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Metallurgical investigation of wire breakage of tyre bead grade

DOI:10.1016/j.csefa.2015.09.003
Authors:
Piyas Palit
Piyas Palit
Piyas Palit
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Souvik Das at Tata Group
Souvik Das
Jitendra Mathur at Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur
Jitendra Mathur
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Abstract and Figures

Tyre bead grade wire is used for tyre making application. The wire is used as reinforcement inside the polymer of tyre. The wire is available in different size/section such as 1.6–0.80mm thin Cu coated wire. During tyre making operation at tyre manufacturer company, wire failed frequently. In this present study, different broken/defective wire samples were collected from wire mill for detailed investigation of the defect. The natures of the defects were localized and similar in nature. The fracture surface was of finger nail type. Crow feet like defects including button like surface abnormalities were also observed on the broken wire samples. The defect was studied at different directions under microscope. Different advanced metallographic techniques have been used for detail investigation. The analysis revealed that, white layer of surface martensite was formed and it caused the final breakage of wire. In this present study we have also discussed about the possible reason for the formation of such kind of surface martensite (hard-phase).
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Case
study
Metallurgical
investigation
of
wire
breakage
of
tyre
bead
grade
Piyas
Palit
*
,
Souvik
Das,
Jitendra
Mathur
R&D
and
Scientific
Services,
Tata
Steel
Limited,
Jamshedpur
831
001,
India
1.
Introduction
Tyre
bead
grade
with
Cu-coating
was
conventionally
used
for
tyre
making
application
[1].
During
tyre
making
operation
at
tyre
manufacturer
company,
wire
failed
frequently
during
bending
operation
at
brittle
manner.
During
bending
operation
such
kind
of
breaking
was
also
happened
at
wire
mill.
Different
breakages
as
well
as
defective
samples
have
been
collected
from
different
coils.
The
wire
manufactured
by
drawing
process
from
5.5
mm
wire
rod
[2,3].
Two
stage
of
drawing
process
is
involved
to
making
of
final
wire.
After
the
drawing
operation
stress
reliving
and
Cu–Sn
coating
of
wire
was
carried.
The
process
details
are
mentioned
in
Fig.
1.
2.
Visual
observation
Two
pieces
of
breakage
wire
samples
were
collected
from
the
drawing
mill
for
investigations.
The
samples
were
cleaned
with
acetone
to
remove
dirt
for
visual
examination
prior
to
metallographic
sample
preparation.
Visual
examination
is
carried
out
in
stereoscope.
Surface
appearance
of
the
defects
in
all
wire
samples
was
of
similar
in
nature.
The
fracture
surface
revealed
finger
nail
type
(Figs.
4
and
5).
Crow
feet
like
defects
including
button
like
surface
abnormalities
were
observed
on
Case
Studies
in
Engineering
Failure
Analysis
4
(2015)
83–87
A
R
T
I
C
L
E
I
N
F
O
Article
history:
Received
22
July
2015
Received
in
revised
form
24
September
2015
Accepted
29
September
2015
Available
online
13
October
2015
Keywords:
Tyre
bead
grade
Button
like
defect
Surface
martensite
A
B
S
T
R
A
C
T
Tyre
bead
grade
wire
is
used
for
tyre
making
application.
The
wire
is
used
as
reinforcement
inside
the
polymer
of
tyre.
The
wire
is
available
in
different
size/section
such
as
1.6–
0.80
mm
thin
Cu
coated
wire.
During
tyre
making
operation
at
tyre
manufacturer
company,
wire
failed
frequently.
In
this
present
study,
different
broken/defective
wire
samples
were
collected
from
wire
mill
for
detailed
investigation
of
the
defect.
The
natures
of
the
defects
were
localized
and
similar
in
nature.
The
fracture
surface
was
of
finger
nail
type.
Crow
feet
like
defects
including
button
like
surface
abnormalities
were
also
observed
on
the
broken
wire
samples.
The
defect
was
studied
at
different
directions
under
microscope.
Different
advanced
metallographic
techniques
have
been
used
for
detail
investigation.
The
analysis
revealed
that,
white
layer
of
surface
martensite
was
formed
and
it
caused
the
final
breakage
of
wire.
