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Production systems of sweet basil

January 1999

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Bertalan Galambosi

MTT Agrifood Research

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2. PRODUCTION SYSTEMS OF SWEET BASIL

ELI PUTIEVSKY1 and BERTAI-AN GAI-AMBOSI'z

lAgricultural Research Organiqation, Newe Ya'ar Researcb Centre,

PO Box 90000, Hafa 31900,

Israel

2,4gricultural

Research Centre of Fialanl Karila Research Station

for Ecokgical Agriculture,

Kailantie 2A" FIN-50500 Mikkeli, Finland

MAIN ELEMENTS OF S\XiEET BASIL CULTIVATION TECHNIQUES

During the long cultivation history of basil, nurnerous experiments have been carried

out to specify the elements of basil cultivation techniques suitable for different

climatic regions Qanah 1972).

For example, in the Horticultural Abstract Literature

review during 1973-1993 more than 105 publications deal with agronomical matters:

As a result of the research and the practical efforts, there is a grcat variability in the

cultivation methods of basil around the wodd.

Ecology

Sweet basil is a tender herbaceous annual plant, which originates from tropical and

'warm areas, such as India, Africa and southern Asia. It is naturalized almost all ovet

the wodd. Basil is reported to tolerate very variable ecological circumstances. It

grows in the cool moist and tropical rain fotest zones in annual temperatures between

6 and 24"C and receiving 500-8000 mm annual precipitation @uke and Hurst 1975).

Although basil is cultivated in diffetent cLimatic and ecological conditions, the

most favourable conditiofls are found in countries with a warm climate. Warmth,

Jight and moisture are the basic ecological requirements for basil cultivation. It is

commonly known that basil is rather susceptible to frost. There are nurnerous re-

seatch results tepotted from countries with a temperate climate. These tesults indi-

rectly proved the warmth requiring characteristics of basil (H?ilve 1987b, Nykdnen

L989, Sotensen and Henriksen 1992).

Light

Basil develops best under long days in sunny conditions. In a controlled experiment

the average plant weight of Ocinun basilican var citriodora ranged between 90-98 g/pot

^t 1.5-21. hours of light. The flowering stage appeared rapidly when the plants were

exposed to 18 hours of light, and the greatestyield (102 g/pot) was obtained under

24 hours of light (Skrubis and Matkakis 1975).

Tenperature

The optimum day/nght temperature for seed germination was determined to be

24-27 /19-22oC in labotatory conditions. At these temperatures over 800/o

seed

ger-

mination was teached after four days. (Putievsky 1983) (Ftgure 2.1).

= HeniTygia;

ll.

40 E. PUTIEVSKY

AND B. GAIAMBOSI

Doys

Figure 2.1 Effect of temperature on gerrnination

of sweet

basil

@utievsky

1983).

In a growth chamber experiment the fastest growth rate was measured at a tem-

perature of 27"C, and seven harvests were obtained. At a temperature of 32oC the

numbet of harvests was only four and at 27"C five harvests were obtained @ogany

et a1.,7968).

In an Italian study sv/eet basil (O, basilicun cv. Grande verde) was grown in plain

and mountain locations at 380 m and 1050 m altitudes, respectively. In the warmer

plain conditions the fresh weight was two to three times higher than in the cooler

mountain conditions. The essential oil content of basil growrl in the mountains was

lower (0.78-1,.noA than in the plain (1.25-2A0W (\,Ienghini et a1.,1984).

Sweet basil grovrn in Scodand gave a fresh yield of 4.6-6.8kg/m'and a &y yield

of 0.5-1.0 kg/mt. These yields are comparable with yields obtained in southem

countries only in greenhouse at ^ temperature of 18"C (Hay et al., 1988),

In South Finland (60o and 61o northern latitude) Agryl P17 fiber cloth mulches

increased the fresh basil yield more than three times. Further north, at 69o latitude,

basil practically did not give any yield (Helve 1987b).

In a Danish study the additional warmth obtained by covering the soil increased

the plant establishment and the fresh yield. A 0.05 mm thick, transparent plastic

sheet with 500 holes/m2 was placed on the soil immediately after sowing. Covering

of the field increased the ftesh yield by 35-700h, and also increased the number of

sutviving plants by more than 100% (Sorensen

and Henriksen 1992).

In another Finnish experiment svreet basil of Hungarian origin was gtown in the

field and in a plastic house in Puumala, South Finland (61o,

40). The warm indoor

conditions incr

Q'{yk?inen

19861

kg and in the P

\When a met

greenhouse

cor

corltent and th

significandy hi5

cinnamate was

Soil

Basil is cultivat

likes moderatel

best soils are t

holding caPaci

claimed soil cr

30-40 t/ha otl

In greenhot

diffetent readl

of fresh basil

such as aeroP<

ESTRAI

EUGENI

LINALC

TOTAL

Figue 2.2 I

produced

in h:

1986).

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

OF SWEET BASIL

conditions increased the fresh yield, and doubled the volatile oil content as well

Q.{ykdnen

1986). The eugenol content of fresh basil in the open field was 67-98 mg/

kg and in the plastic house 246-259 mg/kg @igarc 2.2).

\Xlhen a methyl cinnamate chemotype of sweet basil was grown in the field and in

greenhouse conditions at day/nght temperatutes of 26-30/18-2I"C the essential

oil

content and the proportions of ar-methyl cinnamate, linalool and 1,8-cineole were

significantly higher than in field grown plants. However, the content of trans-methyl

cinnamate was higher in plants gtown indoors (lrforales et aL,7993),

Soil

Basil is cultivated in the field in diffetent types of soil rvith a pH of 4.3 to 8.2. Basil

Iikes moderately fertile or humus-rich, well drained loamy or sandy-loam soils. The

best soils are those which are in good physical condition and have a good water

holding capacity. Waterlogged lands should invariably be avoided. In Egypt, re-

claimed soil can be used for basil ptoduction by imptoving the soil quality with

30-40 tfha organrc matter.

In greenhouses basil is grown in beds or pots in different substrates,

such as peat,

different teady made mixtures or arnfiital. soils (Gtodan). Mainly for the production

of fresh basil the plants are cultivated in beds or in different hydroponic systems

such as aeroponics and nutrient film technique (Davide and Steward 1986) or using

ESTRAGOL

EUGENOL

LINALOOL

TOTAL

0 200 400 600 800

mg/kg of fresh herb

Figxe 2.2 Effect of cultivation in open field vs. under cover on aroma compounds from basil

produced in Puumala. lX/hite column indicates open field and stdped column undet cover (rlyk?inen

1986).

-.1

-t

-.1

-l

-{I

ilain

:mef

roler

tem-

I the

gatrry

was

lteld

1em

ches

ude,

ned

rstic

fing

rof

the

.oof

E. PUTIEVSKYAND B. GAIIMBOSI

deep flow technique. The composition of the nutrient solution suitable for basil is

recendy studied Q,ee et al., 1993, Takano and Yamamoto 1996).

IYater

Basil tequires a continuous watet supply and it is intolerant to water sftess at all

stages of development. In countries with a warm climate irrigation is an absolute

precondition of basil cultivation and irrigation systeris are an integratedpan of the

whole production system. The results of a detailed greenhouse experiment showed

that the leaf area and the leaf dry weight were significandy decreased when the plants

were subjected to even mild water stress.

Mild and modetate water stress (irrigation

once every 48 and 72 hours) tesulted n a 22oh and 47o/o

decrease in leaf dry weight

and75-23o/o decrease in the leaf atea. At the same time, the mild and moderate water

stress incteased the essential oil content by 87 and 10070, respectively. Although

these results suggest

the possibility of increasing the oil content by moderate water

stress,

it is not easily performed in open field cultivation (Simon et a/.,7992).

Cultivars

Many basil cultivars are offered by seed companies, but populations arising from

seeds are not necessarily genetically uniform. The genus Ociruum is chancterized by a

greatvaiabltry in both morphology and chemical composition. The ease

with which

cross-pollination appears leads to a latge number of species, subspecies,

varieties,

and fotms. Basil cultivars marketed as seeds are often named according to morpho-

logicat characteristics or aroma. Thete are many tlpes of basil preserved locally by

fatmercf growets, mainly in developing countfies. For example in India there are

many cultivats which forms the basis for commercial selection (Paton and Putievslry

1e96).

For fresh basil production and for garden cultivation many different cultivars are

offered. Selected cultivars from seeds

include:

cultivars with

linalool and eu

For industri

tion is perfom

chemicals

are

tures, which aJ

have

to be det

1996,Paton

Propagation

Sweet

basil

special

plant

is not economi

generally

blacl

germination

mum daylnigh

In field condit

after 4J days

or by taising

Sowing and trr

of night ftost.

Direct

mwing

For direct so'

distance

is 3O

Central EuroP

content

of the

be rvell tilled ,

compacted

for basil sowir

Tranrpkntation

In &y areas,

zofles

among

tion method.

the temperate

seed

is requir

finished in al

topping wher

seedlings

ate

cm high with

The seedli

from the sun

vegetable

trar

Sweet basil:

Pwple basil: Sweet, Genovese, Latgeleaf, Letnrce kaf, Mammoth

Dark Opal, Purple Ruffles, Red Rubin, Osmin

Cultivars with different

ftagrances: Lemon scented, Cinnamon, Anise, Licorice, Camphor,

Spicy bush

During the last years ^n increasing number of studies have dealt with the morpho-

logical and chemotaxonomical features of basil varieties available on the seed market

(Simon and Reiss-Bubenheim 1987,

Morales et aL,1993b, Grayer et al.,7996,Paton

and Putievsky 1996). In Finland 17 different seed batches were examined. All of

them were called sweet basil, but a grcat variation was found in the morphological

characteristics as well as in their chemical composition (Galambosi 1995).

A sirnilar

variability w-as found when 10 Italian commercially available basil cultivars were

examined. The chemical analyses of the varieties showed correlations with the

morphological characters. Two cultivars with violet leaves

were linalool chemotypes,

three of those with large leaves

were linalool and methylchavicol chemotypes. Three

l""t

:fr

table for basil is

ater stress

at all

n is an absolute

:ated

part of the

eriment showed

when the plants

stress (irngation

r leaf dry weight

moderate

water

tively. Although

modetate water

a|,7992).

rns arising from

nracternedby a

ease

vrith which

pecies,

varieties,

ling to morpho-

erved locally by

India there are

n and Putievsky

ent cultivars are

f, Mammoth

)smin

rrice, Camphor,

ith the morpho-

the seed

market

al., 1996,

Paton

camined.

