ArticlePDF Available

Reduction of calcium deficiency symptoms by exogenous application of calcium chloride solutions

Authors:
Michaela Schmitz-Eiberger at South Westphalia University of Applied Sciences
Michaela Schmitz-Eiberger
R. Haefs
R. Haefs
R. Haefs
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
Georg J. Noga at University of Bonn
Georg J. Noga
Download full-text PDF
Read full-text
Download citation

Abstract and Figures

In this study the application of a formulated aequeous CaCl2 solution to apple (Malus x domestica) trees and tomato (Lycopersicon lycopersicon) plants was found to reduce bitter pit of 'Braeburn' fruit and blossom - end rot of tomato fruit. Furthermore, the influence of a calcium deficient nutrition on the antioxidative defense system in Lycopersicon lycopersicum leaves was investigated. Trials were performed in the greenhouse employing soilless culture technique. To induce calcium deficiency, calcium content in the nutrition solution was reduced from 100 mg/L to 10 mg/L. Within 6 weeks fruit and leaves developed distinct calcium deficiency symptoms. Chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, such as Fm and Fv/Fm and chlorophyll content dropped under control level, while the antioxidative capacity increased slightly. Leaf application of formulated CaCl2 compensated the decrease of Fv/Fm and of chlorophyll content.
Figures - uploaded by Georg J. Noga
Author content
All figure content in this area was uploaded by Georg J. Noga
Content may be subject to copyright.
Content uploaded by Georg J. Noga
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Georg J. Noga on Nov 25, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
535
Reduction of Calcium Deficiency Symptoms by Exogenous Application
of Calcium Chloride Solutions
M. Schmitz-Eiberger, R. Haefs and G. Noga
Department of Horticulture
University of Bonn,
Bonn, Germany
Keywords: calcium chloride, blossom-end rot, cuticular penetration, bitter pit, apple fruit,
tomato fruit
Abstract
In this study the application of a formulated aequeous CaCl2 solution to apple
(Malus x domestica) trees and tomato (Lycopersicon lycopersicon) plants was found
to reduce bitter pit of ‘Braeburn’ fruit and blossom - end rot of tomato fruit.
Furthermore, the influence of a calcium deficient nutrition on the antioxidative
defense system in Lycopersicon lycopersicum leaves was investigated. Trials were
performed in the greenhouse employing soilless culture technique. To induce
calcium deficiency, calcium content in the nutrition solution was reduced from 100
mg/L to 10 mg/L. Within 6 weeks fruit and leaves developed distinct calcium
deficiency symptoms. Chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, such as Fm and Fv/Fm
and chlorophyll content dropped under control level, while the antioxidative
capacity increased slightly. Leaf application of formulated CaCl2 compensated the
decrease of Fv/Fm and of chlorophyll content.
INTRODUCTION
Deficiency of calcium increases the incidence of physiological disorders in
numerous plant species, including bitter pit in apple fruit (Marschner, 1995). Calcium
plays a dominant role in membrane stabilisation and in the regulation of enzyme
synthesis, e.g. proteinkinases or phosphatases (Rincon and Hanson, 1986; Marschner,
1995). Disturbance of these processes causes cell and membrane degradation as a
consequence of oxidative processes and insufficient calcium in cell membranes. A widely
applied procedure for reducing physiological disorders is the exogenous application of
calcium solutions. For improving penetration of calcium ions, adjuvants, such as oils and
surfactants are used (Haefs et al., 2001). The aim of the study was to reduce bitter pit in
‘Braeburn’- and blossom-end rot in tomato fruits by exogenous application of CaCl2
solutions. Additionally, the influence of a deficient calcium nutrition on the antioxidative
defense system was investigated.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Biological Efficacy
1. Plant material. Experiments were performed on 10-year-old trees of Malus domestica
cv. Braeburn (rootstock M9) which were cultivated according to the guidelines of
Integrated Production (IP) at the Department of Horticulture, University of Bonn and on
greenhouse-grown tomato plants (Lycopersicon lycopersicum cv. Panovy), which were
grown in soilless culture at the Vegetative and Ornamental Research Station Marhof,
Bonn University. For each treatment group 8 plants of each species were used.
2. Treatment solutions. Spray solutions were prepared using CaCl2x2H2O (Merck,
reagent grade) at a concentration of 0.03 M for the application to tomato plants and 0.63
M for apple trees. Calcium chloride was applied either alone or in combination with a
formulation of 2 g L-1 of rapeseed oil ethoxylates, alkylether, Ca-dodecylsulfonate and
castor oil.
The spray solutions were weekly applied to the whole plant until run off. A total
of 6 treatments were applied to apple trees and 8 treatments to tomato plants, beginning 6
Proc. IS on Foliar Nutrition
Eds. M.Tagliavini et al.
Acta Hort. 594, ISHS 2002
536
and 8 weeks respectively, before harvest date. Tomato plants, that received calcium
sprays, were grown in a nutrient solution depleted in calcium (10 mg Ca L-1), while
‘control’ plants received Ca at 100 mg L-1.
Analysis of Ca-content in fruit and leaves. A random sample out of the harvested fruit of
each treatment group was taken for calcium analyses. For removing Ca2+ residues from
the surface, leaves and fruit were washed twice with distilled water. After freeze-drying,
fruit and leaves were ground to a fine powder, and 0.3 g of the dried sample were digested
with HNO3 and H2O2 according to Chen et al. (1997). Calcium content was determined
by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. Quantitative measurements were made on the basis
of the absorption of pure standards.
Bitter pit incidence. Apple fruit were stored for 14 days after harvest at 15 °C in a
climatic chamber to increase bitter pit injury. After storage, bitter pit incidence was
expressed as percentage of harvested fruit.
Blossom-end rot incidence. Mature tomato fruit were harvested 10 weeks after beginning
of cultivation. Number of fruit with and without blossom-end rot incidence was assessed
during picking. Incidence of blossom-end rot was expressed as percentage of harvested
fruit.