In
this
present
study
we
have
also
discussed
about
the
possible
reason
for
the
formation
of
such
kind
of
surface
martensite
(hard-phase).
Published
by
Elsevier
Ltd.
This
is
an
open
access
article
under
the
CC
BY
license
(http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
*
Corresponding
author
at:
Metallurgical
Laboratories
and
QA
Group,
R&D
and
Scientific
Services,
Tata
Steel
Limited,
Jamshedpur
831
001,
India.
Tel.:
+91
7033094767.
E-mail
address:
piyas.palit@tatasteel.com
(P.
Palit).
Contents
lists
available
at
ScienceDirect
Case
Studies
in
Engineering
Failure
Analysis
jo
ur
n
al
ho
m
ep
ag
e:
ww
w.els
evier
.c
om
/lo
cat
e/c
s
efa
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csefa.2015.09.003
2213-2902/Published
by
Elsevier
Ltd.
This
is
an
open
access
article
under
the
CC
BY
license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
the
broken
wire
samples.
The
defect
was
observed
near
the
fracture
end
and
which
was
very
much
localized
in
nature
(Figs.
2
and
3).
3.
Chemical
analysis
Chemical
analysis
of
wire
samples
was
carried
out
using
combustion
infrared
technique
(LECO,
TC600)
for
carbon
and
sulphur
contents.
An
inductively
coupled
plasma
atomic
emission
spectroscopy
(ICP-AES)
instrument
was
used
to
determine
amounts
of
rest
of
the
elements.
The
chemistry
of
wire
sample
confirmed
to
high
carbon
steel
grade
(C-70).
Chemical
analysis
result
is
presented
in
Table
1.
4.
Metallography
analysis
4.1.
Microstructural
analysis
Micro
specimens
were
prepared
from
the
fractured
end
as
well
as
defect
location
of
wire
samples
for
conducting
light
optical
microscopic
examination
and
scanning
electron
microscopy
(SEM).
These
samples
were
individually
mounted
in
conductive
mounting
and
polished
by
conventional
metallographic
techniques
for
scratch
free
surface.
The
polished
samples
were
etched
in
3%
nital
solution
(3
mL
HNO
3
in
97
mL
ethyl
alcohol),
and
both
un-etched
and
etched
samples
were
examined
in
a
light
microscope
to
observe
microstructural
constituents.
Un-etched
sample
shows
surface
defect
in
longitudinal
as
well
in
transverses
direction
(Figs.
6
and
8).
Etched
microstructure
of
the
longitudinal
samples
revealed
presence
of
brown
layer
near
the
defect
location.
The
thickness
of
the
brown
layer
is
around
30–40
m
m
(Fig.
7).
From
microstructure
analysis
the
brown
layer
appeared
to
be
of
martensite
(which
was
further
verified
by
micro
hardness
value
and
SEM
analysis;
Table
2).
Severe
grain
flow
was
observed
along
the
defect
location.
The
microstructure
of
the
matrix
revealed
cold
drawn
pearlite
structure
(Figs.
9–11).
Wire Rod (
5.5 mm
Dia.
)
Pick
le; phosphate
& bora
x
Dry Drawing
Operat
ion
(2.20 mm
in
7 passes)
Use
of
p
owder
lubrica
nt
Stre
ss Relieving
Coating (Cu-Sn)
Wet Drawin
g Ope
ration
(0.8mm
in
11 passes)
Use of
li
q
uid lubricant
Fig.
1.
Flow
diagram
of
wire
rod
to
wire
drawing
process.
Figs.
2–5.
(2,
3)
Closer
view
of
surface
defects
of
failed
wire
samples
#1.
(4,
5)
Closer
view
of
surface
defects
of
failed
wire
samples
#2.
P.
Palit
et
al.
/
Case
Studies
in
Engineering
Failure
Analysis
4
(2015)
83–87
84
4.2.
Micro
hardness
test
The
micro
hardness
of
different
phases
observed
in
the
broken
wire
samples
was
determined
in
a
pneumatically
controlled
automatic
micro
hardness
tester
(Leco-LM247AT).
An
applied
load
of
50
gf
was
used
during
testing,
and
several
indentations
were
made
to
determine
the
hardness
of
different
phases
(Fig.
12).