All of

:morphological

1995).

A similar

. cultivars were

rtions with the

rol chemotypes,

motypes.

Three

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS OF S\rEET BASIL

cultivars with medium sized and two cultivars with small leaves belonged to the

linalool and eugenol chemotype (Marotti et a1.,1996).

For industrial production mainly sweet basil types are used, and the seed

produc-

tion is performed in controlled circumstances. In essential oil-containing plants the

chemicals are sometimes more important characteristics than morphological fea-

tures, which a)one are inadequate to describe the taxon. Therefore the chemotype

have to be determined before the plant is used for industrial purposes (Gnyer et al.,

1996, Paton and Putievsky 1996).

Propagation

Srveet basil is generally propagated by seeds. For selection and presetvation of a

special plant or cultivar, stem cuttifig propagation can be used, although this method

is not economical for commercial purposes. The ripe, fi.rlly

matute seeds of basil are

generally black or dark brown. The weight of thousand seeds is 1.2-1.8 g. The

germination of ripe basil seeds is generally rapid. In laboratory conditions at opti-

mum day/night temperature over 80% germination took four days @utievsky 1983).

In field conditions the emergence occured after 7-14 days in Central Ewope and

after 4-7 days in India. The crop can be established by ditect sowing into the field

or by raising the seedLings

in a nursery and then ransplanting them into the field.

Sowing and transplanting takes place in the eady srunmer when there is no danget

of night frost.

Direct sowing

For direct sowing generally 2-6kg/ha of high quality seeds are used. The row

distance is 3G-50 cm, depending on the weed control system. The sowing time in

Central Europe is during the second half of April. During this period the moisture

content of the soil is favourable for a good start of the growth. The seedbed should

be well tilled and even. The depth of sowing is 0,5-1 cm, and therefore the soil is

compacted by rolling prior to and aftet the sowing. Different seeders are suitable

for basil sowing, the best are the vegetable seeders.

Transplantation

In dry areas, Iike India and Eglpt, or for fresh matket production in the temperate

zones among the smaller growers tansplantation of seedlings is the usual propaga-

tion method. The seedlings are grown in open-field nurseries or in plastic tunnels in

the temperate zones. Seeds are placed in rows (10-15 cm rov/-spacing), 0.1-0.5 kg

seed is required for one hectare. Germination starts 3 days after sowing and is

finished in about 10 days. Lateral branching and growth may be encouraged by

topping when the plants are about 1.2

cm high. Regular irrigation is necessary. The

seedlings arc ready for transplantaing after 4-6 weeks. At that stage

they arc 10-1.5

cm high with 4-6 pairs of leaves.

The seedlings ready for planting are removed from the mrsery and protected

from the sun and desiccation. Ttansplantating is carried out manually or by using

vegetable ransplantets. Due to the intensive gowth the tecommended spacing for

SeedlingSinwarmerareasis40-60cm,withap|antd^istance"rzo-+o.-.I"c."o

Eutope the spacing

is a little bit smaller, row spacing

of 40-50 cm, with 25-30 cm

plant distance

(Wijesekera

1986,

Hornok 1992).

Population

densitl

The optimum population density

is pardy dependent

on the final use of the culti-

vated basil plants. A high density can be used if cornpatible farm equipment is

available fot mechanical

cultivation and harvesting. Rows 30-90 cm apart with plants

spaced every 2540 cm are commonly used.

\ff4een

planning the population

density

and the biomass production the grower

has to take into consideration the nutdent

availability for the individuals in the plantation. The competition between individuals

in a population with a low nutritional supply was found to be intensive and the

plants developed

more roots than the individuals in a population

with a high nutri-

tional level (A4orris

and

Myerscough 1991).

According

to experiences from Israel

the

optimum plant density for oil and dry herb production in field conditions is about

15-17

plants

/m2 and for fresh

plant production about 8-74 plants/m2.

Nutrient Supply

An impotant factor affecting the quantity and quality of the harvested basil yield is

to find the optimum level of fertiltzanon. Fertilization experiments carried out with

sweet basil focused

on the determination of the quantity and the optimum ratio of

the main mineral elements. Additionally the nitrogen side dressing

was studied in

connection

with frequent

harvests.

Special attention

was paid to the effects of fertil-

izaion ofl the content and composition

of the essential oil. The level

and the amount

of. fenitzaion natxilly depends on the soil, but most papers

do not give frrll details

regarding the composition of the soil.

Basil tesponds

well to moderate fertjhzaion.

This could be seen in some

fetj\za-

tion expedments, vrhich were carried out in a temperate climate,

where the growing

season is quite short (April/May-September).

This means

that the fertilizers are

applied during a short time period. In a German study the optimum herb yield of

basil was reached

by using a compound fetllizer of NPK = 704-12-73

kg/ha.

Dividing the total fertihzet application into basic feti\zaion and top-dressing

gave

the best results

SVeichman

1948).

In a three-year

experiment (1973-1975)

carried out in Poznan,

Poland, increasing

N-doses (0-200 kg/ha) increased

the total dry herb yield significantly.

Without N-

fenJJtzaion,

atP-60 andK-720kg/ha level the herb yield was

2.27

t/ha.200kg/ha

nitrogen increased

the yield by 44%.

Higher phosphorus

and potassium doses,

and 160 kg/ha respectively,

did not increase the basil yield significantly

(Czabajski,

1e78).

Similat results

were achieved in a Hungarian

study. On a sandy soil of low humus

and nutrient content, the best fresh and dry herb yield (40 t/ha and 7.3 t/ha,

respectively) from two harvests

wete achieved

with medium doses of NPK elements

(120-100-100

kglha). The essential oil yield was highest (05 kg/ha) at this fenil-

ization level as well. No beneficial effects of higher doses were found. Increasing

flWahab

and Hon

In a coolet clil

proved to be rad

was one of the :

ported by Hiilvii

cation of NPK 4

dressing

80 kglh

2.3). Additionalll

susceptibility

to I

heavier fertilized

mental years (Hi

Due to the lol

warmer climate r

this case

the higt

&essing after tht

ent forms of N.

In a geenhor

nitrogen forms (

of sweet

basil.

but the leaf &y

essential

oil con

comPonents in I

A YIfu

tYIELD ({lttd

ilRl 1

ll/lm'

0,?

Figure 2.3 Rer

1987).

_a=,-

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS OF SWEET BASIL

N-doses gave a considerable rise both in the fresh and dry yield of sweet basil

(X/ahab and Hornok 1981).

In a cooler climate the optimum feffilizer application in respect to the herb yield

proved to be rather low compated to the amounts used in warmer countries. This

was one of the results of feni\zatton experiments made in southern Finland, re-

poted by Hiilvii and Puukka (1987).

The optimum basic fertilization was the appli-

cation of NPK 40-1G68 kg/ha.In addition basil received a benefit from the N-top

&essing B0 kg/ha, Due to thJcold weather, the fresh yields were quite low Frg*.

2.3). Additionally, in cool and moist conditions the N-top dressing increased the

susceptibility to fungus-diseases (Plthiun sp., Fasarium sp., Sclerotinia sclerotioran). The

heavier fertilized the crop-stand, the more infected plants there were in both experi-

mental years (Hzilvzi

1987).

Due to the longer growing season and the accelerated growth in countries with a

warmet climate about 3-5 sequent harvests of basil can be obtained each yeat. In

this case the higher phytomass requires a higher nutrient supply and an additional N-

dressing aftet the harvests are important in otder to enhance the gowth. The differ-

eflt foms of N-dressings may affect the plant growth in different ways.

In a gteenhouse pot experiment at Purdue Universiry USA, the effect of two

nitrogen forms Q.{O3

and NH) were studied on the growth and essential

oil content

of sweet basil. Ammonium nitrogen decreased the plant height and stem dry weight,

but the leaf dry weight was not affected. Ammonium nitrogen also decreased the

essential oil content by 28% and relatively increased the amount of sesquiterpene

components in the oil (Adler et a1.,1989).

10 cm.

In Central

with 25-30

use of the culti-

:m equipment is

apart with plants

rpulation density

tion the nutrient

:ween

individuals

ntensive and the

,'ith a high nutd-

from Israel the

nditions is about

/m2.

sted

basil

yield

carried

out with

rptimum

ratio of

I was

studied in

effects

of fertil-

and the amount

t give firll details

n some fqi.filiza_

rere

the growing

re fertilizers are

Lrn

herb

yield

t4-12-73

kq/lr .

lp-dressing

gave

lland,

increasing

rdy.

Without N-

t/ha.200kg/ha

ssium

doses,

mtly (Czabajski,

il of low humus

a and 7.3

tfha,

iNPK elements

ra)

at this fertil-

und. Increasing

A YIELD

IYIELD (tittd crv.)

YrR!r

lt/10h1

A YIELD

zYI&D (fittd curv.)

na.!,

h/th.

.2 ,t .t .3 t,2 r.t t.6 t.l

h/rF

Figure 2.3

1e87). Response of basil yield to N-fertilization n 1984 (a) and 1985

(b) (H?ilv?i

and Puukka

46 E. PUTIEVSKY AND B. GAIIMBOSI

The results of another fetti\zatton study in Italy confirmed the above mentioned

Polish, Hungatian and American experiences. According to the results of Tesi et aL

(1995), "Genovese" sweet basil, grown in greenhouse seemed to be sensitive to high

concenffations of fertilizers in the irrigation water. At 500 kg/ha N doses the leaf

area decreased 42oh, compared to a N dose of 100 kg/ha. The application of differ-

ent ratios of N, P2Ou, and KzO shovred that a rano of 7:1:2 gave the best growth

result. Further it was shown that complete fertilization is better than only nitrogen

fertjfuzanon Qable 2.7). Useful tesults of these experiments for the fresh herb prc-

ducers are that slow release fettilizers (ammonium sulphate and sulphonitrate) gave

an important reduction in the nitrate content of the fresh plants (more rhan 50oQ.

