Arachis rigoni are very promising with high
growth rate and fast multiplication. The TNAU has releases a wild genotype
from Arachis rigoni for its cultivation in India, however the Arachis
prostrata is most promising and need further promotion. The stem cutting of
these wild species, from a fully established plant of 3-6 month old, planted in
field establish and cover an area of 1-2 m2within 3-4 months and ready for
cutting in next month. Application of 2% NAA helps in establishing these
wild species by developing root fast. Such unique species could be introduced
in abandoned Jhum land to check soil erosion and tone up fragile eco-system.
4.15. Mechanization and Marketing
The economy of these NEH region are mainly rural and agrarian and the
major problems faced by the farmers are use of mechanized farming and the
purchase of seed and sale of the produce once it has been harvested, because
of diverse topography, altitude and climatic conditions. There are no
organized marketing and buyer for groundnut in NEH region. These products
are sold mainly in the local markets, and mostly in the form of primary
produce without significant value-addition. The supply of seed, fertilizers,
farm implements for mechanization and other inputs at subsidized rate are
some of the urgent need of the region which has to be attended either through
government agencies or through the self-helped group person with the main
objectives of increasing production and productivity through better input
supply and infra-structural facilities for marketing.
For oil extraction the tiny oil mills manufactured in Gujarat are suitable
at village level in NEH regions on customer service basis and it may work
round the year. Similarly, processing machines such as seed drill, thresher and
decorticators manufactured at Jasdan (Gujarat) are useful for groundnut
cultivation. Groundnut decorticator from Jasdan (Gujarat) and modified by
ICAR Research complex, Barapani, is helpful in processing of groundnut.
Also the focus should be, shift from subsistence farming to commercial
41
a
b
a. Comparison of various INM practices on the root growth, nodulation and
podding in groundnut in acid soils of Tripura.
b. Demonstration of groundnut on farmes’s field at Lumkremonbhut
(Umsamlem), Ri-Bhoi District, Meghalaya.
42
operation, creation of small farm mechanization & agro service center,
farmer’s market (Kisan mandi), information technology in agriculture,
infrastructure development (Agro-processing, cold storage, seed
processing etc.) in NE states.
4.16. Economics
Groundnut is the most profitable crop in NEH region, while maize grown
for grain, sunflowers grown as a pure stand, rice and B. juncea gave poor
economic returns. The estimated cost of cultivation and net return from pure
groundnut crop is given in Table 3 for NEH region. The production
technology for kharif season is cheap in most of the places in the NE region,
however in recent year, the rabi -summer groundnut technologies have been
proved to have better potential on the farmers' field in some areas than kharif.
In the mid altitude (950-1080 m msl) rainfed dry terraces of Meghalaya, the
maize (grown for green cobs)-groundnut-Brassica juncea cropping system
gave the highest net returns and maize equivalent yield of 11.89 t ha-1.
Estimated cost of cultivation of groundnut and net economic return in
NEH region for production of 1500 kg ha-1 pod during kharif season are as
follows:
Cost of various operations for groundnut cultivation
NE region
(Rs ha-1)
1. Operation cost (field operation up to sowing)
3000
2. Cost of interculture operation and plant protection
Weeding twice (20 labour), Pesticides, application (Two
labours) @ Rs. 70 per labour day-1 (*labour is cheaper in
Eastern region)
2500
3. Harvesting and drying (20 labourers)
1600
4. Cost of inputs
i. Seed (groundnut) 110 kg kernel ha-1 @ Rs. 40 kg-1 seed
4400
ii. Fertilizers N20 P60 K30 and pesticides
1500
Total cost
13,000
Total return (Rs. ha-1) for 1500 kg pod yield and produced
is sold @ Rs 20 kg-1 pod
37500
Net economic return (Total return –cost of cultivation)
24, 500
43
5. Organic farming and value addition
Most of the soils in NEH region, though acidic, are rich in organic
carbon and there is hardly any use of chemicals, fertilizers and pesticides in
cultivation and hence provide congenial environment for growing organic
groundnut. In hill agricultural, the role of organic carbon is the most
important, but in low organic carbon, the traditional farmers do not want to
give input and prefer shifting cultivation that makes agriculture throughout
organic. However, in permanent fields and terrace cropping no organic matter
is added resulting in high hematite and soil compactness where the organic
manures need to be added. The humic and other organic acids immobilize
Al3+ ions by forming chelates and hence raising organic content of the soil can
largely prevent the harmful effect of this.
As water is not a limiting and groundnut has good pod filling in the NEH
region, it has a great potential for confectionary groundnut under organic
farming. But as large-seeded groundnut requires higher amount of nutrient, its
management is bottleneck in production. Various combinations of nutrient
studied show that large-seed groundnut required potassium in addition to P
and Ca and recorded highest pod yield at P50 (kg ha-1) + K50 (kg ha-1) + Lime
(2.5 t ha-1) + FYM (10 t ha-1). Under organic farming there is provision to add
RP for P and gypsum for Ca and S and mined ore of other nutrients. Thus,
there is a great scope for producing the large-seeded groundnut organically.