The
average
hardness
of
the
matrix
is
about
461
HV,
and
the
average
hardness
value
of
the
brown
phase
is
about
624
HV
(Table
2).
4.3.
EDS
analysis
EDS
analysis
was
carried
out
in
the
as
received
sample
to
find
out
the
elemental
difference
between
parent
and
the
defect
region
(Fig.
13).
EDS
analysis
reveals
presence
of
tungsten
(W)
in
the
martensite
region
in
concentration
of
more
than
2%
as
shown
in
Table
3.
As
the
element
is
not
contained
in
bulk,
which
indicates
that
the
material
transfers
between
the
mating
bodies
i.e.
an
intense
adhesive
sliding
wear.
Other
elements
remains
almost
constant
indicate
that
martensitic
transformation
took
place
due
to
thermal
effect
with
rapid
quenching
of
local
austenite
produced
by
friction
[4].
5.
Discussions
Premature
wire
failures
were
observed
during
bending
operation
before
tyre
making
process.
The
nature
of
the
defects
was
of
similar
type
in
all
the
failed
samples.
The
fracture
surface
was
of
finger
nail
type.
Crow
feet
like
defects
including
button
like
surface
abnormalities
were
observed
on
the
broken
wire
samples.
The
surface
defect
was
observed
near
the
Table
1
Chemical
analysis
result
of
wire
samples
(wt.%).
Spec
Chemistry
Section
(mm)
C
Mn
S
P
Si
Cr
N
2
(ppm)
Wire
sample
1
0.69
0.66
0.012
0.019
0.18
0.01
33
1.6
Wire
sample
2
0.71
0.69
0.013
0.022
0.21
0.01
41
0.8
Figs.
6
and
7.
(6)
Un-etched
micrograph
of
the
cross
section
of
the
defect
location
in
longitudinal
micro
specimen.
(7)
Etched
microstructure
of
the
same.
Table
2
Micro
hardness
test
result.
Sample
no.
Parent
phase
(HV
50
gf)
Brown
phase
(HV
50
gf)
1
470,460
667,663
2
452,462
660,625
Table
3
EDS
analysis.
Location
Si
Mn
W
Fe
Martensite
(1)
0.30
0.87
2.19
96.64
Matrix
(2)
0.38
0.91
–
98.71
P.
Palit
et
al.
/
Case
Studies
in
Engineering
Failure
Analysis
4
(2015)
83–87
85
fracture
end
and
in
localized
manner.
Etched
microstructure
of
the
longitudinal
samples
revealed
presence
of
brown
layer
near
the
defect
location.
The
thickness
of
the
brown
layer
is
around
30–40
m
m.
From
microstructure
analysis
the
brown
layer
appeared
to
be
of
martensite
(which
was
further
verified
by
micro
hardness
value
and
SEM
analysis).
Severe
grain
flow
was
observed
along
the
defect
location.
The
microstructure
of
the
matrix
revealed
cold
drawn
pearlite
structure.
The
average
hardness
of
the
matrix
is
about
460
HV,
and
the
average
hardness
value
of
the
brown
phase
is
around
650
HV.
This
type
of
layer
is
generated
during
wire
drawing
due
to
lack
of
lubrication
as
no
segregation
was
observed
[4].
The
martensite
layer
which
forms
a
brown
layer
in
the
surface
is
very
brittle
in
nature
(high
hardness).
This
surface
martensite
helps
to
propagate
cracks
from
the
pearlite–martensite
interface
and
which
leads
to
failure
during
drawing
or
its
successive
operations.
The
martensite
formed
in
the
surface
is
a
thermal
phenomenon
generated
during
friction
causes
surface
temperature
rise
followed
by
rapid
cooling
due
to
mass
effect
of
bulk.
EDS
analysis
reveals
presence
of
tungsten
(W)
in
the
martensite
region
in
concentration
of
more
than
2%
as
the
element
is
not
contained
in
bulk,
which
indicates
that
the
material
transfers
between
Figs.
8–11.
(8)
Un-etched
micrograph
of
the
top
view
of
the
defect
in
longitudinal
micro
specimen
at
50
magnification.
(9)
Etched
microstructure
of
the
same
at
200
magnification
revealed
martensite
at
the
defect
location.