This was not seen when using calcium ritrate. Hdlvd and Puukka (1987) reported

that using calcium nitrate as N-top dressing, 160kg/ha N-fertilization increased the

nitate content of the fresh herb 15 times.

The practical fertjitzaion advice for basil found in different herb cultivation manuals

is based partly on the above mentioned research results, and pardy on local soil

types, the cropping history and the production systems existing in each country. For

example accotding to Hornok (1992) the Hungarian fer :lization advice includes

three applications of fettilizers: basic fertilization in the autumn N = 40-60 kg/ha,

P = 60-80 kg/ha andK = 120-1.40 kg/ha are recommended. Start of the fertilization

in the spring at the time of soil preparation with N = 40-60 kg/ha and P = 18-20

kg/ha. Foliar N-fertihzaion is applied after the foliage cuttings, in doses of 60-70

kg/h".

In the United States the suggested

ratio of N-PrOu-FlrO elements is 1:1:1, with a

N-dose of 230-300 kg/h^, as broadcasts and plowdown. Nitrogen side-dtessing at

rates of 50-75kg/ha are recommended after each harvest (Simon 1995).

In India, in the practical cultivation, NPK = 20-4V40 kg/ha basic fertilization is

recommended before the soil pteparation. 40kg/ha nitrogen fertjhzanon is applied

as top dressing in two equal doses (Sdvastava

1980).

In Eglpt 3540 t/ha organic manure and 35 kg/haP are applied as basic feri\za-

tion. As top dressing, 35kg/ha nitrogen is applied two times, four and seven weeks

after transplantating.In addition 35kg/ha N is applied aftet each harvest (Shalaby

1996).

Tabre 2-7 Gtowth or sweet t"rr:.Xil:t E:,\J:;W doses or a 20-20-20

complete

Fertiliqer Dose Nitrogen Sappliet

C/l kg/ha Plant Heigbl

cm Fruh lVeigbt l-tawr Area

g/plant m2/plant

High doses

of fe

vation of basil in

Phosphorus (PrO5)

50 kg/ha, respectir

before sowing and

Basker

1977).

Weeding

The presence

ofw

final product. Ther

systems.

The weed

first harvest,

latel

The weed control i

are suitable for bal

From Istael tht

ported in experim

doses (Putievsky

kg/ha) or Neburot

for post-emergenc

dose of 2.5kglha

Preplant applicr

two weeks,

but w

oleracea

(Ricotta an

Only experime:

post-emergence

days after the tra

ingtedient/ha Prc

rveeds. The effect

sprayed in a dost

essential

oil conte

the different wee<

In many count

Therefore vreedin

tant. There are di

cide free cultivatir

by hand hoeing. \

with larger row d

Organic mulct

mulch has becon

European counit

effect and the sPt

increased the fte

which increased

In another study

higher fresh yiel

100

200

350

500

3.5

0.46

2.90 a

2.70

2.50

1.90

6.1

13.8

15.4 a

13.6 b

10.3 c

20c

120 a

111 a

96a

70b

Mean separation within columns by SNK test at p = 0.05.

f:l

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS OF S\ilEET BASIL

: above

mentioned

esults

of Tesi et al.

sensitive

to high

N doses the leaf

plication of differ-

e the best growth

han only nitrogen

re fresh herb pro-

ulphonitrate) gave

(more than 50%).

:a (1987)

reported

.tion increased

the

:ultivation manuals

rrdy on local soil

each

country. For

n advice includes

{ = 40-60 kg/ha,

of the fertilization

:^aandP=18-20

n doses

of 60-70

nts

is 1:1:1,

with a

n side-dressing

L 1995).

rsic fertilization is

Itzanon is appJied

las basic

fenltza-

and seven

weeks

harvest (Shalaby

-20-20 complete

Ltatns

Area

cn2/plant

20c

120

1,11,

96a

70b

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS OF S\ilEET

BASIL 47

High doses of fertilizets are applied combined with regular ittigation in the culti-

vation of basil in Israel. The tatio of the main mineral element is about 2:1:1.

Phosphorus (PrO) and potassium (&O) are applied in doses of 100 kg/ha and

5}kg/ha, respectively, and an ammonium nitrate fertrhzer is applied immediately

before sowing and after each harvest, 250 kg/ha on each occasion @utievsky and

Basker 1971.

Weeding

The presence of weeds among fresh ot dry basil leaves decreases the quality of the

final product. Therefore weed control is an important pafi of the basil production

systems.

The weed problem in high density field populations exists mainly until the

first harvest, later the plants cover the field and suppress the growth of the weeds.

The weed conttol is generaliy carded out mechanically, since relatively few herbicides

are suitable for basil cultivation.

From Israel the pre-emergence application of 60oh Neburon herbicide was re-

ported in experimental cultivation. It was sprayed prior to germination at 2kg/ha

doses @utievsky and Basker 1977). Ptesendy in ptactical cultivation Diphenamid (2

kg/ha) or Neburon (1..2kg/ha) are used for pre-emergence

application and Neburon

for post-emetgence/postharvest application. In Israel Ozadiazon can be used at a

dose of 2.5 kg/ha for transplanted basil plants.

Preplant applications of 2.2kg/ha Napropamide provided weed control only for

two weeks, but was subsequently ineffective against heaqr infestations of Porta/aca

oleracea

@icotta and Masiunas 1991).

Only experimental results are avatlable

in Egypt for Terbacil and Bentazone as

post-emergence herbicides in sweet basil culture. The preparations were spread 20

days after the transplantating of the seedlings. Terbacil applied ^t 0.96 kg active

ingredient,/ha provided satisfactory weed control for both annual and perennial

weeds. The effect approximated that of manual weeding. At the same

time Bentazone

sprayed in a dose of 0.84 kg/ha was less effective. No significant differences in

essential oil content or composition of sweet basil were observed when comparing

the different weed control treatments @,I-Masry et a/., 1995).

In many counfties basil sold for consumption must be grown without herbicides.

Therefore weeding of basil in organic cultivation is becoming more and more impor-

tant. There are different ways to keep the plantations ftee from weeds in the herbi-

cide free cultivation. Generally weeding of smaller fields is carried out manually, i.e.

by hand hoeing. \X/eeding can be done by machines in a high density plant population

with larger row distances and low distances between the plants.

Organic mulches are suitable for weed control only in smaller areas. Black plastic

mulch has become quite a popular choice for weed control, especially in the noth

European countries. The plastic mulch provides a good weed growth inhibiting

effect and the spreading of the plastic mulch can be mechanised. Black plastic mulch

increased the fresh and dry yield of basil, due to the incorporation of sun energy

which increased the soil temperature under the mulch @icotta and Masiunas 1991).

In another study plants transplanted into two rows/raised bed produced significantly

higher fresh yield in double rows (3854 g/m) than in single rows (2501 g/m'z)

i|r

ItA

t;-

lz o

E. PUTIEVSKYAND

B. GAIAMBOSI

(Iable 2.2). The use of mulched raised beds seemed suitable for the production of

fresh basil, since the harvested yield was cleaner than the yield obtained from cul-

tures without plastic mulch. The production cost fot this type of culture is higher

than for a notmal field production and it teflects on the ptice of the final product

(Davis 1993).

Irrigation

Basil needs a sufficient water supply during almost all stales of development. In a

study where the effect of the water supply was studied on the seed yield of basil, it

was stated that the average seed yield from irrigated plots was 993 kg/ha compared

to 251 kg/ha from dry plots (Cuocolo and Duranti 1982).

The irrigation possibilities, faciJities

and methods determine the field cultivation

systems and the size of the beds irrigated. Canal, flooding and sprinkle irrigation

systems are used. In warm countries regular irrigation is carried out at 7-10 days

intervals. For example in Israel 350 m3

/ha water is used with 10 days intervals if the

field is irrigated by sprinklers. The irdgation intervals are 5 days shorter if the field is

irrigated by a drop system.

Irrigation is especially important in the plant nurseries, immediatelly after the

transplantating and during the plant emergence after direct sowing. In Egypt flood

irrigation is abundant in the Nile valley lands. In India, at the onset of the rain season

the rains meet the water requirements of the crop fully until September. After that

irrigation may be required once or twice a month (Srivastava 1980). In temperate

zorres, the distribution of natural nsnfall is generally enough during the spring and

autumn, but longer dry summer periods without arificial irrigation may cause sig-

nificant yield losts.

Tabre 2.2 Effects of in-row

*"Til"r1fiH:f,J"fi;1.r bed on

fresh leaf yields

of sweet

(yreld, g/m of Bed)1

232.5 21,5.4 171.5

357.9 308.2 260.9

297.7 259.3 237.3

324.5 228.6 309.6

421.9 383.5 316.0

317.4 264.2 217.7

468.3 499.8 458.4

482.5 315.3 295.7

346.8 353.9 302.0

(yield, g/m of Bed)l

43.2 162.7 250.3 1.*

66.0 264,3 353.7 {<*

231,.5 298.0 *

229.0 346j. **

318.1 429.4 **

69.4 239.5 293.4 ns

441.3 509.7 ns

124.1 302.9 426.1, {.

311,.9 356.6 ns

-tr> ---- -

Plant Protection

Puts

Compared to othet

basil plant. Cultiva

much data on the

pratensis

L.) are rep

Pests occur mo

have been rePortc

reduction in the p

nematicides (aldicz

most common nen

nematode (Dolicho

parasitic nematodt

The latvae of s

the underside

of tl

The infected leavt

and some lace bt

different basil spe

damage, spraying

Diseaw

Numerous papert

basil cultivations.

niques, mainly in

irigated.In the r

mon soil pathoger

(1980) the follow

leaf blight and bz

Blight of basi

appearance

ofth,

mended to spray

Leaf blight is r

similar to those c

Basil wilt is t

stages

of gowth

leaves

and the sl

plant, which fin

Russia Qzidzat:

Italy (famietti ar

1993).