Various organic farming approaches tested for organic matter enrichment
in Tripura, Meghalaya and Manipur at low soil pH (4.9-5.2), and available P
(5-8 ppm) reveals that:
The organic fertilizers showed its superiority over inorganic one and FYM
(0.8, 0.6 and 0.9 % of N, P and K, respectively) alone at 10 t ha-1, doubled
the productivity and was best for highly eroded soils of NEH .
Manure and slurry of piggery, poultry and rabbitry sheds, caster and neem
cakes, and ‘Bun’ farming practice were promising organic approaches.
In Tripura, the promising organic sources were, cowdung (10 t ha-1),
mustard cake (1 t ha-1), and Gliricidia green leaves (10 t ha-1).
In Manipur, mustard cake (1 t ha-1) increased 50 % pod yield, but if
combined with Bradyrrhizobium increased 102 % yield. Maximum pod
yield was obtained with 5 t ha-1 FYM + 0.5 t ha-1 mustard cake +
Bradyrhizobium.
44
FYM @ 10 t ha-1 along with Bradyrhizobium showed more pod yield than
NPK + Lime.
Results of NRCG-ICAR Res complex vollaborative trial on organic use
and its comparison with various chemicals on groundnut variety ICGS 76, at
Barapani during kharif season are given below:
Symbol
Treatments
Pod Yield (kg ha-1)
during the various years
1998
1999
2000
T1
Control (no fertilizer)
1550
1625
1080
T2
FYM ( 10 t/ha )
1983
2125
2163
T3
NPK (20:60:40 kg/ha)
2022
2150
2123
T4.
Lime (2 t/ha)
2261
2271
1420
T5
T2 + T4 (10 t/ha FYM + 2 t/ha Lime)
2100
2500
1747
T6
T3 + T4
2344
2950
1663
T7
T2 + T3 + T4
2021
3250
2290
LSD (0.05)
238
225
320
Though the soil of the NE states is rich in organic matter, it is depleting
fast and may pose problem in future. Thus to maintain the organic matter,
there is need to add the local manorial resources for continuous organic
farming of groundnut in NEH region.
Besides being a premier oilseed crop, groundnut is also an important
food crop with unique consumption in various forms, right from raw to value
addition and fortification with less nutritive cereals and course grains.
Groundnut has proved to be a poor man’s energy nut with the nutritional
status similar to cashew at more than 6 times cheaper cost and therefore,
deserves promotion. With the growing food and nutritional insecurity of
hundreds and thousands of malnourished, poverty striken people, particularly
in remote, tribal dominated areas, groundnut can play a pivotal role in
fortification of poor man’s staple food to increase the level of protein,
essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals in their daily diet.
45
6. Constraints and strategic approaches to
increase the productivity
6.1. Constraints
Inspite of enough research, there are some constraints in the cultivation
of groundnut mainly due to inadequate development activities on this crop,
which need to be removed so that farmers could adopt new technologies and
increase groundnut productivity in NE regions. The prevailing land tenure
system of the hill states does not motivate the farmers either to make efforts
for development of cultivable land or diversification of crops. The socio-
economic condition and predominance of subsistence rainfed farming under
shifting cultivation system costs a regressive influence in adoption of modern
technology in hill agriculture. As the area is dominated by rice crop,
groundnut has received less attention for development activities. Some major
problems of groundnut are:
Soil acidity, Al-toxicity and Al-induced deficiencies of Ca, P and Mg.
Micro-nutrient deficiencies particularly of B and Mo.
Low population of native Bradyrhizobium both in upland and rice
fallow because of new introduction and change of soil microclimate
from anaerobic to aerobic.
The NEH region has high rainfall, most of which is received during the
monsoon period. The high rainfall and heavy down pour during sowing
causes problem of land preparation and many a time seed get rotten due
to high moisture and poor drainage.
Excessive stem elongation due to less sunshine duration and number of
sunny days during kharif leads to lodging of crop resulting in low yield
and harvest index.
Delayed release of land for rabi groundnut due to long duration rice
cultivars.
Poor quality seed causes patchy crop stand specially during rabi and
summer season as there is quick loss of seed viability of the rabi and
summer produce of these region.
Low temperature during early growth stages of rabi and summer
groundnut.
46
Lack of early vigour in groundnut varieties for rabi, summer seasons to
combat low temperature during mid stage (particularly after 50 days).
Lack of seed storage facilities in the region.
Predominane of small and marginal farmers whose investment capacity
is limited.