Chlorophyll-fluorescence measurements. Chlorophyll fluorescence measurement
represents a sensitive tool for early detection and detailed analysis of stress effects on the
photosynthetic apparatus. Measurements of yield (Fv/Fm) and maximum fluorescence
(Fm) were performed on tomato leaves with a ‘pulse-amplitude-modulation-fluorometer’
(PAM, model 2000, Walz, Effeltrich, Germany) after the first symptoms occurred.
Chlorophyll fluorescence (CF) was measured on tomato leaves at about 25°C and an
ambient CO2 level of 500-600 ppm after exposure to dark conditions for 30 min.
Fluorescence measurement was performed on the adaxial leaf surface as described by
Schreiber et al. (1995). The leaf was initially exposed to a peak modulated measuring
beam (< 0.1 µmol m-2 s-1) in order to determine Fo. Then, the leaf was exposed to a 800
ms saturation pulse of white light to assess Fm. The ratio (Fm-Fo)/Fm = Fv/Fm is a
convenient measure of the potential maximal PSII quantum yield of a given sample.
Determination of the antioxidative capacity in tomato leaves. The antioxidative potential
of lipophilic and hydrophilic plant extracts of tomato leaves were measured
spectrophotometrically. The antioxidative potential of the lipophilic extracts was
measured in a β-carotene/linoloic acid system as described by Schmitz and Noga (2000)
and Chevolleau et al. (1992), antioxidative capacity in the hydrophilic extracts was
determined as described in Miller and Rice-Evans (1996). Leaf samples were frozen in
liquid nitrogen and ground in a mixer (Retsch, Langenfeld, FRG). The lipophilic
antioxidative substances were extracted with 3 ml hexane, the hydrophilic substances
were extracted with the equivalent volume of methanol.
RESULTS
Effects on the Incidence of Bitter Pit on Apple and Blossom-end Rot on Tomato
Fruit The incidence of bitter pit in ‘Braeburn’ apple fruit at harvest time was reduced to
about 50% by preharvest application of the CaCl2-formulation compared to the untreated
fruit. Treatment with CaCl2 alone resulted in slight reduction of the bitter-pit-incidence of
about 10% (Fig. 1)
Supplying Ca2+ at a concentration of 10 mg/L aggravated the incidence of
blossom-end rot to a level of 53% (Fig. 2). Within 6 weeks fruit and leaves developed
distinct calcium deficiency symptoms. Spray application of the CaCl2 solution (0.03 M
calcium) to tomato plants resulted in a 44% reduction of blossom-end rot compared to the
plants with low calcium supply. Spraying of the formulated CaCl2 solution reduced
blossom-end rot to 29%.
537
Effects on the Fruit Ca Content
The Ca content in apple fruit significantly increased as a result of the foliar
application of CaCl2 in combination with the formulation (Fig. 3).
In contrast to the strong reduction of blossom-end rot symptoms, endogenous
calcium content in tomato fruit was not so much increased when calcium was applied.
Calcium content decreased to 7.9 mg/g DM in the calcium deficient fruit (Fig. 4) in
comparison with the control fruit, while an application of formulated CaCl2 resulted in a
slight increase of the endogenous Ca2+ content compared to the fruit with minor calcium
supply. Leaf calcium content was also reduced as a consequence of calcium supply.
Application of formulated CaCl2 prevented the decrease of leaf calcium content (Schmitz-
Eiberger and Noga, 2001).
Chlorophyll Fluorescence Measurements and Chlorophyll Content
Determination of the chlorophyll fluorescence parameters Fm and Fv/Fm on
tomato plants revealed lower values in the leaves of plants grown with lower Ca
concentration in the solution (Table 1). Necroses on the leaves were visible when calcium
level was lower. Fm and Fv/Fm increased significantly when formulated CaCl2 was
supplied (Table 1), whereas no major changes were observed when CaCl2 was applied
alone. The decrease of chlorophyll fluorescence values Fm and Fv/Fm was accompanied
by a decrease of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b content in the leaves with minor calcium
supply (Table 2). Application of formulated calcium chloride increased chlorophyll
content.
Determination of the Antioxidative Capacity in Tomato Leaves
Reducing Ca concentration in the nutrient solution resulted in a slight increase of
the antioxidative potential in the lipophilic extract of tomato leaves. The application of
formulated CaCl2 reduced the increase of the antioxidative potential in the lipophilic
extract (Fig. 5). The antioxidative capacity of the hydrophilic extract was also slightly
affected. There was a small, but not significant, increase of the antioxidative potential in
the hydrophilic extract (results not shown).
DISCUSSION
Our study showed that CaCl2 sprays significantly reduced bitter-pit incidence on
apple fruit and blossom-end rot in tomato fruit. The incidence of both physiological
disorders seemed to be related to the content of calcium in apple and tomato fruit. Low
calcium concentration in the nutrient solution induced significant necroses in tomato
fruits and yellow coloured lesions on the leaves. Tissue calcium content of apple fruits
with bitter pit symptoms were also lower compared to control. Our investigations have
shown that even a small increase (about 10%) in calcium content in apple and tomato fruit
due to application of formulated CaCl2 resulted in a marked reduction (as much as 50%)
on bitter pit and blossom-end rot incidence.
Our study also showed that such oxidation-prone substances like chlorophyll a and
chlorophyll b are adversely affected in plants with limited calcium supply. Also the
chlorophyll fluorescence parameter Fv/Fm was reduced as a consequence of deficiency,
which indicates changes in photosynthetic activity. Disturbances of regulatory processes
in photosynthesis may result in changes of the electron transport, which possibly can
result in the formation of activated oxygen molecules or radicals in plant membranes
(Schmitz-Eiberger et al., 2001). As a consequence, the plant defense system is stimulated.