(Top
view
of
the
defect;
etched
after
marginal
polishing
of
surface.)
(10,
11)
Martensite
at
higher
magnification
under
SEM.
Fig.
12.
Etched
microstructure
of
the
defect
location
showing
indentation
in
the
brown
layer
(surface
martensite)
and
the
drawn
pearlite
matrix.
P.
Palit
et
al.
/
Case
Studies
in
Engineering
Failure
Analysis
4
(2015)
83–87
86
the
mating
bodies
i.e.
an
intense
adhesive
sliding
wear.
The
martensite
formed
in
the
surface
was
generated
during
drawing
process
probably
due
to
lack
of
localize
lubrication
[5].
Due
to
improper
lubrication,
during
drawing
of
high
carbon
wires
sometimes
temperature
reaches
up
to
austenitic
range
due
to
heat
generated,
because
of
plastic
deformation
and
friction
between
wire
and
die
[6].
6.
Conclusion
Presence
of
martensite
(hard
phase)
in
the
surface
of
the
wire
samples
caused
breakage
during
drawing.
It
could
be
envisaged
from
the
surface
characteristics
and
microstructure
vis-a
`
-vis
the
occurrence
of
failure
that
the
hard-phase
generated
during
drawing
due
to
improper
lubrication.
References
[1]
Das
S,
Koli
P,
Mathur
J,
Dey
A,
Bhattacharyya
T,
Bhattacharyya
S.
Failure
analysis
of
motor
tyre
bead
wires
during
torsion
test.
J
Fail
Anal
Prev
2013;
684–8.
[2]
Lankford
Jr
WT,
Samways
,
Craven
,
McGannon
,
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The
manufacture
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steel
wire
and
steel
wire
products.
The
making,
shaping
and
treating
of
steel.
10th
ed.,
Pittsburgh,
PA:
United
States
Steel;
1985.
p.
961–1016.
[3]
Sharp
GA.
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wire
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ropes.
In:
Dove
,
editor.
Steel
wire
handbook,
vol.
3.
Branford,
CT:
The
Wire
Association
Inc.;
1972.
p.
77–94.
[4]
Sipos
K,
Lopez
M,
Trucco
M.
Surface
martensite
white
layer
produced
by
adhesive
sliding
wear
friction
in
AISI
1065
steel.
Rev
Latinoam
Metal
Mater
2008;28(1):46–50.
[5]
Das
S,
Mathur
J,
Bhattacharyya
T,
Bhattacharyya
S.
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different
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bursting
led
to
wire
breakage
during
production.
Case
Study
Eng
Fail
Anal
2013;1:32–6.
[6]
Haddi
A,
Imad
A,
Vega
G.
Analysis
of
temperature
and
speed
effects
on
the
drawing
stress
for
improving
the
wire
drawing
process.
Mater
Des
2011;32(September
(8–9)):4310–5.
Fig.
13.
SEM
image
of
defect
sample
in
as
received
condition.
P.
Palit
et
al.
/
Case
Studies
in
Engineering
Failure
Analysis
4
(2015)
83–87
87
... The diameter of the bead on tire to small the tire will difficult during set it onto the rim , and if the diameter of bead inner circle to big then the tire very loos during fitment set it onto the rim. Bead wire on tire should ensure the coupling between tire and rim and transmit power (Palit et al. 2015) ( 5 ). The bead wire of functional tire can work at pressures of 30-35 psi (Palit et al. 2015) (5). ...
... The diameter of the bead on tire to small the tire will difficult during set it onto the rim , and if the diameter of bead inner circle to big then the tire very loos during fitment set it onto the rim. Bead wire on tire should ensure the coupling between tire and rim and transmit power (Palit et al. 2015) ( 5 ). The bead wire of functional tire can work at pressures of 30-35 psi (Palit et al. 2015) (5). ...
... Bead wire on tire should ensure the coupling between tire and rim and transmit power (Palit et al. 2015) ( 5 ). The bead wire of functional tire can work at pressures of 30-35 psi (Palit et al. 2015) (5). Bead wires help to transfer the load of vehicle to the tire through the rim. ...
