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Veterinary and pharmacological approaches to abnormal behaviour

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This book is comprised of 11 chapters generally discussing different perspectives of stereotypic behaviour in man and animals. The chapters are divided into 3 parts (normal animal and abnormal environment, stereotypic behaviours as pathologies and treating stereotypic behaviours). The first chapter reviews the extent and nature of research into stereotypic behaviour. Chapters 2-4 (part I) focus on the ethological perspective. Behaviour is discussed, including stereotypies, in terms of its motivated basis (stereotyping subjects are normal animals responding in species-typical ways to an abnormal environment). Chapters 5-8 (part II) emphasize clinical psychology, psychiatry and neuroscience. Three assumptions are presented: stereotypies of focus are the products of dysfunction (animal is abnormal); fullest understanding of stereotypies will come from investigating the neurophysiological mechanisms involved; and processes involved at this level have great cross-species generality. Part III (chapter 9 and 10) illustrates how stereotypies can be tackled and reduced by those concerned about their unaesthetic appearance and/or welfare implications. Chapter 11 provides a synthesis of the book and future research and suggestions on how terminology can be improved.

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... This paper uses the term to refer specifically to the canine behaviours which have been described in the literature as 'compulsive'. Mills and Luescher (2006) offer more precise definitions of terms, but for this paper the term ARB was preferred over 'compulsive behaviour' as suggested by them as it makes no assumptions about the mechanism or motivation. ...
... Subsequently a wider range of ARBs including flank-sucking, licking, fly-snapping, tail-chasing and shadow-chasing were likened to OCD in humans (Overall, 2000;Dodman et al., 2010;Escriou et al., 2012;Ogata et al., 2013;Dodman et al., 2016;Noh et al., 2017) There have even been suggestions from both the psychiatry literature (Stein et al., 1998;Wynchank and Berk, 1998;Dodman and Schuster, 2005;Vermeire et al., 2012) and the veterinary science literature (Moon-Fanelli et al., 2011;Dodman et al., 2016) that ARB in dogs is so similar to OCD that it can serve as a model for OCD with implications for interventions with humans. Despite some reservations regarding the extent to which this is the case (Mills and Luescher, 2006;Tynes and Sinn, 2014), the idea of a canine compulsive disorder which is analogous to OCD persists in contemporary research (e.g. Ogata et al., 2013;Tang et al., 2014;Dodman et al., 2016;Hall, 2017;Noh et al., 2017). ...
Article
In the literature on companion animal behaviour, a diverse range of repetitive behaviours in dogs have been referred to as symptoms of an underlying canine compulsive disorder analogous to obsessive-compulsive disorder in humans. It is claimed that the two disorders are behaviourally equivalent and have the same neurophysiology and response to pharmacological treatment. These claims are largely derived from the bio-medical perspective and have neglected the cognitive-behavioural model of obsessive-compulsive disorder in humans which accounts for the development and maintenance of the disorder in terms of learning theory and cognitive processing. In order to develop a fuller understanding of canine repetitive behaviours it is important to consider all perspectives and avoid limiting therapeutic approaches. This paper reviews the claims of equivalence from the cognitive-behavioural perspective and also reviews the evidence for any pathophysiological similarities between the two disorders. The review finds that claims of behavioural equivalence are based on the superficial characteristic of repetitiveness whilst neglecting the function of the behaviour; there are no reliable or consistent indications of the same neuroanatomy or physiology being specifically associated with the two disorders and whilst both appear to show a partial response to the same pharmacotherapy, it is not clear that this response is specific to both disorders. The review concludes that although there is little research data with which to make a comprehensive comparison, the available studies suggest that abnormal repetitive behaviours in dogs are unlikely to be the equivalent of human obsessive-compulsive disorder. There is considerable scope for further investigation of the cognitive, behavioural and emotional components of canine repetitive behaviours using current and emerging methodologies.
... Vocalizations (including whining, barking, growling) may accompany these efforts, and if the goal cannot be achieved then redirected behaviors (e.g., sudden grabbing of the lead) or displacement behaviors such as sniffing, scratching, spinning, or tail chasing may also be seen. Over time frustration may be implicated in the development of some repetitive and compulsive behaviors (24). It is unsurprising that given these responses, frustration is often implicated in many of the behavioral problems affecting dogs (7,25). ...
... Based on the above analysis 9 items were removed (items 3,5,8,15,17,20,24,28,31). Item 4 "My dog is protective of his/her territory (house/garden/car), " was retained after closer inspection as although it was not reliable at 1 year intra-rater reliability testing using all respondents' data, it was reliable when dogs who were <2 years old at the time of the first questionnaire being completed were excluded. ...