This may explain the increased antioxidative potential in the calcium deficient leaves. The
concentrations of malondialdehyde, a product of the peroxidation of membrane lipids, as
well as the antioxidative compounds or enzymes were also affected in the calcium
deficient leaves (Schmitz-Eiberger et al., 2001). The oxidized forms of these antioxidants
may be highly unstable under physiological conditions (Foyer, 1993). Therefore the size
of antioxidant pools, such as ascorbate or tocopherol is getting smaller under deficient
calcium nutrition. The increase of the antioxidative potential was avoided by the
538
application of the formulated CaCl2 solution. The results indicate, that the enhanced
calcium content in leaves and fruit after treatment with formulated CaCl2 is essential not
only for preventing cell wall and membrane disintegration, but also for the response to
abiotic stresses, such as calcium deficiency (Rincon and Hanson, 1986, Roblin et al.,
1989, Atkinson et al., 1990).
Literature Cited
Atkinson, C.J., Mansfield, T.A., McAinsh, M.R., Brownlee, C. and Hetherinton, A.M.
1990. Interactions of calcium with abscisic acid in the control of stomatal aperture.
Biochem. Physiol. 186:333-339.
Chen, K., Hu, G. and Lenz, F. 1997. Effects of CO2 concentrations of strawberry. V.
Macronutrient uptake and utilization. J. Applied Botany 7:189-194.
Chevolleau, S., Dedal, A. and Ucciani, E. 1992. Détermination de l`activité antioxydante
d’extraits végétaux. Revue francaise de corps gras 39:3-8.
Foyer, C.H. 1993. Ascorbic acid. In: Alscher, R.G. and J.L. Hess (eds.): Antioxidants in
Higher Plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton:31-58.
Haefs, R., Schmitz-Eiberger, M. and Noga, G. 2001. Enhancing efficacy of exogenous
CaCl2 application by an adequate formulation. Acta Hort. (in press).
Marschner, H. 1995. Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants. Second Edition. Academic
Press, New York.
Miller, N.J. and Rice-Evans, C.A. 1996. Spectrophotometric determination of antioxidant
activity. Redox Report 2 (3):161-171.
Rincon, M. and Hanson, J.B. 1986. Controls on calcium ion fluxes in injured or shocked
corn root cells: importance of proton pumping and cell membrane potential. Physiol.
Plant 67:576-583.
Roberts, D.M. and Harmon, A.C. 1992. Calcium-modulated proteins: targets of
intracellular calcium signals in higher plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol.
Biol. 43:375-414.
Roblin, G., Fleurat-Lessard, P. and Bonmort, J. 1989. Effects of compounds affecting
calcium channels on phytochrome- and blue pigment-mediated pulvinar movements
of Cassia fasciculata. Plant Physiol. 90:697-701.
Schmitz, M. and Noga, G. 2000. Ausgewählte Pflanzeninhaltsstoffe und ihr antioxidatives
Potential in hydrophilen und lipophilen Extrakten von Phaseolus vulgaris, Malus
domestica- und Vitis vinifera-Blättern. Gartenbauwiss. 65:65-73.
Schmitz-Eiberger, M., Haefs, R. and Noga, G. 2001. Calcium deficiency – Influence on
the antioxidative defense system in tomato plants. J. Plant Physiol. (in press).
Schreiber, U., Bilger, W. and Neubauer, C. 1995. Chlorophyll fluorescence as a
nonintrusive indicator for rapid assessment of in vivo photosynthesis. In: Schilze, E.-
D. and M.M. Caldwell (eds.) Ecophysiology of Photosynthesis, Springer Verlag,
Berlin Heidelberg, Germany, 49-70.
Tables
Table 1. Changes of chlorophyll fluorescence in tomato leaves as affected by preharvest
calcium sprays; mean + SE.
Treatment Chlorophyll fluorescence
(Fm) Chlorophyll fluorescence
(Fv/Fm)
Control 1.792 + 0.050 a 0.816 + 0.004 a
- Ca 1.637 + 0.036 b 0.792 + 0.003 b
- Ca + CaCl2 1.595 + 0.025 b 0.798 + 0.003 b
- Ca + CaCl2+form 1.761 + 0.051 a 0.802 + 0.005 a
539
Table 2. Changes in chlorophyll content (µg cm-2) in tomato leaves as affected by
preharvest calcium sprays; mean + SE.
Treatment Chl. a Chl. b Chl. a + b Chl. a/b ratio
Control 28.5 ± 1.11a 5.3 ± 0.31a 33.8 ± 1.41a 5.4
Ca 13.1 ± 1.11b 2.6 ± 0.2b 15.8 ± 1.31b 5.0
Ca + CaCl2 12.8 ± 1.16b 2.4 ± 0.22b 15.2 ± 1.37b 5.3
Ca + form 25.3 ± 6.04a 4.5 ± 1.06ab 29.8 ± 7.1ab 5.6
Figures
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Control
treatment
Bitter pit incidence (%)
-Ca+CaCl2-Ca+CaCl2
+ form.
Fig. 1. Incidence of bitter pit in ‘Braeburn’ fruit as influenced by Ca-sprays with/without
formulation; data represent mean + SE.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Control
Blossom-end rot
incidence (%)
- Ca -Ca+CaCl2-Ca+CaCl2
+ form.
Fig. 2. Incidence of blossom-end rot in tomato fruit (Panovy) as influenced by Ca-sprays
with/without formulation; data represent mean + SE.
540
0
5
10
15
20
25
Control
Calcium content (mg/100g DM)
-Ca+CaCl
2-Ca+CaCl
2
+ form.
Fig. 3. Calcium content in apple fruit as influenced by preharvest Ca-sprays; data
represent mean + SE.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Control
Calcium content
(mg/g DM)
- Ca -C a+CaCl2-Ca+CaCl
2
+ form.
Fig. 4. Calcium content in tomato fruit as influenced by preharvest Ca-sprays; data
represent mean + SE.