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... Durante el proceso de solidificación en la máquina de colada continua, o bien, a través de lingoteras; el carbono, níquel, cromo y aluminio presentes en la composición química del acero, tienden a concentrarse en la última región en solidificar, formando heterogeneidades en los productos colados [2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. Tales heterogeneidades, son denominadas como segregaciones, la cuales; conllevan a la formación desigual de fases metalúrgicas, y que a su vez, ocasionan propiedades mecánicas heterogéneas en la aleación y con ello su fractura [9][10][11][12][13][14]. ...
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... [22] In some studies, the white layer has been identified as untempered martensite. [23][24][25] The white layer was reported to be an extremely hard and brittle structure and can cause crack formation and product failure. [26][27][28][29] It was also reported that the hardness increase resulted from the formation of the white layer can be as high as 180 pct compared with the original substrate. ...
Microstructural Characterization and Failure Analysis of a Wear-Resistant, High Molybdenum and Chromium White Iron Used for Metal-to-Metal Wear Systems
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2021
An Fe-15Mo-18Cr-3.3C-1.65V white iron has been widely used in industries for many years due to its excellent wear performance, but never been reported to academic circle. This paper studied its phase constituents in as-cast condition and its wear performance for metal-to-metal contact wear applications. Microstructural analyses were performed using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy with phase identification performed using a transmission Kikuchi diffraction (TKD) technique. A solidification sequence was proposed by correlating thermodynamic equilibrium calculations with the distribution and size of the phase constituents. Field-returned components were analyzed after approximately 10,000 service hours. Micro-galling defects exhibited regions of material flow, white layer formation, subsurface cracking, and material loss. For the first time, white layer was found in a highly alloyed white iron, which was determined to be nanocrystalline with an average grain size less than 15 nm and a phase constitution similar to the base metal. Material loss contributed to abrasive wear scars and eventual leakage of the lubricant protecting the wear components.
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... Zhang et al. [26] approached the analysis of tyre laser shearography image by combining curvelet transform and Canny edge detection. Wire failures occurring during tyre making operation were studied by Palit et al. [27]. Lahiri et al. [28] used active (lock-in and pulsed) thermography technique to quantify defect features in specimens of glass fibre reinforced rubber with artificially produced defects. ...
Failure analysis of irreversible changes in the construction of car tyres
Article
Failure analysis construction of car tyres is a highly demanding process requiring very specific methods of analysis. Industrial metrotomography is one of suitable analytical tool in this area. However, the method used for failure analysis construction of car tyres may have its limits. The paper provides a detailed research for the analysis of 5 typical types of damage occurring in car tyres, analysing the possibilities of such a technology as well as occurrence of undesirable phenomena. Results provided further on refer to occurrence of undesirable phenomenon such as various artifacts due to their construction, but also confirm suitability of application of the method for car tyres research of failure analysis.
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... Bead wire is made up of high carbon steel and the main function of bead is to grasp the tire on the rim. The bead wire of functional tire can work at pressures of 30-35 psi (Palit et al. 2015). Bead wires help to transfer the load of vehicle to the tire through the rim. ...
Six-sigma application in tire-manufacturing company: a case study
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2018
Globalization, advancement of technologies, and increment in the demand of the customer change the way of doing business in the companies. To overcome these barriers, the six-sigma define–measure–analyze–improve–control (DMAIC) method is most popular and useful. This method helps to trim down the wastes and generating the potential ways of improvement in the process as well as service industries. In the current research, the DMAIC method was used for decreasing the process variations of bead splice causing wastage of material. This six-sigma DMAIC research was initiated by problem identification through voice of customer in the define step. The subsequent step constitutes of gathering the specification data of existing tire bead. This step was followed by the analysis and improvement steps, where the six-sigma quality tools such as cause–effect diagram, statistical process control, and substantial analysis of existing system were implemented for root cause identification and reduction in process variation. The process control charts were used for systematic observation and control the process. Utilizing DMAIC methodology, the standard deviation was decreased from 2.17 to 1.69. The process capability index (Cp) value was enhanced from 1.65 to 2.95 and the process performance capability index (Cpk) value was enhanced from 0.94 to 2.66. A DMAIC methodology was established that can play a key role for reducing defects in the tire-manufacturing process in India.