Article
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Introduction: Psychometric tools have been developed for the assessment of behavioral and affective traits in non-human animals. Frustration can be defined as an emotional reaction experienced after a given expectation is violated. Frustration is a negative emotional state and whilst it probably plays a key role in certain behavior problems in dogs (e.g., aggressive behaviors), there appears to have been little attempt to scale this affective tendency. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to develop a tool to assess frustration tendencies in dogs. Materials and Methods: An online owner survey was developed. Items covered demographics, the training/behavioral history of the dog, and 33 frustration related items scored using a 5-point Likert scale. The questionnaire was disseminated via on-line channels over a 5-month period. Two thousand three hundred forty-eight respondents completed the questionnaire. Of these, 273 respondents completed it a second time 6 weeks later, and a separate 276 respondents completed it a second time 1 year later. Additionally, 92 paired responses were collected where two carers completed the questionnaire independently about the same dog. Intra- and inter-rater reliabilities were assessed prior to structuring the items using principal component analysis (PCA) with a Varimax rotation. Items were retained if they loaded > 0.4 on at least one of the components extracted using the Kaiser criterion. Results: Twenty-two items were deemed to be reliable enough to be used in the PCA and 21 items loaded on a biologically meaningful 5-principal component solution. There was a significant positive correlation between each principal component and the owners' general perception of their dogs' frustration tendencies, alongside other expected correlates. Conclusion: This is the first reliable psychometric tool for the assessment of frustration in dogs—the Canine Frustration Questionnaire (CFQ). Further validation with behavioral tests and physiological measures is ongoing.
... Um die bevorzugte Art der Katzentoilette und -streu herauszufinden, müssen einer Katze mindestens zwei (besser drei bis vier) Wahlmöglichkeiten bezüglich Art und Platz der Katzentoilette sowie Art der Katzenstreu angeboten werden. Zur Eruierung einer Tab. 1 Psychopharmaka zur Therapie der Unsauberkeit der Katze: Dosierung, Nebenwirkungen und Kontraindikationen (2,13,14,17) Table 1 Psycho-active drugs for the treatment of feline house soiling: dosage, side effects, and contraindications (2,13,14,17). ...
... Um die bevorzugte Art der Katzentoilette und -streu herauszufinden, müssen einer Katze mindestens zwei (besser drei bis vier) Wahlmöglichkeiten bezüglich Art und Platz der Katzentoilette sowie Art der Katzenstreu angeboten werden. Zur Eruierung einer Tab. 1 Psychopharmaka zur Therapie der Unsauberkeit der Katze: Dosierung, Nebenwirkungen und Kontraindikationen (2,13,14,17) Table 1 Psycho-active drugs for the treatment of feline house soiling: dosage, side effects, and contraindications (2,13,14,17). ...
Article
Zusammenfassung Unsauberkeit von Katzen, d. h. das Absetzen von Urin und/oder Kot in der Wohnung außerhalb der Katzentoilette, stellt das häufigste Verhaltensproblem von Katzen dar, das Katzenbesitzer zu einer Konsultation des Tierarztes veranlasst. Nachdem primär abgeklärt ist, ob es sich um Eliminationsoder Markierverhalten handelt, müssen in einer umfassenden Anamnese, Ursache(n) und aktuelle Auslöser für das Verhaltensproblem gefunden werden. Da das Verhaltensproblem entweder territorial oder stressbedingt ist bzw. Umwelteinflüsse eine Aversion gegen die Katzentoilette hervorrufen oder einen anderen Platz attraktiver erscheinen lassen, sollten die primären Managementmaßnahmen allgemein zur Verbesserung des Wohlbefindens der Katze beitragen, beispielsweise durch ein optimiertes Management der Katzentoilette. Der entscheidende Ansatz in der Therapie hat zum Ziel, die Katze nicht mehr den Angst oder Stress auslösenden Stimuli auszusetzen, die Benutzung der Katzentoiletten attraktiver zu gestalten und eine gezielte Verhaltensmodifikation durchzuführen.
... Some investigators suggest that the term stereotypy should be restricted to a specific subset of stereotypic behaviors, those manifested by recurrent or continuous perseveration associated with basal ganglia dysfunction. 13 Stereotypies in humans are seen most often in a range of neurodevelopmental syndromes or disorders, such as certain forms of mental retardation or autism. Similar to animals, these patients are often nonverbal and therefore their stereotypies are defined based entirely on behavioral signs, which is in contrast to OCDs in humans whereby the patient's cognitive experiences are a requisite part of the definition of the behavior. ...
... 38 Attention-seeking behavior, middle ear infection, and play have all also been suggested as potential causes of tail chasing behavior, in addition to the possible diagnosis of stereotypy or CD. 13 It is important for the clinician to keep in mind that numerous medical conditions can potentially lead to tail chasing behavior, and one documented case of tail mutilation responded to a combination of tramadol and a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory. 49 Self-mutilation is not always a component of tail chasing or spinning and in some cases may be considered a secondary problem to tail chasing. ...
Article
Abnormal repetitive behaviors (ARBs) represent a diverse group of behaviors whose underlying mechanism is poorly understood. Their neurobiology likely involves several different neurotransmitter systems. These behaviors have been referred to as compulsive disorders, obsessive compulsive disorders and stereotypies. Underlying medical conditions and pain can often cause changes in behavior that are mistaken for ARBs. A complete medical work-up is always indicated prior to reaching a presumptive diagnosis. The frequency of ARBs can be reduced but not always eliminated with the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) in conjunction with behavior modification and environmental enrichment.