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
Control
Antioxidative capacity
(µmol α-Toc.)
- Ca -Ca+CaCl2-Ca+CaCl2
+ form.
Fig. 5: Antioxidative potential in the lipophilic extract of tomato leaves as affected by a
deficient calcium supply and foliar application of different calcium solutions; mean +
SE.
... The majority of studies identified a local calcium deficiency in the distal fruit tissue during the period of rapid cell expansion (7-21 d after anthesis [DAA]), when Ca demand exceeds Ca supply, as the primary cause of BER ( Bradfield and Guttridge, 1984;Adams and Ho, 1993;Ho and White, 2005). Additional Ca application was frequently considered as a preventive measure to overcome local Ca deficiency in tomato ( Wada et al., 1996;Ho, 1999;Schmitz-Eiberger et al., 2002). Schlegel and Schönherr (2002) suggested that the Ca uptake through the fruit cuticle might be greatly improved by using detergents. ...
... The fact that the application of aqueous Ca and B solutions to fruits (CaB and TCaB) reduced the incidence of BER ( Fig. 4) can be attributed primarily to Ca confirming the observations of, e.g., Adams and Ho (1993), Ho et al. (1993), Schmitz-Eiberger et al. (2002, and Wada et al. (1996). This finding was more pronounced for cv. ...
... Also Dorais et al. (2001Dorais et al. ( , 2004) reported that optimal conditions preventing BER enhanced the occurrence of FC. Calcium sprays decreasing BER were mainly found effective at the early stages of fruit development, from flowering to 3 weeks after anthesis ( Dong et al., 2004;Schmitz-Eiberger et al., 2002;Wada et al., 1996), and Ca sprays, which decreased FC, were applied at the later phases of fruit development, 40 to 60 d after anthesis ( Dorais et al., 2004). ...
Einfluss von Calcium-und Borspritzungen auf die Tomatenqualität im geschützten Anbau in Thailand.
Conference Paper
  • Jun 2009
In dieser Arbeit wurde der Einfluss einer kombinierten Calcium und Borspritzung auf Fruchtertrag und Qualität von Tomaten (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) unter geschütztem Anbau in Zentralthailand untersucht. Dafür wurden die zwei Tomatensorten King Kong 2 (KK2) und FMTT 260 (FMTT) in Netzgewächshäusern angebaut und ihre Früchte mit einer Ca-/B- Lösung mit und ohne dem Tensid Glucopon® gespritzt. Eine Wasserspritzung diente als Kontrolle. Besondere Aufmerksamkeit galt dem Auftreten von Blütenendfäule (blossom-end rot, BER) und Fruchtplatzen (fruit cracking, FC), die zwei Hauptursachen für Ertragseinbußen im geschützten Tomatenanbau in Zentralthailand darstellen. Es wurde kein Effekt der Ca und B Spritzung auf den Gesamtfruchtertrag gefunden. Jedoch zeigten sich sowohl zwischen den Behandlungen als auch den Sorten signifikante Unterschiede in der Zusammensetzung des nicht marktfähigen Fruchtanteils. Die Sorte KK2 erwies sich als besonders anfällig für BER und FC und produzierte infolgedessen weniger marktfähige Früchte als die Sorte FMTT. Die Ca- und B- Spritzung verminderte das Auftreten von BER, erhöhte aber gleichzeitig die Anzahl geplatzter Früchte. Der Zusatz des Tensides Glucopon® brachte keinen weiteren Vorteil. Der gegensätzliche Effekt der Ca-und B- Spritzung auf BER und FC resultierte in gleich hohe Anteile an nicht marktfähigen Früchten. Dies war davon unabhängig, ob mit Ca und B oder mit Wasser behandelt wurde und traf jeweils auf unterschiedlichem Niveau auf beide Sorten zu. Während der Fruchtentwicklung wurden die Nährstoffgehalte in verschiedenen Fruchtsegmenten untersucht. Die Ca- Konzentration im distalen Fruchtgewebe, die während des schnellen Fruchtwachstums (ca. 10 bis 30 Tage nach der Befruchtung) gemessen wurde, korrelierte mit dem Auftreten von BER in der Frucht im Reifestadium (zur Ernte). Da Ca- und B- Spritzungen arbeitsaufwendig sind und nicht zu einem höheren marktfähigen Fruchtanteil führten, ist der Auswahl von gegenüber BER und FC wenig anfälligen Sorten höhere Priorität beizumessen. Dies gilt besonders für den Anbau unter Umweltbedingungen, die das Auftreten dieser physiologischen Störungen begünstigen, wie sie z.B. im geschützten Tomatenanbau in Zentralthailand anzutreffen sind.
View
... The majority of studies identified a local calcium deficiency in the distal fruit tissue during the period of rapid cell expansion (7-21 d after anthesis [DAA]), when Ca demand exceeds Ca supply, as the primary cause of BER (Bradfield and Guttridge, 1984;Adams and Ho, 1993;Ho and White, 2005). Additional Ca application was frequently considered as a preventive measure to overcome local Ca deficiency in tomato (Wada et al., 1996;Ho, 1999;Schmitz-Eiberger et al., 2002). Schlegel and Schönherr (2002) suggested that the Ca uptake through the fruit cuticle might be greatly improved by using detergents. ...
... The fact that the application of aqueous Ca and B solutions to fruits (CaB and TCaB) reduced the incidence of BER (Fig. 4) can be attributed primarily to Ca confirming the observations of, e.g., Adams and Ho (1993), Ho et al. (1993), Schmitz-Eiberger et al. (2002), and Wada et al. (1996). This finding was more pronounced for cv. ...