Fot prev

solution of som

In Russia,

meth'

getmplasms in

resistant

varietit

IVuk of

Harwst In-row Spacing

(tn)

15 23 31 F-test l-SD 5Vo Rows

per Bed

1 2 F-tett

11S

3249.4 2828.2 2569.0 355,4 2501.2 3263.2 {.+

t Yield in g ftesh weight per meter of row length; means of 3 replicates; **, * and ns = significant at

P < 0.01, 0.05, or nonsignificant, respectively.

re production of

tained from cul-

culture is higher

he final product

velopment. In a

yield of basil, it

kg/ha compared

field cultivation

rrinkle irrigation

rut at 7-10 days

's intervals if the

:ter if the field is

liatelly after the

In Egypt flood

f the rain season

nber. After that

)). In temperate

the spring and

r may cause sig-

af yields

of sweet

tws

per Bed

2 F-nst

g/m of Bed)l

250.3 **

353.7 **

293.4

426.1,

3263.2 *<*

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

OF SWEET BASIL

Plant Protection

Pests

Compared to other horticultural crops, only a few pests and diseases attack the sweet

basil plant. Cultivation manuals from countries in the temperate zone do not offer

much data on the pests of sweet basil. Observations of the common bug (l=lgus

pratensis

L.) are reported on sesdlings after the transplantating (Heeger 1956).

Pests occur more frequently in warmer climates. Heaqr infections of Nematodu

have been reported from Egypt, India and Florida, USA. The infection causes a

reduction in the plant growth and oil yield. In addition to crop rotation, different

nematicides (aldicarb, carbofutan, bavistin) or oilseed cakes can be used against the

most common nematode (Meloidogne incognita) (Haseeb

et a/.,1988). The phytoparasitic

nematode (Dolichodorus

heterocepltalus) significandy reduced the populations of plant

parasitic nematodes in common basil cultute fi.hoades 1988).

The larvae of some pests may cause serious damage to the plants by sticking to

the underside of the leaves, folding them from midrid lengthwise and webbing them.

The infected leaves finally fall off. Ocimum leaf folder (Slngania abraptalis Walker)

and some lace bugs (ALonanthia

globuffira Walker) have been teported as pests of

different basil species

in Thailand (Tigvattnanont 1989, 1990). In the cdse of setious

damage, sprayrng of insecticides is necessary.

Disearcs

Numerous papers report about the presence and damages of different diseases in

basil cultivations. The control of diseases

is a common oart of the cultivation tech-

niques, mainly in countties with a warm climate, where ihe plantations are regulady

irdgated. In the nurseries the seedlings sometimes have to be ptotected from com-

mon soil pathogenes, hke Plthiun, Alternaria and Rlrysoctonia

sp. According to Srivastava

(1980) the following diseases are well-knovrn in basil fields in India: blight of basil,

leaf blight and basil wilt.

Blight of basil is caused by Alternaria sp. The disease stats with a chlorotic

appearance of the leaves

which turn purple and finally black. For control it is recom-

mended to spray the crop with 0.2oh Dithane M-45, one to three times.

Leaf blight is caused by Colletotrichum

capsici

(Sy.)

Buder et Bisby. The symptomes are

similar to those of blight. Older leaves ^ppeat to be more susceptible to infection.

Basil wilt is caused by Fusarian oxlsporum. This disease affects the plant at all

stages of grorr/th, particiady in the rain season. It appears initially by wilting of the

leaves and the shoot tips on ofle or two branches, but is soon spread to the whole

plant, which finally dies. Occurrence of Fusarium has been reported in India and

Russia pzidzariya and Diorbelidze 1974), in France (X{ercier and Pionnat 1982),in

Italy (Iamietti and Matta 1989) and in the USA (Wick and Haviland 1992,Davis et a/,,

1993). For prevention of Fusariun infection the seedlings should be dipped in a

solution of some effective fungicide, such as Tafasol or Agalol, before transplanting.

In Russia, methyl bromide was used as an effective fumigant. The evaluation of basil

germplasms in order to find strains resistant to Fusarium have started and new

resistant varieties are in bteeding experiments (R.euveni et al., 1996, 1997).

ns = significant at

t--

t"J

E. PUTIEVSKYAND B. GAI-AMBOSI

In addition to the above mentioned diseases, the following species rx/ere reported

to occur on basil or to cause problems in basil cultivation: Cercospora ocirnicola (Jpadhyay

et al., 1976), Corlnespora cassiicola

Qevi et a/., 1979), Alsinoe arxii (Sldhar and Ullasa

1979),Erisiphe

biocellata (Sharma

and Chaudhaty 1981), R.ltiqoctoniasolani (Sharma1981),

Pseud,trnonas

cichorii

Q4iller and Burgess 1987) and Pseudomonas syingae @l-Sadek et a/.,

leel).

Mechanization

Almost all phases of the production system can be mechanized. The degree of

mechatization can be very different in different production areas,

depending on the

ptoduction size, traditional ot economic factors. Generally sowing or planting of

seedLings, interrow weeding and harvest is carried out mechanically, although there

are places where every phase is made manua\ The elements of the production

system are adapted to locally avaslable machinery. In large scale commercial harvest-

ing motorized cutters or movers with an adjustable cutting height are used.

Harvesting

Among the many different factors, which influence the quality of the dried or dis-

tilled basil yield, one of the most important is the harvesting time. The development

of the plant organs containing essential oil in different quantities and composition is

a continuous process and to find the optimum harvest date is quite difficult. Several

studies revealed differences in the oil content and comDosition due to leaves of

different size and ^ge or due to flowering of the plant.

Bettelheim et a/. (1993) have found that during the ontogenesis the essential oil

content of the leaves stayed at the same level (0.3%o),

vzhile thete were great differ-

ences in the oi,l conterit of the flowers at different development stages. The highest

oil content of the flowers (1.0%) was found at an eady development stage (Iable

2.3).

Great differences were found in the essential oil content and comoosition of

young and mature leaves.

Usually, young leaves

had a higher content of issential oil

per area unit compared to old leaves. As the leaf size increased, the essential oil

content decreased. The oil content of young, 1 cm long basil leaves

was 0.47-0.660/o,

Table 2,3 Essentia-1 oil content in different plant parts of Ocimum

basilicun

@ettelheim et a/., 1993)

while that of the n

components also (

was rich in linalol

oldet leaves (41-4

In another stud

basil was followed

the monoterpenes

sesquiterpenes

hai

stages (Lemberkor

In India, the el

the herb and oil y

(4.5-8 t/ha) and c

were tfansplanted

the leaves (Iable 1

temperatute and i

the oil yield deper

yield was maximal

the average hetb y

stage the coffespo

Thete were gter

by different meth

chemotype of Oa

times a year.

The t

harvested

with lor

flower spikes, gavt

gave an oil .vith a

spikes produced a

\W4ren

the optir

that the height of

tained (Iable 2.6).

decreased 250/0, b

Table 2.4 Essen

Youngleaves (1 cm)

Ptoxima.l

Distal

Matute leaves (7 cm)

Proxima^1

Distal

Proportion (Vo)

fron Total

Fre:b l%eight of

Floaer

Esyntial Oil Content

To bof

Part

Flowering

Stage

lTithout floweting

Early flowet initiation

Late flower initiation

Flowedng

Full flowering

0.0

6.2

1,3.2

20.1

1.5.7

66.6

59.6

54.9

50.1

46.1,

0.000

1.008

0.756

0.560

0.422

0.366

0.352

0.318

0.328

tti

:-"'

t,J

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

OF SWEET BASIL

Table 2,4 Essential oil in proximal and distal parts of young and mature sweet

basil leaves

flWerker

et a1.,1993)

Main Component

in E:nntial Oil (ok)

es wefe

reported

imicola

()padhyay

idhar and Ul1asa

ni (Sharma1981),

@I-Sadek et al.,

.. The degee of

lepending

on the

Lg or planting of

y, although there

f the production

nmercial

harvest-

are

used.

the dried or dis-

Ihe development

rd composition is

: difficult. Sevetal

due to leaves of

s the essential

oi-l

were great differ-

ages.

The highest

nent stage (Table

I composition of

:nt of essential

oil

, the essential

oil

; was

0.47-0.660/0,

a basi.licun

Oil Content

L,catvs

0.366

0.352

0.318

0.328

while that of the matur

e,7 cmlong leaves

was only 0.L30/o.

The coltent of the main

components also changed when the leaves grew older' The oil of the young leaves

*". ,i.h in linalol 1+llSto/o), while the methy' chavicol content was higher in the

older leaves (4t-44o/o) flVerker et a1.,1993) QabIe 2'4)'

In anothef study, in which the formation of the biologically active substances

basil vras followed during the vegetation period, it was found that in the herb oils

the monoterpenes reachid their maximum during the flowering stage, wh1le the

,.rqoit.rp.rres had their maxlmum during the late flowering and seed ripening

stages (I-emberkovics et al., 1993)'

i' Irrdi", the effect of transplanting dates and development :lage at harvest on

the herb and oil yield were studied (R.andhawa

and Gill 1995). The maximum herb

(4.5-8 t/ha) rrrd oil yields (33-54l/ha) were measuted when french basil seedlings

ir.r. ourrrpl anted atit . .t d of July. Later tr^nsplanting.

decreased

the oil content of

the leaves (Iable 2.5). These resrrlts can be onderstood according to the effects of

*rrp.ru*. and.

day

length (Putievsky 1983). There wete significant diffetences in

trre olt yietd dependi.rg o"tr

,tr. development stage during-harvest. The herb and oil

!.ld *". -dmat at tf,e stage

of complete flowering. At the stage

of 5070 flowering

'rh. ^rrrug.herb yield wr, 4]0 t/ha ani the oil trtl+ Y.t 26.kg/ha, at 100o/o

flowedng

st"g. th.lorresponding figures were 5.6 t/.ha and 57 kg/ha' -

- ?h.r. -.r. gr.r, dif?.tJ.t..t in the quality and quantity cl{,th: basil oil hatvested

by diff.r.rrt m"ethods in Australia (Bonnardeaux 1992). A linalol-methyl chavicol

.ir.-oayp. of Ocimurn

basilicun cv.'"Large green" wa: $owl1 and harvested four

times a year.

The highest oil yield (91, .6 l/ha/year) was

obtained.wfe.n the plants were

harvest"d with long, 12-20 cm flower spikes.