6.2. Strategic approaches
Groundnut cultivation in NEH region was introduced nearly 25 years
ago and now it offers a scope for expansion in area and production. However,
for its further expansion and to get rid of constraints, introduction of high
yielding cultivars, production and availability of quality seed, optimization of
time for various operations and cultural practices, INM and IPM, introduction
of cold and acid tolerant genotypes, polythene mulch and storage technologies
and marketing and processing are the major strategic approaches for the
promotion of groundnut in NEH region which are briefly highlighted here.
6.2.1. Production of quality seed
Making availability of quality seed to the farmers is most essential part
without that the entire programme is failure. With identification of a
number of groundnut varieties developed by NRCG and AICRPG
centres, the Assam Seed Corporations, State Farm Corporation of India,
National Seed Corporation, West Bengal State Seed Corporation etc.,
situated in this region should take the multiplication of
foundation/certified seeds of ICGS 76, ICGV 86590, BAU 13, CSMG
84-1 and TKG 19A groundnut cultivars, through state seed
farms/registered growers, store it locally and make available in this
region. The availability of quality seeds may be increased throught
implementation of seed village programme.
As the produce of rabi/summer groundnut looses its viability fast and
soon becomes unfit for sowing for next rabi/summer season, the seed
produced during rainy season which is of better quality should be
produced in enough quantity to cater the requirement of kharif as well as
post-rainy season.
Development of high yielding, early maturing (85-90 days) bunch
varieties coupled with fresh seed dormancy for rice fallow. Two pre-
release culture FeESG 8 and FeESG 10 have been found promising.
Presently, JL 24 and Girnar 1 are the earliest cultivars available.
47
6.2.2. Management approaches
For successful cultivation, the recommended packages of practices need
to be followed. However, more attention is required on the following
approaches.
The optimum sowing time, spacing and seed rate should be followed as
maintenance of adequate plant density is the key factor in groundnut
production and achieving optimum plant density particularly in rice
fallow is a matter of great concern.
During rabi residual in river bed/rice fallow polythene or straw mulch
need to be followed.
The recommended fertilizer doses of NPK are 40:60:40 kg ha-1 for NEH
regions.
The groundnut requires higher amount of Ca, S and Mg which are
deficient in acid soils. Application of lime or gypsum is essential as it
improves the base saturation, reduces the toxicities of Al, Fe and Mn,
reduces P fixation, improves microbial N fixation and nutrient
mineralization. Lime at 2-2.5 t ha-1 is useful for groundnut.
Presently, liming at ¼ to 1/3 LR is considered reasonable for groundnut
crop. The cheaper source of liming materials such as basic slag from
paper mill, press mud from sugar mill is available in NEH region and
may be used.
Supplementary application of organic matter is necessary for the
improvement of acid lateritic soils low in organic matter as it improve
soil moisture holding capacity, alleviate Al, Fe and Mn toxicity and
develop active sites for retention of P and Ca, particularly where liming
is not practicable. However in soils rich in organic matter, use of rock
phosphate charged with FYM or RP charged with press mud is
advisable.
Piggery, poultry and rearing of other cattle and birds etc., are the main
occupation among the people of NEH region. A mixture of RP + SSP +
organic manure (through poultry, piggery or FYM) is useful for
alleviating nutrient deficiencies and yield enhancement of groundnut.
Excellent responses of Bradyrhizobium inoculation indicate that the
population of native Bradyrhizobium is quiet low in NE region. Efforts
should be made for multiplication and distribution of new strains of
Bradyrhizobium such as IGR 6, IGR 40 and TAL 1000 in acid soil.
48
Most of the fertile soil of NEH region, due to its looseness and high
organic matter, is most potential for growing large-seeded groundnut for
table and confectionery purpose. The promising cultivars are BAU 13,
TKG 19A and GG 20. However, as the large seeded groundnut requires
high Ca, these must be grown with 2-2.5 t ha-1 lime during rainy season.
It is essential to keep the groundnut field weed free up to 50 DAS, for
which one to two hand weeding followed by hoeing are sufficient.
Application of 1.0 kg a.i. ha-1 pendimethalin or butachlor in 500 liter of
water as pre-emergence herbicides within 2 days of sowing followed by
one hand weeding at 40-50 DAS helps in controlling weed population.
The high productivity of rabi and summer groundnut crop makes it
worthwhile increasing its area in NEH region, where land remains
fallow and water is not a limiting factor. However, low temperature
during germination and initial growth stages are the main drawback of
such situations. The use of polythene mulch, may be popularized in this
region which enhances the germination and initial growth by increasing
temperature during early growth stages.
Storage of seed is the basic problem in this region. Proper storage
preferably the cold storage facilities are to be created in NE states to
store groundnut in large scale to overcome viability problem. Low cost
technology developed by NRCG, Junagadh could be used at farmer
level in these states.