... Also Dorais et al. (2001Dorais et al. ( , 2004 reported that optimal conditions preventing BER enhanced the occurrence of FC. Calcium sprays decreasing BER were mainly found effective at the early stages of fruit development, from flowering to 3 weeks after anthesis (Dong et al., 2004;Schmitz-Eiberger et al., 2002;Wada et al., 1996), and Ca sprays, which decreased FC, were applied at the later phases of fruit development, 40 to 60 d after anthesis (Dorais et al., 2004). ...
Mitigation Strategies for Blossom-end Rot and Fruit Cracking of Tomato under Protected Cultivation in the Tropics.
Conference Paper
  • Sep 2010
Blossom-end rot (BER) and fruit cracking (FC) are prevalent disorders in tomato. It is widely accepted that a local Ca deficiency in the distal half of the fruits during the initial stage of fruit development is the main cause for BER. High fruit extension-growth particularly through excessive water uptake appears to be a main reason for FC. High light intensities, temperatures and humidity levels — typical attributes of tropical climates — have been suspected to aggravate BER as well as FC. Since most cultural practices leading to a reduction of FC might induce or aggravate BER and vice versa it is difficult to control both disorders at the same time. We attempted to develop mitigation strategies for BER and FC for greenhouse tomato production under the tropical climate conditions of Central Thailand. Cultivars differing in their susceptibility to BER and FC, foliar application of combined aqueous calcium (Ca) and boron (B) solutions and nighttime fertigation with nutrient solutions of either high or low electrical conductivity (EC) were tested. The Ca and B sprays decreased the incidence of BER but increased FC at the same time. Similarly, a decrease in BER by additional nighttime fertigation with nutrient solutions of low EC and in FC by high EC at night was counteracted by enhanced FC in the low EC and BER in the high EC treatment. It is concluded that under the tropical climate conditions of Central Thailand leading to high losses of marketable fruit yield through BER and FC an integrated approach is required combining an optimised management of the fertigation system, foliar Ca sprays when climate conditions are favouring FC and particularly the selection of genotypes highly tolerant of BER and FC.
View
... The majority of studies identified a local calcium deficiency in the distal fruit tissue during the period of rapid cell expansion (7-21 d after anthesis [DAA]), when Ca demand exceeds Ca supply, as the primary cause of BER (Bradfield and Guttridge, 1984;Adams and Ho, 1993;Ho and White, 2005). Additional Ca application was frequently considered as a preventive measure to overcome local Ca deficiency in tomato (Wada et al., 1996;Ho, 1999;Schmitz-Eiberger et al., 2002). Schlegel and Schönherr (2002) suggested that the Ca uptake through the fruit cuticle might be greatly improved by using detergents. ...
... The fact that the application of aqueous Ca and B solutions to fruits (CaB and TCaB) reduced the incidence of BER (Fig. 4) can be attributed primarily to Ca confirming the observations of, e.g., Adams and Ho (1993), Ho et al. (1993), Schmitz-Eiberger et al. (2002), and Wada et al. (1996). This finding was more pronounced for cv. ...
... Also Dorais et al. (2001Dorais et al. ( , 2004 reported that optimal conditions preventing BER enhanced the occurrence of FC. Calcium sprays decreasing BER were mainly found effective at the early stages of fruit development, from flowering to 3 weeks after anthesis (Dong et al., 2004;Schmitz-Eiberger et al., 2002;Wada et al., 1996), and Ca sprays, which decreased FC, were applied at the later phases of fruit development, 40 to 60 d after anthesis (Dorais et al., 2004). ...
Blossom‐end rot and fruit cracking of tomato grown in net‐covered greenhouses in Central Thailand can partly be corrected by calcium and boron sprays
Article
  • Feb 2009
  • J PLANT NUTR SOIL SC
Two tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) cultivars King Kong 2 (KK2) and FMTT 260 (FMTT) were grown in a net-covered greenhouse in Central Thailand to investigate the influence of fruit applications of combined aqueous calcium (Ca) and boron (B) solutions amended or not with the tenside Glucopon® on fruit yield and quality. Special attention was paid on blossom-end rot (BER) and fruit cracking (FC), two prevailing disorders in tomato and main causes for non-marketability of tomato fruits under the conditions of protected cultivation in Central Thailand. While no effect of the additional Ca and B applications on total fruit yield was observed, the composition of the non-marketable fraction of fruit yield differed significantly between treatments and cultivars. Cultivar KK2 proved to be highly susceptible to both BER and FC and, therefore, produced less marketable fruits than cv. FMTT. The Ca and B sprays decreased the incidence of BER but increased FC at the same time. Addition of the tenside Glucopon® to the Ca and B solutions did not yield any further advantage. The contrasting effect of the Ca and B sprays on BER and FC resulted in similar levels of non-marketable fruit yield in the treatments with or without the sprays for both cultivars. The nutrient status in different fruit segments was surveyed during fruit development. The Ca concentration in the distal end of the fruit during the time of rapid fruit growth was correlated with the BER incidence in mature fruits. Since additional Ca and B sprays are labor-intensive and did not significantly reduce the portion of non-marketable fruits, the selection of cultivars insusceptible to BER and FC appears to be of highest priority when conditions favoring these disorders are to be expected. This is particularly true for protected cultivation in Central Thailand.
View
... Furthermore, leaf spraying of KH 2 PO 4 increased the concentrations of tomato dry matter and chlorophyll (Kaya et al., 2001). In other cases, foliar application of CaCl 2 reduced fruit end rot symptoms by almost 50% when little Ca was present in the nutrient solution (Schmitz-Eiberger et al., 2002). Foliar application of calcium nitrate (Ca(NO 3 ) 2 ) protects lettuce from salt-induced calcium deficiency, which leads to black-heartedness and tip burn (Tzortzakis, 2009). ...
View
... A review of recent research showed that foliar applications of calcium can increase the calcium content in plant tissue in some cases by as much as 200% (Wójcik and Szowonek 2002;Schmitz-Eiberger et al. 2002). However, calcium uptake occurs normally through the roots and is controlled by genetic and physiological mechanisms (Silberbush et al. 2005). ...