Plants harvested with shott, 3-11 cm

flower spikes,

g ve-^noil yield of only ee

.g t/llalyear. Dis illation o.f the whole plant

gr-r. u.r

til -l i u high percentage oi mgth]'] chavicol Q6-320/o),

whereas the flower

ipikes produbed an oil rich in linalol (43-59%)'

' wh.r, the optimum conditions for mechanical harvest wefe studied, it was found

that the heighi of the plants at the harvest time influenced the fresh biomass ob-

t"ir.d gaVtZ

2.e7.If

the plants

were

cut

when

they

werc

!- Fgh: the

freg!

ry1ld

d..t.rred 2lo/o,but.to ihrrrg", were observed in the dry leaf and oil yield' The

bof

Part nJSefitr4l ull

Content

(ok) 1,8- Linalool

B-Caryt

Cineole Pful/tne Metful Methll Eugenol

Chauicol

Eugenol

Young leaves (1 cm)

Prcximal

Distal

Matute leaves (7 cm)

Proximal

Distal

0.66

0.47

0.12

0.14

;

3.1

3.L

3.6

0.6

2.1

1.0

1..1

0.9

0.3 ;

8.2

7.8

5.3

;30

41. 0.3

44 0.6

ll.

E. PUTIEVSKY AND B. GAI,\MBOSI

Table 2.5 Effects of transplanting dates and harvesting stages on essential

oil production

(R.andhawa and Gill, 1995)

Plant Ti:sae

Herb bnf Inflorucence

'lleatrnent 1988 1989 Mean 1988 1989 Mean 1988 1989 Mean

From the above

ological stage

of thr

harvest time either

impact on the quar

ofharvests depend

retically the distille,

have to be detetmi

In the temperatt

April to Septembe

lected when the plz

harvest is collectec

In countries wit

temperatute higher

hatvests dudng th

sowing takes place

after a month. Du

the sowing and tr

harvested at the b,

2-2.5 months inter

and plantations co

In Istael seeds

harvested for dry

distillation plants r

four times betwee:

Smaller basil fie

manually with the

ferred to a cooling

After that the pla

cooJing systems

Post-harvest Pror

Drying

The qualiry

colou

other postharvest

the

moisture cont(

the harvest

and

when

exposed

to t

befote

drying

in c

Nykiinen

and l

basil

herb and

storing

in closed

was

reduced by 4

pounds

in basil

ler

400c.

Tfansplant date

J"ly 1

July

August 15

August 30

------ (%oil) -=---------

0.86 0.66 0.76 1.98 1,.17 1,.57 1,.28 1.19 1.23

0.80 0.66 0.73 1,.99 1..19 1.s9 1..46 1.34 1.40

0.73 0.71, 0.72 1.62 1,.48 1.55 1,.45 1..26 1.35

0.54 0.71, 0.62 1,.23 1,.27 1.25 1.28 1.18 1..23

0.84 0.61, 0.72 1,.21, 1.17 1,.19 1.16 1.13 1.L4

Harvesting stage

Vegetative

50% Flowering

100% Flowering

0.86

0.77

0.62

0.75

0.62

0.64

0.80 1,.53 1,.26 1.39

0.69 1,.64 1,.19 1.41

0.63 1,.66 1,.31, 1.48

1.31 1.23 1,.27

1.36 1,.25 1.30

1.31, 1.18 1.24

ISD0.o51

Transplant date

Harvesting stage

Interaction

tls

11S

u.r L ns

0.05 0.03

ns 0.08

0.10

0.05

tls

0.06

1LSD0.05

= least significant diffetence; P = 0.05; ns = nonsignificant; analysis on square root transforms

data.

cutting height of the plants had no effect on the proportions of the maifl com-

pounds of the oil (Putievsky et a1.,1989).

The maximum oil cofltent of several

basil species was found at the stage of 500/o

seed ripening. For example, a methylchavicol type bast7, Ocimum basilicum var. glabratum

was grown from seedlings

and harvested at different phenological stages. The maxi-

mum herb yield was obtained between the 100% flowering and initiation of seed set

stage. At this stage, which appeared 150*180 days after the planting, the fresh plant

weight was at its maximum, i.e. 930 g/plant. The maximum essential oil content

Q.0%) v/as found later, 2!V240 days after the planting, at 50oh seed set and seed

npening stage (Gupta 1996).

Tabre 2.6 rhe effect of harvest

T:-#.;l#::y:in;T"t" oil composition

of sweet basil

Haruut Height Fruh Yield

(m abor,v the g/*t

grolnd)

Flowering Dry Leaues Essential Oil

Stuge

ok g/*t in Dry l-,eawt

u/m2

Main Conponent in the

Essential

Oil at the 3'd Harae$ fk)

Unalool MetfulChauicol

28.2

34.6

n.2

455

452

436

4900

4238

3801

6.6

6.7

7.3

47.8

48.7

50.6

tJ-

E. PUTIEVSKY AND B. GATAMBOSI

Two basic dryng systems exist:

1. Natural dtyug in the shade. Due to economic reasofls this way of drying is used

in the developing countries, although it has the disadvantage

of possible contami-

nation by micro-organisms.

2. Arnficial drying by warm air. Due to the controlled conditions of this dtl'rrg

process, it is suitable for industrial production. In production countries and areas

diffetent mechanical dtlog systems exists, like plate-chamber driers, conveyor

driers etc. (Hornok 1992). Standard quality requirements regarding the volatile oil

content and microbiological contamination are easier firlfilled using artificial dtyr"g.

In order to fulfill the standard quatity requirements, the dried basil raw material is

subjected to different post-drying processes, like stalk removing, crumbling, cutting,

cleaning, sorting, screening and gdnding. All these processes need special machinery.

Storage

The dried basil is stored protected from light and moisture. Generally basil is packed

in air-tight or double budap bags with or without internal polyethylene linings. De-

pending on the storage conditions some changes

may be expected in the oil content,

composition or the colour of dried basil leaves.

Ifl a storage expedment sweet basil was dried at 45"C for 1,2

hours. After three,

six and seven

months storage the essential

oil content and composition was checked

by steam distillation and GC-MS. The loss of total essential oil after three, six and

seven months storage was I9oh,62oh and 660/0, respectively.

Among the main com-

ponents the content of methylchavicol and eugenol decreased drastically during

dtyt"g and storage, while that of linalool and 1,8-cineole increased during the same

period (Baritaux et

a/.,7992).

In another study slight changes were observed during the storage of dried basil

leaves. The plants were carefully dried at 35oC and then stored in white paper "sugar

bags" in dtawers at an alternating room temperature (I4-20"q for three years.

The

essential

oil content was determined after every six months storage. After 27 months

storage no changes were observed in the essential oil content (05W and after 3

years storage only slight changes were recorded in the proportions of the oil compo-

nents (inalool56.0oh and 28.70/o) (Svoboda

et a1.,1996).

Colout, sensory qualities and storage characteristics of freeze-dried and air dded

basil were studied by Pddkkonen et al. (1990).

Basil is seldom freeze-&ied, because of

the high cost of this method. The fueeze-dried basil exhibited an intensive green

colour and the air-dried basil a brown colour. After nine months storage in the light

or ^t a raised temperature (35"C) the colour of the freeze-dried basil was altered only

slightly. At room temperature the intensity of odour and taste of the freeze-dried

basil was better preserved in vacuum and nitrogen-filled packages than in paper

bags. The higher temperature was generally unfavourable for the freeze-dried prod-

uct. The study demonstrated that the quality of air-dried basil could be maintained

for 2 years

in air-tight packages at room temperature.

Oil Distillation

Depending on th,

flower oil and he

stage, when the

ftom flowers alol

The distillatior

ated distilleries.

cially used for ot

The distillation ti

can also be done

allow the harvest

moisture conteflt

distillation appata

for prolonged pe

In India, basiJ

the growing seas

plant. The essent

it is 0.1-0.25%.

t\-22k9/ha, dt

In Israel basil

plants have flov

The average fres

and the essential

It may be en

depending on d

conditions. Brigl

oil content whilt

last irrigation an

content increase

Seed Productic

The great PoPuJ

production, Thr

since it requires

tion is generalll

and seed comP

after examtnai<

Once selected,

cultivars. Thete

for basil seeds

The quality t

of the Internati

scribe the labor

catted out in *

lJ.

rfdrying

is used

ossible

contami-

s of this &yirg

rntries

and

areas

&iers, conveyor

g the volatile

oil

artificial

dty"g.

;il raw

material

umbling cutting,

pecial

machinery.

lly

basil

is packed

'lene

linings.

De-

n the oil content,

rurs,

After three,

ion'qras

checked

er thfee, six and

g the

main

com-

lrastically

during

the same

ge of dried

basil

rite

paper

"sugar

three

years.

The

ilfter 27 months

5o/o)

and after 3

f the

oil compo-

ed and air dried

lried,

because

intensive

green

tr:age'in

the light

was

altered

only

the freeze-dded

s than in paper

:eze-dried

prod-

I be maintained

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS OF S!7EET BASIL

Oil Distillation

Depending on the harvested plant part, two grades

of oil are obtained from basil, i.e.

flower oil and herb oil. The highest content of essential oil appears at the floweting

stage, when the plant is cut with 12-20 cm long flower spikes. The oil produced

from flowers alone has a superior note and a higher price (Bonnardeaux 7992).

The distillation of basil is geherally carried out in stable and intermittendy oper-

ated distilleries. The distillation process used for basil is the same, which is commet-

cially used for other spices and essential oil plants flVijesekera 1986, Denny 1995).

The distillation time is 1-1.5 h. Usually fresh matter is used for the distillation, but it

can also be done with semi-dry ot &y matter as well. In India; it is recommended to

allow the harvested crop to wilt in the field for 4-5 hours in order to reduce the

moisture content. This facilitates the handling of the material and the packing of the

distillation apparatus. Howwer, the freshly cut herb should not be exposed to the sun

for prolonged periods of time since this has advetse effects on the quality of the oil.

In India, basil fields for commercial production are harvested five times during

the growing season. Four times a f7ord. harvest is collected and finally the whole

plant. The essential oil content of the flotal parts is about 0.4oh, of the whole plant

it is 0.1-0.250h. The floral oil yield is 12-13 kg/ha and the whole plant oil yield is

18-22kg/ha, due to the high ftesh yield (Srivastava 1980).