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Applying Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to the Selection of Forensic Analysis Methodologies
Article
Booker et al. [3] stated that “in many engineering defect investigations, the choice of forensic analysis methodology is rarely questioned, and the forensic analysis methodology is chosen by the analyst without due diligence, resulting in a methodology that may not be the most accurate or expedient. This in turn has the potential to increase the risk and cost of the decision-making process.” Therefore, a need was identified to identify and analyse the variables that influence practitioners’ selection of an appropriate forensic analysis methodology. A review of current literature highlighted the fact that there was no definitive correlation identifying the primary variables that affect the selection of forensic analysis methodology. Noting that the determination of the correct methodology for a specific instance is not within scope of this paper, the first stage of the analysis was to apply previously collated methodology taxonomy, and then apply Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to determine which variables had the highest significance of influence on the selection of Forensic Analysis Methodology from 132 case studies selected from Case Studies in Engineering Failure Analysis [2] (Annex A.). The analysis has determined that the methodology selected to conduct forensic analysis is primarily influenced by the geographical culture and industry of the analyst. Therefore, there is a requirement to acknowledge and understand the role of cultural and industry biases when choosing an appropriate methodology, and subsequently, when evaluating a forensic analysis case study. Although the mere recognition of the existence of cultural and industry bias does not guarantee that the right decisions will be made, it does, however, facilitate an objective rigour to the process of the selection of the forensic analysis methodology to be applied, which in turn, will mitigate subjective reasoning and potentially reduce the risk and cost of the decision-making process. Without an international standard for forensic analysis, or universally acknowledged guidelines for the selection of forensic analysis methodology, analysts will continue to be susceptible to methodology selection bias, which will increase the probability of choosing the wrong methodology, which, in turn, can prolong the investigation and adversely affect the accuracy of the analysis.
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Improvement of the Method for the High-Carbon Wire Rod Pearlite Grain Grade Identification
Article
  • Jan 2020
The main characteristics of metal long products quality include mechanical properties, depending on the microstructure state. The key indicator for evaluation the micro-structure of high carbon steel can be considered the 1st grain grade lamellar pearlite B fp . For the currently used pearlite dispersion method, according to GOST 8233-56, it is characterized by the subjectivity of the view fields choice for the microstructure evaluation, that reduces the quality of the obtained results. The study purpose was to improve the method of high-carbon steel wire rod microstructure estimation, to reduce the error magnitude in determining the 1st grain grade lamellar pearlite. The experiments were carried out on samples of high-carbon steel wire rod with a carbon content of 0,58 – 0,77 %. The pearlite dispersion was evaluated in 27 view fields, located on mutually perpendicular diagonals of the sample cross section. The study results showed the possibility of reducing the error in determining the estimated value of the high-carbon steel wire rod microstructure pearlite dispersion. Microstructure evaluation in the five view fields should be carried out, taking into account the weight coefficients, determined by the ratio of the zones length, occupied by pearlite with a certain percentage of the 1st grade grain pearlite to the wire rod radius. The proposed method of the microstructure evaluation increases assessment accuracy, without complication of its implementation process.
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Methodology of High-Carbon Wire Rod Perlite Grain Grade Identification
Article
  • Oct 2018
The quality of the high-carbon rod is determined by mechanical properties, which depend on microstructure characteristics, in particular the perlite grain grade. The existing technique for determining the perlite dispersion has the main drawback - the subjectivity of choosing the five worst view fields for evaluation, which reduces the accuracy of the determination results. The article presents the results of a study aimed at increasing the objectivity and accuracy of the evaluation of high-carbon wire rod perlite grain grade. An improved technique for determining the high-carbon wire rod perlite grain grade – P gg with five view fields is proposed. The cross-section of the rod sample is considered as an inhomogeneous area from the perlite dispersion point of view, which is divided into three annular zones with different levels of perlite dispersion. Selection of five view fields is carried out as follows: one from the center of the central zone, two fields in the second - an intermediate zone and two fields in the outer zone. Statistical analysis of the experimental data showed that all view fields should be located on the same diagonal. The location of the view fields is fixed and is unchangeable for all samples under study. The technique described in the article is an effective tool for analyzing the structure of high-carbon steel wire rod.