Production of hydroponically grown calcium fortified lettuce
Article
  • May 2007
Calcium is the mineral nutrient most commonly deficient in modern diets. Leafy vegetables can be an excellent dietary source of calcium, and are a good alternative for individuals with a diet low in dairy products. Increasing the calcium content in leafy vegetables could further improve their nutritional benefits, which is likely to be of value to consumers. As part of an ongoing project on enhancing calcium content in vegetables through fertilization management, we measured how foliar calcium levels and yield of leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa) are influenced by the calcium concentration in a hydroponic nutrient solution when grown under two temperature regimes. Our principal objective was to determine whether a significant increase in calcium content of lettuce could be achieved. The experiment was set up across six growth chambers as a completely randomized split-plot design with temperature (21°C and 28°C) as the main-plot factor and calcium concentration of the nutrient solution (50, 100, 150 and 300 ppm) as the sub-plot factor. We found that when grown at 28°C in the solution containing 300 ppm Ca, the acid extractable Ca in fresh lettuce leaves increased from an average of 179 mg/100 g to 229 mg/100g. This was not the case when the plants were grown at 21°C. High levels of Ca in the hydroponic solution did not result in a significant yield loss compared to the treatment with the lowest Ca concentration. Under the more favourable temperature, increased calcium also resulted in increased tissue strength, as measured by the force required to cut through 3 leaves. These results suggest that calcium fortified lettuce could be produced in a hydroponic system by increasing the concentration of calcium in the nutrient solution.
View
... The majority of studies identify a local calcium deficiency in distal fruit tissue during the period of rapid cell expansion (7-21 days after anthesis), when calcium demand exceeds supply, as the primary cause of BER (Bradfield and Guttridge, 1984;Adams and Ho, 1993;Ho and White, 2005). Additional application of calcium is commonly considered as a preventive measure to overcome local calcium deficiency in tomato (Wada et al., 1996;Ho, 1999;Schmitz-Eiberger et al., 2002). Downloaded by [Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canadian Agriculture Library] at 05:14 18 August 2015 Liebisch et al. (2009) showed that spraying tomato plants with calcium chloride and boric acid decreased BER, but increased cracking in the fruit. ...
View
... Moreover, foliar application of KH 2 PO 4 increased the dry matter and chlorophyll concentration in tomato (Kaya et al. 2001). Similarly, weekly foliar application of CaCl 2 to tomato plants reduced fruit blossom-end rot symptoms by about 50 % under low Ca availability in the nutrient solution (Schmitz-Eiberger et al. 2002). Similarly, foliar application of Ca(NO 3 ) 2 appeared to protect lettuce against blackheart and tip-burn caused by salinity-induced Ca deficiency (Tzortzakis 2009). ...
Plant Responses to Drought Stress
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Oct 2012
Scarcity of water is a severe environmental limit to plant productivity. Drought-induced loss in crop yield probably exceeds losses from all other causes, since both the severity and duration of the stress are critical. Nutritional imbalance under drought conditions depresses plant growth and therefore productivity by affecting nutrient uptake, transport, and distribution. Despite contradictory reports on the effects of nutrient supply on plant growth under drought conditions, it is generally accepted that an increased nutrient supply will not improve plant growth when the nutrient is already present in sufficient amounts in the soil and the drought is severe. A better understanding of the role of mineral nutrients in plant resistance to drought will contribute to improve fertilizer management in arid and semiarid areas and in regions suffering from temporary drought. Considering that vegetables are concentrated in semiarid zones where water stress is frequent, it is important to ascertain how this type of stress affects the nutrient uptake and assimilation of these crops. This chapter starts with an overview of the recent literature on plant nutrition of vegetables under drought conditions, stressing mainly the effects of drought on nutrient availability, uptake, transport, and accumulation in plants, and also the interactions between nutrient supply and drought response; it then proceeds to identify the means to increase nutrient availability under drought conditions through breeding, grafting, and fertilization.
View
... Such transient Ca increases achieved after the application of four to five sprays up to June may play a major role for Ca homeostasis and the potential development of Ca-related disorders at fruit maturity. Thus, in agreement with several studies ( Haefs et al., 2001;Schmitz-Eiberger et al., 2002b;Manganaris et al., 2005a) evidence for the beneficial effect of applying in-season Ca sprays to fruit crops was obtained in this investigation. 1; 2008). ...
In‐season calcium‐spray formulations improve calcium balance and fruit quality traits of peach
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2011
  • J PLANT NUTR SOIL SC
Experiments to evaluate the effect of in-season calcium (Ca) sprays on late-season peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch cv. Calrico) were carried out for a 2-year period. Calcium formulations (0.5% and 1.0% in 2008 and only 0.5% tested in 2009) supplied either as CaCl2 or Ca propionate in combination with two or three adjuvants (0.05% of the nonionic surfactants Tween 20 and Break Thru, and 0.5% carboxymethylcellulose, CMC) were sprayed four to five times over the growing season. Peach mesocarp and endocarp Ca concentrations were determined on a 15-day basis from the beginning of May until the end of June. Further tissue analyses were performed at harvest. A decreasing trend in fruit Ca concentrations over the growing season was always observed regardless of the Ca treatments. Both in 2008 and 2009, significant tissue Ca increments associated with the application of Ca-containing sprays in combination with adjuvants were only observed in June, which may be coincident with the period of pit hardening. In 2008, both at harvest and after cold storage, the total soluble-solids concentration (° Brix) of fruits supplied with Ca propionate (0.5% and 1.0% Ca) was always lower as compared to the rest of treatments. The application of multiple Ca-containing sprays increased firmness at harvest and after cold storage, especially when CaCl2 was the active ingredient used. Supplying the adjuvants Tween 20 and CMC increased fruit acidity both at harvest and after cold storage. Evaluation of the development of physiological disorders after cold storage (2 weeks at 0°C) indicated a lower susceptibility of Ca-treated fruits to internal browning. Fruits treated with multiple CaCl2-, CMC-, and Break Thru®-containing sprays during the growing season were significantly less prone to the development of chilling injuries as compared to untreated peaches.