In Israel basil is harvested 3-4 times at the flowering stage, when 5070 of the

plants have flowers. Any delay of the harvest decreases the regrowth of the plants.

The avetage fresh yield is 75 t/ha/year, It is distilled immediately after the harvest

and the essential

oil yield is 1.20-1.40 kg/ha.

It may be emphasized that both the herb yield and the oil content vary grearJy

depending on the fertility of the soil, harvesting procedures, as well as seasonal

conditions. Bright sunny weather, immediately preceeding the harest, increases the

oil content while cloudy ot rainy weather decreases it, Also the interval between the

last irrigation and harvesting time is very important. If the interval is longet the oil

content increases.

Seed Production

The gteat populadty of basil sets a continuing demand for seeds

and thus fot seed

production. The seed production is carried out by specialized growers and farms

since it requfues special biological knowledge and technological skills. Seed produc-

tion is generally performed on the basis of contracts between industrial end-usets

and seed companies. Commercial cultivars in each country are generally accepted

after examination over 3 to 4 seasons and only the superior plants are propagated.

Once selected, production of seeds is necessary for propagation of those special

cultivars. There are national and international standards fot the quality requirements

for basil seeds matketed commercially.

The quality evaluation of seeds suitable for propagation is regulated by the rules

of the International Seed Testing Association (Anon 1976). These tegulations pre-

scribe the Taboratory conditions for basil seeds. The germination of basil seeds is

carried out in the dark, at a temperature of 20-30"C, dudng 14 days and the seeds are

lJ.

56 E. PUTIEVSKY

AND B. GAI-AMBOSI

placed between papers or on the top of the paper. According to the Hungarian

Standards for medicinal and aroma(rc plant seeds (N{SZ 6387-87) first and second

quality basil seeds must have a purity of 96 and 980/0, respectively,

and a germination

capacity of 70 and 8570, tespectively (Anon 1987).

Usually basil seeds are ptoduced in sepatate fields rvithout cutting the plants for

leaf ot oil production. In warmer countries, where the vegetation period is longer,

one leaf harvest before or after seed formation cafl be done. The largest quantiry of

seeds and seeds

with the highest germination ratio vrere collected from plants which

were almost dry in the secondary and teriary stems and in the lower parts of the

branches (Putievsky 1993) (Figure 2.4). At this stage the plants were harvested by

seed harvesters, the seeds

were cleaned and separated according to the quality re-

quirements. Desiccation of the plants by using total weed killers, helps to dry the

plants and the seeds can be collected easier

by combine. The seed

yield of sweet basil

ranged between 200-300kg/ha in central Europe (Hornok 1978) and 990-1300

2.O

> o.8

upper medium lower

bronch

position

Figate 2.4 Seed yield in sweet

basil as affected by branch position, stem-age,

and plant maturity

@utievsky 1993).

ctl

(l,

6 )o

6 ''c

kglha in Italy (

1500-2000

kgl

Vety little is

rience

the viabi

the basis

of G

expected

to mz

tions of comm

capacity

of co

respectivelY,

house

in Finlar

UTILIZATIO

Basil

is one

and ftagrance.

the part of be

industrial Purt

utilization for

medicinal and

Use of Fresh

The fresh

aro

pickled

vegetr

and flowers c

tion of the fo

most poPulat

79%o

used

bar

For fresh

so called

Frel

well as other

cial

importan

and strigs at

producer

anc

harvest

Proc

special

Packi

The most

techique

Q'{l

tomaizedan

herb

all

the'

Use of Froz

Frozen

basil

over fresh ir

has

become

- Grccn plonl

-- Eorly dricd plont

the Hungarian

.rst

and

second

I a

germination

3 the plants for

eriod

is longet,

gest

quantity

m plants

which

rer parts

of the

re harvested

r the quality re-

relps

to dry the

ld of sweet

basil

t and

990-1300

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

OF S\?EET BASIL

kg/han Italy (Cuocolo and Duranti 1982).Inwarmer climates the seed yield can be

1500-2000 kg/ha.

Very litde is known about the storage of basil seeds.

According to practical expe-

dence the viability of basil seeds is preserved during storage

for quite a few years. On

the basis of German experiences Priesdey (1986) teported that basil seeds can be

expected to maintain a high germination capacity for 4-5 years in favourable condi-

tions of commercial storage.

According to own unpublished results, the germination

capacity of commercially available seeds of Hungarian origin was 54oh and 42oh,

respectively, after 10 and 1.2 years storage. Lemon basil seeds produced in a plastic

house in Finland had a germinaion capaitty of 81.-87oh after 6-7 years storage.

UTILIZNTTON FORMS OF BASILS

Basil is one of the most popular and usefi.rl culinaty herbs due to its delicate ^roma

and fragrance. The cultivation methods and production systems vary depending on

the part of basil used (fresh or dry leaf, essential oil, seed), on the processing for

industrial purposes and on the climatic conditions where it is grown. The main

utilization forms of different basil types are fresh basil, frozen, dried, essential oil,

medicinal and other uses.

Use of Fresh Basil

The fresh aromatic leaves are used as flavourings or spices in sauces,

stews, salads,

pickled vegetables,

vinegar, atomaic oils as well as in "Bouquet g^rnl".The leaves

and flowers of differendy coloured cultivars are preferred in restaurants for decora-

tion of the food. In a questionnary in the Los Angeles arca, Cabfottia, basil vras the

most populat herb among more than 500 restaurants. Of all types of restautants

7970 used basil @rown 1991).

For ftesh use, the most widely used basil ty?es are the large leaf, highly aromat)c,

so called French orltahan basils, but several other types ruhich differ in leaf size as

well as other species

with different shape andaroma have more and more commer-

cial importance, fot example lemon basil and cinnamon basil. The fresh basil leaves

and strigs are sensitive to senescense and thetefote the transport between the

producer and the final user should be as quick as possible. Othetwise special post-

harvest processing, i.e. cooling ftom harvest up to the consumer, controlled air or

special packing, is needed to preserve the quality.

The most advanced production technology for fiesh cut basil is the nutrient film

techique (I.{FT), which is also used for the production of fresh salads. Highly au-

tomatized and conttolled greenhouse production systems can produce standatd quality

herb all the year round.

Use of Frozen Basil

Ftozen basil is used in the same

way as fresh basil. Frozen maternl has the advantage

over fresh in that it is not dependent on cultivation periods. The use of frozen basil

has become more and more popular in Europe and North America.

rd plant maturity

()

ll-

t'-

E. PUTIEVSKYAND B. GALAMBOSI

The cultivation methods used to oroduce basil for consumotion as fresh or frozen

are vety similat. In warm countries basils are grown in smdl areas outdoors or in

plastic houses, and arc sold on the local market. To ensure

a continuous supply, planting

dates ate normally staggered. Commercial or large scale production of basil generally

takes place in greenhouses

or plastic houses, where the plants are grown in peat or

afificial soils. During the winter time, in the northern and temperate zones, additional

light and heat is necessary for the normal photosynthetic activity of the plants.

Use of Dried Basil

Dried foliage is the most impotant utilization fotm of basil after basil oil. Prepata-

tion of dried basil is practiced in the home gardens, mostly for use in the own

kitchen. Large-scale production, using highly industrialised production techniques

and quality control, provides basil leaves of hiqh quality for the food industry. Dried

basil leaves are the most popular herb in the French, ltahan, Mexican and Greek

cousines, especially in tomato-based recipes. Basil is used to flavour stews, sauces,

sausages, and is also used as a seasoning for confectionery products and chartreuse

liqueur.

Use of Basil Oil

The essential oil and oleoresin of basil are extensively used in the food industry,

including confectionery, baked goods, meat products and liqueurs. The other main

consumption area of basil oil is in perfumery. Basil oil is used in perfumes, soaps,

shampoos and dental products. In the perfumery the chemical composition of basil

oil has a great impottance. The oils ftom different tlpes or different geographical

production areas have a different value on the wodd market.

The effective production systems for the production of high quality dded leaf

yield or essential oil of basil are concentrated to the most favourable climatic regions,

where the high investment costs of the industrialized production system can be

profitable due to the high yields. The elements of these production systems, de-

scribed in the above subchapter, are a tesult of long tradition, intensive research

and

development efforts made by each country.

The essential oil distillation process is the same as used for other species of

aromaic plants. The steam for distillation can be supplied by fuel (in modirn appa-

ratus) or ftom burning plants (in old, caldera type distillation). The plants are har-

vested at the flowering stage and distilled as soon as possible. The quality of the

oil (composition and arcma) depends on the vaneq, seaso{l, development stage and

distillation technique.

Medicinal Use of Basil

Traditionally basil has been used as a medicinal plant for various ailments, such as

headaches,

coughs, dianhea, constipation, warts, worms and kidney malfunction. It

is also thought to be an antispasmodic, stomachicum, carminative, antimalaial, feb-

tifuge and stimulant (-W'ome 1982, Guon et a/,, 1991). Ethnobotanical surveys report

the traditional unltzatton of basil as a vetednary medicinal plant as well (Baerts and

Lehmann

1991).

properties.

Other Uses

of Bz

Basil rceds

The main functior

specialized

arca of

tion areas

and alsc

Lately the fatty oil

metic industry

(l.i

basil seed

oil are

acid (6-11%o)

(An1

Ornanental

Different cultivarr

cultures

for decot

the temperate

anr

including

basil

evaluations

have I

orative

purposes

(

Edible

flowers

The flovrers with

gether with sumn

used

for lsligious

MARKET POTI

Although basil hr

national and intet

cultivation

areas.

Basil Oil

The total wodd 1

55 tons for Ocina

(2.8

million dolla

dollars).