The jassids, leaf folder and cater pillar are the major insect pest in this
region. For the control of leaf eating pests, carbaryl (0.1%) and for
sucking pests monocrotophos, quinolphos, and methyl parathion all at
0.05% is most appropriate.
The tikka (leaf spot) which is more severe during maturity is a major
disease in this region, the intensity of which can be minimized if crop is
sown in the month of May. A fungicide mixture of carbendazim 0.05%
+ mancozeb 0.2% was useful if sprayed up to 50 DAS. To avoid soil
born diseases, treat the seed with Thiram @ 3 g kg-1 seed before sowing.
There is an urgent need for expansion of groundnut cultivation in rice
based cropping system, as groundnut in rice-groundnut rotation has
advantages over rice-rice rotation in its low water requirement as
compared to boro paddy (summer rice), very little amount of fertilizers,
disruption in disease and pest cycle and high monitory return and
improvement of soil physical and chemical properties and nutritional
health.
49
6.2.3. Extension and liaison between various agencies
Further to popularize groundnut cultivation, the large scale frontline
demonstration is to be conducted in the entire NEH region. The video
film of the good demonstration plots made and showed to the new farmers
before adoption of the technologies.
Monthly Farmers-scientists interaction is essential to solve the farmer’s
problem during cropping season.
Adequate financial support is to be provided to the research training
centres (RTC), placed in the major agro-climatic zones of these regions
for transfer of latest technology to farmers through various demonstration
and trainings.
Seed producing agencies situated in these region or the nearby should
produce Foundation/ Certified seeds of the identified cultivars and make
available in these regions. Breeders from ICAR Research complex,
Central Agricultural University, and Assam Agricultural University may
be involved in the monitoring team.
Although various input and development agencies are expected to
participate in regular forum, their involvement is very less. Since they are
under the control of the district administration, the Dy. Commissioner,
may call for formal meetings of all such agencies with research
organization, at least thrice in a year, to have a threadbare discussion on
the means and prospects of agricultural development in the region.
Lack of institutional credit, low level of fertilizer consumption, non
availability of matching farm machineries and tools, absence of proper
marketing to ensure a fair and legitimate return to the producer, no
infrastructure for groundnut processing, and proper post harvest
technology are some of the institutional and technological problems for
which the creditable success to be achieved in cooperation with several
agencies, otherwise the production of groundnut is bound to suffer.
50
7. Further reading
Basu M.S.1997. Mitigating challenges of food and nutritional security in
India-not merely a peanut approach. Indian Farming 29(12): 24-29.
Basu M.S.1998. Miracle Mulching for higher groundnut yields. ICAR-News
Vol 4 (1) p.17.
Basu MS 2002. Aflatoxin Management in Groundnut (in 5 major languages
published by UNDP, ICAR and TMOP). p 16.
Basu MS, Rathnakumar AL and Chuni Lal 2002. Improved groundnut
varieties of India. National Research center for groundnut (ICAR),
Junagadh, India p 28.
Basu MS, Singh NB, Rathnakumar AL and Govindaraj G 2003. Polythene
Mulch Technology in Groundnut. National Research center for
groundnut (ICAR), Junagadh, India p 22.
Ghewande MP, Desai S and Basu MS 2002. Diagnosis and management of
major diseases of groundnut. National Research center for groundnut
(ICAR), Junagadh, India p 36.
Ghewande MP, Nandagopal V, Desai S and Basu MS 2003. Integrated pest
management in groundnut. National Research center for groundnut
(ICAR), Junagadh, India p 19.
Munda-GC; Hazarika-UK; Saxena-DC; Raj-Singh; Patel-DP; Singh-R 1999.
Performance of cropping systems under mid altitude rainfed dry terraces
of Meghalaya. Indian-Journal-of-Hill-Farming. 1999, 12: 1-2, 106-110.
Munda, G.C.; Hazarika, U.K.; Raj Singh; Sarma, B. K. and Jai Singh 1997.
Groundnut cultivation in North Eastern Hills. ICAR Research complex
for NEH region Barapani Meghalaya 32 p.
Singh A.L. and M.S. Basu, 2005. Integrated nutrient management in
groundnut-a farmer’s manual. National Research center for groundnut
(ICAR), Junagadh India p 54.
Singh, A.L., M.S. Basu and N.B. Singh, 2003. Potential of Groundnut in
North-eastern States of India. National Research center for groundnut
(ICAR), Junagadh, India p 76.
Singh, A. L., M. S. Basu and N. B. Singh 2004. Groundnut Research and its
potential in North-eastern States of India. pp 160-177. In: Groundnut
Research in India (Eds. M. S. Basu and N.B. Singh) National Research
center for groundnut, Junagadh, India.
Singh A.L., M.S. Basu and N.B. Singh, 2004. Mineral Disorders of
Groundnut. National Research center for groundnut (ICAR), Junagadh
India p 85.
51