View
Application of Exogenous Silicon for Alleviating Photosynthetic Inhibition in Tomato Seedlings under Low−Calcium Stress
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2022
  • INT J MOL SCI
To address the low Ca−induced growth inhibition of tomato plants, the mitigation effect of exogenous Si on tomato seedlings under low−Ca stress was investigated using different application methods. We specifically analyzed the effects of root application or foliar spraying of 1 mM Si on growth conditions, leaf photosynthetic properties, stomatal status, chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence, ATP activity and content, Calvin cycle−related enzymatic activity, and gene expression in tomato seedlings under low vs. adequate calcium conditions. We found that the low−Ca environment significantly affected (reduced) these parameters, resulting in growth limitation. Surprisingly, the application of 1 mM Si significantly increased plant height, stem diameter, and biomass accumulation, protected photosynthetic pigments, improved gas exchange, promoted ATP production, enhanced the activity of Calvin cycle key enzymes and expression of related genes, and ensured efficient photosynthesis to occur in plants under low−Ca conditions. Interestingly, when the same amount of Si was applied, the beneficial effects of Si were more pronounced under low−Ca conditions that under adequate Ca. We speculate that Si might promote the absorption and transport of calcium in plants. The effects of Si also differed depending on the application method; foliar spraying was better in alleviating photosynthetic inhibition in plants under low−Ca stress, whereas root application of Si significantly promoted root growth and development. Enhancing the photosynthetic capacity by foliar Si application is an effective strategy for ameliorating the growth inhibition of plants under low−Ca stress.
View
Diagnosing Bitter pit in apple during storage by chlorophyll fluorescence as a non-destructive tool
Article
  • Mar 2015
Bitter pit is an important physiological disorder of apple that can develop on the tree but is most prevalent during storage. Delaying fruit maturation after harvest through controlled atmosphere storage and application of 1-MCP (SmartFresh™) can delay the onset of symptoms; however, significant losses may occur in long-term stored apples. It is hard to detect internal bitter pit using external examination alone. Current predictive methods are based on destructive internal quality assessments and mineral analysis. A non-destructive method to detect and predict the propensity of fruit to develop bitter pit at harvest and during the early stages of storage would improve store management practices. High risk 'Bramley' orchards were identified from over 100 orchards surveyed across the south east of UK in 2010/11. A subsample of susceptible orchards with fruit that consistently developed bitter pit in storage as well as orchards where fruit remained free from problems were selected. Trials were conducted over two consecutive seasons (2012/13 and 2013/14) to evaluate changes of chlorophyll fluorescence in SmartFresh™ treated and untreated 'Bramley' apples during storage. The relationship between chlorophyll fluorescence profiles and bitter pit incidence were similar in the presence or absence of SmartFresh™. In the early stages of storage, the chlorophyll fluorescence profiles were able to distinguish between SmartFresh™ treated and untreated samples and correlated well with fruit maturity, rate of ethylene production and onset of bitter pit; however, they were less discriminatory in determining the severity of bitter pit in long-term storage. The most discriminant chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics correlated to bitter pit were identified. Models have been developed to predict the likely incidence and development of bitter pit during storage, although they are not capable of estimating severity of the disorder.
View
View
Enhancing efficacy of exogenous CaCl2 application by an adequate formulation
Article
  • Nov 2002
The efficacy of a homologous series of biodegradable rapeseed oil derivatives (triglyceridethoxylates) with an average of 5, 10, 30 and 60 units of ethylene oxide (EO) as adjuvants for foliage-applied CaCl2 has been evaluated. Previous experiments revealed that the surfactants used are not phytotoxic. The impact of surfactants on calcium penetration was studied using astomatous cuticular membranes isolated from mature tomato fruits. The biological efficacy of the various CaCl2 formulations was evaluated investigating their effects on bitter pit incidence and calcium content in fruits of Malus domestica cv. Braeburn. The spray solutions were prepared using CaCl2·2H2O at 0.03 and 0.2 M concentration, respectively. The surfactants were added at a concentration of 1 g L -1. Our data provide evidence that the surfactants used can improve calcium penetration through isolated cuticles, increase calcium content in fruits under practice-related conditions and reduce bitter pit incidence.
View
Effects of CO2 concentration on strawberry. V. Macronutrient uptake and utilization
Article
  • Dec 1997
Two-week-old strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch. cv. 'Elsanta') plants were acclimatized to 300, 450, 600, 750 or 900 ppm CO2 in controlled environments chambers for 50 days. Raising CO2 concentration from 300 to 900 ppm promoted macronutrient accumulation in all organs of the plants, particularly in roots. It, however, reduced contents of macronutrients in most organs of the plants, especially in leaves, because of the dilution effect of larger amounts of carbohydrate accumulation in the plant organs. When compared with the 300 ppm CO2 treatment, 600 and 900 ppm CO2 increased accumulation of N by 93% AND 87%, P by 113% and 122%, K by 98% and 92%, Ca by 212% and 244%, and Mg by 177% and 200%, respectively. CO2 enrichment decreased the proportions of N and K, increased those of Ca and Mg, but did not affect the proportion of P in the plants. Increasing CO2 levels depressed macronutrient-uptake efficiency of the plant roots, but promoted macronutrient-used efficiency of the plants. In comparison with the 300 ppm CO2-treated plants, those treated with 600 and 900 ppm CO2 showed lower N-, P-, K-, Ca-, and Mg-uptake efficiency of the roots and higher N-, P-, K-, Ca-, and Mg-use efficiency of the plants.