During

tion of basil

oil v

Basil oils are

brackets

are

tons

(4.5), Israel

(2), d

.s fresh or frozen

s outdoors or in

s supply, planting

of basil generally

grown in peat or

zones, additional

the plants.

rasil oil. Prepan-

use in the own

iction techniques

d industry. Dried

,xican

and Greek

ruf stews, sauces,

ts and chaftfeuse

re food industry,

. The other main

perfumes, soaps,

nposition of basil

rent geographical

quality dried leaf

: climatic regions,

n system can be

lion systems, de-

sive

research

and

other species of

iin modern appa-

re plants arc har-

he quality of the

)pment stage and

ailments,

such as

y malfunction. It

antimalartal, feb-

:al

surveys

report

well (Baerts

and

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS OF S\)rEET BASIL

Lehmann 1991). Basil oil, especially the camphor containing oil, has antibacterial

properties.

Other Uses of Basil

Basil seedt

The main function of basil seeds

is for propagation. The seed production is a small,

specialized arca of basil cultivation, which has great importance in the main produc-

tion areas and also in the international seed market (Hornok 1992, Putievsky 1993).

Lately the fatty oil derived from basil seeds have been of some interest in the cos-

metic industry @iaz et a1.,1997, Domokos and Peredi 1993).

The man fatty acids of

basil seed otL are linolenic (43-640/o),linoleic (174104, oleic (8-13%) and palmitic

add (6-11,0/o) (Angers et aL,1996).

Ornanental

Different cultivars of basil are traditionally used in the Mediterr^fle^n area- as pot

cultures for decoration, aromaization and sentimental purposes. Presendy both in

the temperate and the nordic climate the popularity of the coflti:r'erized herbs,

including basil has increased (Dumville 1989, Pessala

et a/.,1996). Wide getmplasm

evaluations have been carried out in order to find new interesting forms for dec-

orative purposes @4orales

et a1.,1993b, Simon and Reiss-Bubenheim 1987).

Edible

flowers

The flowers with different fragnnce and colour (white, pink, violet) are used to-

gether with summer vegetables, cheese, fish, butter, oils, etc. The flowers are also

used for lgligious pufposes.

MARKET POTENTIAL OF BASiL PRODUCTS

Although basil has a wide popularity, no up-to date figures can be found on the

national and international trade statistics. Especially there is lack of information of

cultivation areas. The market ootential for basil broducts is summarized below.

Basil Oil

The total wodd production of basil oils can be estimated to 93-95 tf year of rvhich

55 tons for Ocirzan

gratissimaru (800.000 dollars in value), 43 tons for Ocimam basilicam,

(2.8 million dollars). About 100 kg of oils are ptoduced from Ocimam canan (5000

dollars). During the last few years, the most conservative estimate is that the produc-

tion of basil oil will inctease by a few percents yeatly Q,awrence 1993).

Basil oils are currently produced in the following countries (the quantities in

brackets are tons): India (15), Bulgaria (7), Eglpt (5), Pakistan (4.5), the Comoros

(4.5), Istael Q), the former Yugoslavia, USA and Madagascar (each 1), Reunion and

t;:

/Iir:.r

l..i

60 E. PUTIEVSKY AND B. GALAMBOSI

Albania (each 0.5 ), Hungaty (0.3) and Argentina (0.2 (Lawrence 1993). In the former

Soviet Union the reported production of Ocinam gratissimun oil during 1972, 1973

and1974 was 70,95 and 141

tons, respectively (Anon 1974).

USA is probably the largest market fot basil oil, followed by the European coun-

tries, Germany, France, UK and the Nethedands @.obbins and Greenhalg 1979).

Ftom Spain a consumption of 5 tf year has been reported (Porredon 1987).

Basil Herb

In conttast to basil oil, there are no avaiable statistics concerning the wodd pro-

duction of dried basil herb. A considetable proportion of the wodd production,

particulady in the Mediterranean area,in India and in California, does not enter the

international trade, but is rather consumed locally. For example, the domestic dried

basil consumption during the 1970s in Hungary was 70-90 tf year and 100-120 t rvas

expoted (Hornok 1978).

Available import statistics reveal that USA is one of the biggest consumers of

dried basil, due to the incteasing popularity of Italian and Mexican style cooking.

According to Greenhalg (1979) and Simon (1988) the basil import ir'1964 was 19 t,

in 1976 41.2 t and during 1986-1988 1400-1800 t/year. The value of the basil import

during 1988 was 2.456.000 dollars. During the period 1972-77 the main suppliers of

USA were Bulgaria (71 t in 1972),Hungary (87 t n 1972), Mexico (86 t in 1973) and

Egypt (150 t in 1976).

Other main areas for basil import is the European countries. According to the

latest market survey, the total basil herb import to Europe was about 830-880 t/year

(Anon 1991).

France is the biggest importer, 300-350 tf year,

followed by the United

Kingdom (250 t/year), Germany Q00 t/year) and the Netherlands (80 t/year). The

import of basil to Belgium and Switzedand was 10 and 5 tf year, re

spectively

(Svoboda

1984). The import to Finland during 1982

was 6.6 t (Hdlvd.,1985).

One of the main

suppliers of the l7estern European countries is Egypt. The production ^rea in Egypt

was 7238ha in 1994 and the following quantities of dried basil were exported: to

United Kingdom 200 t, to Germany 150 t, to France 1,40

t and to the Nethedands

50 t (Shalaby 1996).

Fresh Basil

Thete is very little information about the fresh basil market, mainly because

the fresh

plant material is used quickly and locally. Italy is the largest fresh basil producer with

5000 t/year, followed by Ftance Q000 t/year), Israel (500 t/year) and Notth-Africa

(mainly Morocco, about 100-150 t/year) (Bianco 1992). Additionally there is signifi-

cant production in the USA and Central America. In the north European countries

fresh basil is produced hydroponicly. In Finland ftesh basil herb was third on the

popular herbs list (1995),

including 6 millions fresh cut basil herbs (Galambosi 1996).

Ptoduction Areas

Due to its great popularity basil is grown all over the wodd, in the rvarm and temper-

ate zones. Basil cultivation is practiced in the following countries:

Warm climate:

Mediterranean area

Temperate zone:

From the available

tion areas,

we tried

basil in the wodd. r

tion is estimated

estimated domestir

other areas,

such

area

of sweet

basil

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-69.

r the development

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS OF S'i7EET BASIL

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Antioxidant and Protective Effect of Ocimum basilicum Seeds Extract on Renal Toxicity Induced by Carbon Tetrachloride in Rats

Article

Dec 2023

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is distributed worldwide and used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Most applications are for the herb basil, recently the basil seeds have also been used commercially; however, little is known about the nutritional and functional properties of the seeds. The present study aimed to investigate a possible protective effect of the methanol extract of O. basilicum seeds (MEOB), based on its phytochemical content, against kidney toxicity induced by CCl4 in adult rats. A single dose of CCl4 was used to induce oxidative stress in rats, which was demonstrated by a significant rise of serum enzyme markers. MEOB was administrated for 15 consecutive days (200 mg/kg body weight) to Wistar rats before CCl4 treatment and the effects on serum urea, creatinine, and uric acid, as well as the kidney superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione activity and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and protein carbonyl (PCO) levels were evaluated. In addition, histopathological examinations of kidneys were performed. In the positive control group, CCl4 induced an increase in serum biochemical parameters and triggered oxidative stress in the kidney. MEOB (200 mg/kg BW) resulted in significant reduction of CCl4-elevated levels of kidney markers, urea and creatinine, and a significant increase of uric acid compared with the CCl4-only group. In addition, MEOB pretreatment resulted in a significant reduction in lipid peroxidation and PCO levels in renal tissue compared with CCl4-exposed group. MEOB definitely could prevent the development of pathological changes in the kidneys. Overall, we conclude that MEOB is effective in protecting renal function from CCl4 toxicity.

Effect of natural fertilization on the yield, biological value, and qualitative and quantitative composition of essential oil in common basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2023

Basil ( Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the most popular herbal plants used globally in the food and pharmaceutical industries and as an ornamental plant. It is highly valued for the rich content of active substances, whose amount depends on environmental and anthropogenic factors. The type of fertilizer used is an important determinant of the yield and quality of the herb and the soil environment. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of natural fertilizers (granulated cattle manure and granulated chicken manure) applied at different doses (50, 100, 150, 200 g m⁻²) on the quantity and quality of the yield of common basil ( Ocimum basilicum L.) cultivated in the temperate climate of Lublin Upland. The applied doses of manure had a significant effect on the fresh weight of O. basilicum L. A significant effect of the type and dose of manure on the content of L-ascorbic acid was found. Additionally, the fertilizer dose had a significant effect on the extract content in the analyzed plants. Significantly higher basil yields were achieved in the fertilization variant with 50 g m⁻² and 100 g m⁻² of the manure. The concentration of essential oil in the plants did not change under the influence of the applied manure dose. The experimental factors did not exert an effect on the content of essential oil with its main component (linalool), total nitrogen, and protein in basil plants. The highest content of linalool (78.22%) in the O. basilicum L. herb was determined in the variant with chicken manure fertilization at the dose of 150 g m².

A Decision Support System for Economic Viability and Environmental Impact Assessment of Vertical Farms

Thesis

Full-text available

Apr 2023

Francis Baumont de Oliveira

Vertical farming (VF) is the practice of growing crops or animals using the vertical dimension via multi-tier racks or vertically inclined surfaces. In this thesis, I focus on the emerging industry of plant-specific VF. Vertical plant farming (VPF) is a promising and relatively novel practice that can be conducted in buildings with environmental control and artificial lighting. However, the nascent sector has experienced challenges in economic viability, standardisation, and environmental sustainability. Practitioners and academics call for a comprehensive financial analysis of VPF, but efforts are stifled by a lack of valid and available data. A review of economic estimation and horticultural software identifies a need for a decision support system (DSS) that facilitates risk-empowered business planning for vertical farmers. This thesis proposes an open-source DSS framework to evaluate business sustainability through financial risk and environmental impact assessments. Data from the literature, alongside lessons learned from industry practitioners, would be centralised in the proposed DSS using imprecise data techniques. These techniques have been applied in engineering but are seldom used in financial forecasting. This could benefit complex sectors which only have scarce data to predict business viability. To begin the execution of the DSS framework, VPF practitioners were interviewed using a mixed-methods approach. Learnings from over 19 shuttered and operational VPF projects provide insights into the barriers inhibiting scalability and identifying risks to form a risk taxonomy. Labour was the most commonly reported top challenge. Therefore, research was conducted to explore lean principles to improve productivity. A probabilistic model representing a spectrum of variables and their associated uncertainty was built according to the DSS framework to evaluate the financial risk for VF projects. This enabled flexible computation without precise production or financial data to improve economic estimation accuracy. The model assessed two VPF cases (one in the UK and another in Japan), demonstrating the first risk and uncertainty quantification of VPF business models in the literature. The results highlighted measures to improve economic viability and the viability of the UK and Japan case. The environmental impact assessment model was developed, allowing VPF operators to evaluate their carbon footprint compared to traditional agriculture using life-cycle assessment. I explore strategies for net-zero carbon production through sensitivity analysis. Renewable energies, especially solar, geothermal, and tidal power, show promise for reducing the carbon emissions of indoor VPF. Results show that renewably-powered VPF can reduce carbon emissions compared to field-based agriculture when considering the land-use change. The drivers for DSS adoption have been researched, showing a pathway of compliance and design thinking to overcome the ‘problem of implementation’ and enable commercialisation. Further work is suggested to standardise VF equipment, collect benchmarking data, and characterise risks. This work will reduce risk and uncertainty and accelerate the sector’s emergence.