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Metallurgical investigation of different causes of center bursting led to wire breakage during production
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2013
Highlights ► Central bursting cause problem as it is hard to detect by means of surface check. ► In this paper, three broken wires which failed during production were investigated. ► In first two wires breakage took place due to formation of hard and brittle phase. ► In third case failure took place due to inappropriate drawing operations.
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Steel Wire Rod
Chapter
  • Jan 1990
Volume 1 addresses the selection and application of ferrous metals and alloys, including cast irons, carbon and low-alloy steels, tool steels, stainless steels, and nickel and cobalt-base superalloys. As the lead volume in the Handbook series, it lays the groundwork for understanding the hierarchical nature of metals and how to leverage the underlying process, structure, property, performance relationships that define them. The volume draws on the knowledge and insight of more than 200 experts with experience in materials-centric product design, manufacturing, and quality control. It contains more than 1,300 illustrations (photographs, charts, and graphs) and over 500 tables filled with alloy designation, composition, and mechanical and physical property data. For information on the print version of Volume 1, ISBN 978-0-87170-377-4, follow this link.
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Surface martensite white layer produced by adhesive sliding wear friction in AISI 1065 steel
Article
  • Jun 2008
White layers (WLs) produced in hard steels by adhesive sliding wear without lubricants have been characterized using microindentation, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and chemical analysis through energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The WL is found to have a hardness of values ranging between 825 to 916 HV and ultrafine grained structure with layer size ranged around 50μm. These two characteristics of white layers distinguish it from martensite structure formed in steels by heat treatment. The formation of this untempered martensite with ultrafine structure is based on a large strain deformation and stress at elevated temperature states that promote conditions of severe wear by friction.
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Failure Analysis of Motor Tire Bead Wires During Torsion Test
Article
  • Dec 2013
Torsion testing is used to determine the quality of steel wire used for motor tire beads in pneumatic tires. These steel wires must have good-tensile strength so that the tire bead can support the finished tire safely, and yet retain adequate ductility to deform easily around the forming wheel. The present paper highlights premature failure of bead wire which failed during torsion test. Torsion property is one of the important parameters of tire bead as it monitors both the metallurgical soundness and surface quality of a drawn wire. From the analysis, it has been concluded that probable reason for premature failure is due to strain aging (dynamic and static) caused by interstitial atoms which bounds the mobile dislocations resulting in increases yield strength and decreases bead formability. Moreover, the microstructural study indicates that failed specimen has misaligned and broken lamella of pearlite with globular cementite which creates the array of voids. These voids hinder the rotation of pearlite during torsion test thus leading to brittle fracture.
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Analysis of temperature and speed effects on the drawing stress for improving the wire drawing process
Article
This paper deals with experimental investigations in order to study the influence of drawing conditions on temperature rise and drawing stress in cold drawn copper wires. In the multipass drawing machine, the temperature rise and drawing stress are measured with thermocouples and load cell systems, respectively, for different drawing speeds. The results obtained show that the drawing stress and temperature rise vary during the drawing process. This certainly comes from the variation of the friction coefficient and the flow stress of the material depending on the drawing speed. From the experimental results, a relationship between temperature rise, drawing stress and friction coefficient is built. Based on this, a modification of Avitzur’s model is presented. This new model can help to select the process parameters which satisfy the conditions of minimum drawing stress for copper material.
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SEM image of defect sample in as received condition
  • Fig
Fig. 13. SEM image of defect sample in as received condition.
The manufacture of steel wire and steel wire products. The making, shaping and treating of steel United States Steel
  • Jan 1985
  • 961-1016
  • Lankford Jr
  • Wt Samways
  • Mcgannon Craven
Lankford Jr WT, Samways, Craven, McGannon, editors. The manufacture of steel wire and steel wire products. The making, shaping and treating of steel. 10th ed., Pittsburgh, PA: United States Steel; 1985. p. 961–1016.
The manufacture of steel wire and steel wire products. The making, shaping and treating of steel
  • Jan 1985
  • 961-1016
  • W T Lankford
  • Samways
  • Mcgannon Craven
Lankford Jr WT, Samways, Craven, McGannon, editors. The manufacture of steel wire and steel wire products. The making, shaping and treating of steel. 10th ed., Pittsburgh, PA: United States Steel; 1985. p. 961-1016.