View
Spectrophotometric determination of antioxidant activity
Article
  • Jun 1996
The spectrophotometric technique for total antioxidant activity (TAA)1,2 measures the relative abilities of a.ntioxidants to scavenge the 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenz-thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS*+) radical cation (ABTS*+) in comparison with the antioxidant potency of standard amounts of Trolox, the water-soluble vitamin E analogue. This method is based on the progressive consumption of antioxidant activity by ABTS*+ as it is generated in the reaction cuvette and can be automated with a spectrophotometric analyzer. Several different analytical strategies are possible using the same reagents, enabling the assay system to be used to determine the antioxidant activity of plasma, saliva, lipoprotein fractions, foods and beverages. To determine the activity of pure antioxidant substances, a hydrogen peroxide concentration of 75 μM is used, together with a 6 min measuring time. For biological samples with endogenous peroxidase activity the hydrogen peroxide concentration is increased fivefold and the measuring time shortened to 3.25 min. Assays with improved sensitivity are described for low-density lipoprotein (LDL) preparations and saliva. Use of a spectrophotometric endpoint makes the assay simple to carry out without special laboratory equipment. Measurement at 734 nm avoids a range of potential interfering factors, such as sample turbidity and non-specific absorbance by sample constituents. Current applications of the ABTS antioxidant assay are described and discussed.
View
Selected plant components and their antioxidative capacity in hydrophilic and lipophilic extracts of Phaseolus vulgaris, Malus domestica, and Vitis vinifera leaves
Article
  • Mar 2000
In in vitro studies the amount of selected antioxidative components (tocopherols, tocotrienols, ascorbic acid, β-carotene and phenolic compounds) in leaf extracts of Phaseolus vulgaris, Malus domestica and Vitis vinifera plants was measured. The antioxidative capacity of each component at different levels of concentration was determined using pure reference substances. Furthermore, the antioxidative capacity of leaf extracts of Phaseolus vulgaris, Malus domestica and Vitis vinifera was evaluated. Finally, the contribution of the selected components to the antioxidative capacity in hexane and methanol extracts was calculated. In the plant leaf extracts the content of phenolic compounds dominated (8500 μg/g fr. wt. in Malus domestica, 4300 μg/g fr. wt. in Vitis vinifera, 400 μg/g fr. wt. in Phaseolus vulgaris) followed by β-carotene, α-tocopherol, ascorbic acid and the tocotrienols. Measurements of the antioxidative capacity revealed that α-tocopherol had the greatest radical scavenging capacity followed by β-carotene, phenolic compounds and ascorbic acid. The majority of the antioxidative capacity in the hexane extract of Malus domestica and Vitis vinifera leaves originated from β-carotene with 55% and 52% respectively, whereas α-tocopherol contributed 39% and 45% respectively. In hexane extracts of P. vulgaris leaves α-tocopherol added 43% to the total antioxidative capacity followed by β-carotene with 38%. In the hydrophilic methanol extract the phenolic compounds amounted for 32% in P. vulgaris, 94% in apple and 89% in grape leaves to the total antioxidative capacity.
View
View
Calcium deficiency - Influence on the antioxidative defense system in tomato plants
Article
  • Jul 2002
  • J PLANT PHYSIOL
In this study the influence of a deficient calcium supply on the antioxidative defense system in Lycopersicon lycopersicum leaves was investigated. Trials were performed in the greenhouse employing soilless culture technique. For the induction of calcium deficiency, calcium content in the nutrient solution was reduced from 2.9 mmol/L to 0.29 mmol/L. Within 6 weeks fruits and leaves developed distinct calcium deficiency symptoms. Chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, e.g. Fm and Fv/Fm, chlorophyll and tocopherol contents dropped below control level; also, superoxide dismutase activity was reduced. Additionally, malondialdehyde as a degradation product of lipid peroxidation increased in the calcium deficient leaves. Spray application of formulated CaCl2 solution on a weekly basis reduced blossom-end rot symptoms to about 50 percnt;. Furthermore, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters Fm and Fv/Fm as well as chlorophyll and tocopherol contents were less affected than in the calcium deficient group. No differences in malondialdehyde production could be established. SOD activity was higher in the Ca2+-treated leaves, while PO activity was lower compared to calcium deficient leaves.
View
Interactions of Calcium with Abscisic Acid in the Control of Stomatal Aperture
Article
  • Dec 1990
It has been recognised for many years that stomatal aperture is influenced by calcium ions. We have recently discovered that the action of abscisic acid on guard cells is dependent upon calcium. In this paper we discuss the interactions of abscisic acid with calcium ions, and in particular assess the contribution which extracellular and intracellular calcium may make to the control of stomatal aperture.
View
Chlorophyll Fluorescence as a Nonintrusive Indicator for Rapid Assessment of In Vivo Photosynthesis
Article
  • Jan 1995
In the past, ecophysiologically oriented photosynthesis research has been governed by gas-exchange measurements, mainly involving sophisticated (and costly) systems for simultaneous detection of CO2 uptake and H2O evaporation (see, e.g., Field et al. 1989). With the help of these methods, fundamental knowledge on in situ photosynthesis has been gained. Only recently, progress has been made in the development of alternative practical methods for nonintrusive assessment of in vivo photosynthesis which have the potential of not only evaluating overall quantum yield and capacity, but also allowing insights into the biochemical partial reactions and the partitioning of excitation energy (see, e.g., Snel and van Kooten 1990). As a consequence, photosynthesis research at the level of regulatory processes has been greatly stimulated, leading to important new concepts (see reviews by Foyer et al. 1990; Demmig-Adams 1990; Melis 1991; Allen 1992). In particular, chlorophyll fluorescence has evolved as a very useful and informative indicator for photosynthetic electron transport in intact leaves, algae, and isolated chloroplasts (reviews by Briantais et al. 1986; Renger and Schreiber 1986; Schreiber and Bilger 1987, 1992; Krause and Weis 1991; Karukstis 1991).
View
View