Performance of Sweet Basil in Aquaponics and Conventional Growing Systems

Preprint

Full-text available

Aug 2024

Sweet basil ( Ocimum basillicum ) is an important herbal and medicinal plant. Considering its importance, sweet basil was evaluated in aquaponic and conventional growing systems on different sowing dates (1st, 8th, 15th, 22nd, 29th April, and 6th May). The data of various growth and yield attributes were recorded during the experiment. The results showed that the maximum values for plant height (81.30 cm), number of leaves plant − 1 (546.63), number of branches plant − 1 (26.32), leaf fresh weight (68.72 g), chlorophyll content (26.50 SPAD), leaf dry weight (13.72 g), leaf area (2637.3 cm ² ), and seed yield (319.96 kg ha − 1 ) were recorded on the sowing date of 1st April, while the minimum days to flowering (90.67) and lowest production were recorded for plants sown on the 6th May. Among the growing systems, the conventional growing system performed better than the aquaponic system in terms of all the studied attributes. It was concluded that the conventional system and sowing date 1st -15th April performed better for all the studied attributes.

Underground Microgreen Farming in Athens, Greece: Design Concept and Investment Analysis

Chapter

Jul 2024

GC-MS and HPTLC Analysis of Ocimum basilicum Ethanolic extract obtained from five locations of Tamilnadu

Article

Nov 2023

Background/objective: The purpose of this study is to analysis the bioactive compounds present in the medicinal plant Ocimum basilicum (whole plant) which was obtained from the five locations of Tamil Nadu. Methods: The whole plant of Ocimum basilicum was shade dried and it was extracted with ethanol. GC-MS and HPTLC fingerprints profiles were performed in the extract to find out the phytochemical constituents and different bioactive compounds with the help of retention time and peak value of the respective samples. Results: Forty bioactive compounds with their peaks and their low and high molecular weight were identified with the help of GC-MS analysis for all the five samples. HPTLC method was performed with the solvent system (i.e) Toluene: Ethyl acetate: Formic acid (6:5:1) and observed under UV-Vis 254nm and 366nmutilizing CAMAG REPROSTAR3 and flavonoid was quantified. Conclusion: The present study result of whole plant Ocimum basilicum ethanolic extract indicated the presence of various secondary metabolites and it is expected to exhibit healing properties.

Effect of Salicylic Acid Spraying on the Tolerance of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) to Salinity

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2020

The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse at the Faculty of Agriculture, Tishreen University- Lattakia-Syria during the agricultural season 2019, by the cultivation of basil seedlings in plastic pots that were distributed according to the randomized complete design (CRD) with three replicates per treatment. The aim research was to study the effect of salicylic acid (SA) (1, 5 and 10 mM) on plant growth, development and productivity of basilica (Ocimum basilicum L.) plants, that were treated by SA spray before NaCl treatment (6, 12 and 18 dS/cm) with two weeks. So, the morphological (plant height (cm), number of branches (branch/plant) and stem diameter (cm), the physiological (leaf area cm2/plant and net assimilation rate (mg/cm2/day), the biochemical (chlorophyll and carotenoids contents (µg/g FW), proline content (µg/g FW) and malonyldialdehyde (MDA) (nmol/g FW)) and the productivity characteristics (fresh and dry leaves yield (g/plant) have been studied. The treatment with salt, especially at the high concentration, conducted to negative effects in the growth and the productivity of basil. The treatment with salicylic acid, especially at 1 and 5 mM, increased the growth and productivity of basil, as indicated in all the studied traits and characteristics. The salicylic acid pretreatment, particularly at 1 and 5 mM, also improved the growth and productivity of basil plant, and increased its tolerance to salt stress. Taken together, the salicylic acid spray, at 1-5 mM concentrations on basil seedlings, can be suggested to improve the plant growth, the fresh and dry leaves and the basil tolerance to salt stress.

Sacred Basil

Chapter

Oct 2023

Sacred basil is most famous herb grown worldwide and is considered native to Pakistan, India, Iran, and Tehran. The word basil is derived from a Greek word Basileus which means “king” or Basilikon meaning “royal”. The holy basil (Ocimum sanctum) commonly known as Tulsi, Rama Tulsi or Krishna Tulsi comprises of 68 species worldwide. This herbaceous plant can be cultivated by seed propagation and vegetative propagation mainly in months of July and August. The basil crop requires 65–70 days to get mature. Various species have different growth patterns; as it differs in colors, structure and aromatic conformation. It is widely consumed as culinary herb and is broadly used in pharmaceutical industry as anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-pyretic and as neuro-protective agent. Being rich in phytochemical compounds as phenols, tannins, saponins, alkaloids etc., holy basil has got attention of food, beverage and nutraceutical industries and has also captured the market as a strong flavoring agent. Its secondary metabolites are used in the form of volatile oily liquids and basil plants grown in one acre area yield about 20–25 Kg of oil. Bioassay methods are being used for the purpose of isolating chemical compounds and discovering new properties in plant. The plant, its extract and other products have been massively used as pharmaceutical agent since ancient times and many folklores and myths are also present in reference to the effect of plant in creating love, hate and bringing death to the persons depending upon culture.

تأثير المعاملة رشا" بحمض الأسكوربيك في تحمل نبات الريحان الحلو للملوحة) Ocimum basilicum L.)

Article

Jun 2021

The past and future of Hungarian annual and perennial ornamental plant breeding

Article

May 2023

'Studies on production techniques of some herb plants. I. Effect on Agryl P 17 mulching on herb yield and volatile oils of basil (Ocimum basilicum L) and marjoram (Origanum majorana L)'

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1987

S. Hälvä

Agryl P17 fiber-mulching of cold-sensitive herbal plants, basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and marjoram (Origanum majorana L.), were studied at three locations in Finland (1984—1985). The growing sites were Helsinki (60° 14' N), Sahalahti (61° 28' N), and Inari (69° 04' N) for both species in 1984, and Helsinki for marjoram in 1985. Agryl P17 mulching increased basil yield at all locations. The uncovered basil yielded approximately 54 kg/100 m2 and when grown under the mulch, more than three fold, 191 kg/ 100m2. In the north (Inari), however, basil and marjoram did not give practically any yield. Marjoram did not benefit from mulching either in the south: the yield was 96 kg without and 80 kg/100m2 with mulching. The vegetation under the mulch was severely affected by fungus diseases. The volatile oil content in the dried basil herb ranged from 0.46 to 0.93 %. There were no significant differences in the total oil content whether basil was grown with or without Agryl P17. The oil content in marjoram ranged from 1.94 to 2.55 % the total content being significantly higher when grown under the cover.

Temperature and daylength influences on the growth and germination of sweet basil and oregano

Article

Jan 1983

E. Putievsky

Oregano and sweet basil were grown in phytotron cabinets at 18/12°, 24/12° and 30/12°C (day/night) in either 10-or 16-h photoperiods. Only temperature had a positive influence on plant height in both species. The fresh yield was significantly influenced by temperature and daylength in all the three harvests examined for both species. The correlation between these results and field behaviour in different regions is discussed. The optimum temperature for the germination of oregano was a day/night regime of 24/19°C; sweet basil was less sensitive and germinated well at temperature regimes between 18/13° and 30/25°C.

NUFAR: A sweet basil cultivar resistant to Fusarium wilt

Article

Feb 1998

STUDIES ON THE SEED OILS OF BASIL / OCIMUM BASILICUM L./ AND SUMMER SAVORY / SATUREJA HORTENSIS L./

Article

Nov 1993

Formation of biologically active substances of Ocimum basilicum L. during the vegetation period

Article

Nov 1993

Experimental Cultivation of Marjoram, Oregano and Basil

Article

Jan 1977

The possibility of cultivating three species of Labiatae in Israel was investigated and the reaction to nitrogen fertilizer and other cultivation factors considered. Satisfactory yields were obtained. Cultivation of oregano in order to obtain its volatile oil also appears feasible.

Febrifuge and antimalarial plants from Kisangani, upper Zaire

Article

Jan 1982

B. Wome

GROWTH RESPONSE TO FERTILISATION OF SWEET BASIL (OCIMUM BASILICUM L.)

Article

Nov 1995

EFFECT OF ANION VARIATIONS IN A NUTRIENT SOLUTION ON BASIL GROWTH, ESSENTIAL OIL CONTENT, AND COMPOSITION

Article

Aug 1996

The Effects of Black Plastic Mulch and Weed Control Strategies on Herb Yield

Article

May 1991

Black polyethylene mulch and weed control strategies were evaluated for potential use by small acreage herb producers. In both 1988 and 1989, the mulch greatly increased fresh and dry weight yields of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.). Parsley (Petroselinum crispum Nym.) yield did not respond to the mulch. Preplant application of napropamide provided weed control for 2 weeks, but was subsequently not effective on a heavy infestation of purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.). Hand-hoed and glyphosate-treated plots (both with and without plastic) produced equivalent yields. Chemical names used: N, N -diethyl-2(1-napthalenoxy)-propanamide (napropamide); N- (phosphonomethyl) glycine (glyphosate).

Production systems of sweet basil

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