... However there is little consensus on categorizing these behaviors, or their relationships to human symptoms (e.g. [26,49,52]). This confusion is well illustrated in the use of mouse stereotypies (e.g. ...
... This is particularly important as many (e.g. [57]) but not all (notably [52]) veterinary authors conceptualize all animal ARB as a homogenous entity analogous to human OCD. ...
Article
The NIMH's new strategic plan, with its emphasis on the "4P's" (Prediction, Pre-emption, Personalization, and Populations) and biomarker-based medicine requires a radical shift in animal modeling methodology. In particular 4P's models will be non-determinant (i.e. disease severity will depend on secondary environmental and genetic factors); and validated by reverse-translation of animal homologues to human biomarkers. A powerful consequence of the biomarker approach is that different closely related disorders have a unique fingerprint of biomarkers. Animals can be validated as a highly specific model of a single disorder by matching this 'fingerprint'; or as a model of a symptom seen in multiple disorders by matching common biomarkers. Here we illustrate this approach with two Abnormal Repetitive Behaviors (ARBs) in mice: stereotypies and barbering (hair pulling). We developed animal versions of the neuropsychological biomarkers that distinguish human ARBs, and tested the fingerprint of the different mouse ARBs. As predicted, the two mouse ARBs were associated with different biomarkers. Both barbering and stereotypy could be discounted as models of OCD (even though they are widely used as such), due to the absence of limbic biomarkers which are characteristic of OCD and hence are necessary for a valid model. Conversely barbering matched the fingerprint of trichotillomania (i.e. selective deficits in set-shifting), suggesting it may be a highly specific model of this disorder. In contrast stereotypies were correlated only with a biomarker (deficits in response shifting) correlated with stereotypies in multiple disorders, suggesting that animal stereotypies model stereotypies in multiple disorders.
... Burn [41] has previously highlighted the concerns of viewing abnormal behaviour such as excessive, repetitive tail-chasing in dogs as funny or in a light-hearted way (a phenomenon exacerbated by social media). This can result in a failure to seek help or even reinforcement of an issue, which can compromise dog welfare (see [42]). ...
Article
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Dog behavioural problems are one of the main reasons for dog relinquishment. Studies on how dog behavioural problems affect owner well-being are limited. We review the literature concerning the link between dog behavioural problems and owner well-being. We propose practical solutions to minimize the negative impacts of behavioural problems on human well-being and dog welfare, whilst suggesting future research directions. Twenty-one studies were included in the literature review. These indicate that dog behavioural problems may particularly reduce social interactions, and increase negative emotions of high arousal, such as stress and frustration, caregiver burden and symptoms of both depression and anxiety in their owners. To improve both owner well-being and dog welfare, we suggest targeting three areas: practical behavioural support for the dog–human dyad, social support for owners and psychological support for owners. Considering the lack of research in the field, further studies are needed to better understand the relationship between dog behavioural problems and human well-being, such as how the three areas previously mentioned may affect dog relinquishment and owner well-being.
... For example, the arrival of food can reinforce the behaviours exhibited just before the feeding takes place (Mason, 1993;Mellor, 2020;Anderson et al. 2020). In domestic animals, inadvertent reinforcement through gaining caregiver attention can cause unwanted behaviour (Mills & Luescher, 2006). Additionally, stereotypic behaviour itself could have a reinforcing effect if it allows the animal to better ‗cope' with stressors in the environment (Mason, 1991a;Würbel, 2006;. ...
Article
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Abnormal behaviours are common in captive animals, and despite a lot of research, the development, maintenance and alleviation of these behaviours are not fully understood. Here, we suggest that conditioned reinforcement can induce sequential dependencies in behaviour that are difficult to infer from direct observation. We develop this hypothesis using recent models of associative learning that include conditioned reinforcement and inborn facets of behaviour, such as predisposed responses and motivational systems. We explore three scenarios in which abnormal behaviour emerges from a combination of associative learning and a mismatch between the captive environment and inborn predispositions. The first model considers how abnormal behaviours, such as locomotor stereotypies, may arise from certain spatial locations acquiring conditioned reinforcement value. The second model shows that conditioned reinforcement can give rise to abnormal behaviour in response to stimuli that regularly precede food or other reinforcers. The third model shows that abnormal behaviour can result from motivational systems being adapted to natural environments that have different temporal structures than the captive environment. We conclude that models including conditioned reinforcement offer an important theoretical insight regarding the complex relationships between captive environments, inborn predispositions, and learning. In the future, this general framework could allow us to further understand and possibly alleviate abnormal behaviours.
... On the other hand, according to DSM-V criteria, compulsions correspond to repetitive behaviors that the individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession, or according to rules that must be rigidly applied. Thus, unlike iterative mental acts, repetitive behaviors occurring in animals can be observed (9). Alongside a potential role of a breed-dependent genetic susceptibility upon CD onset and severity (5, 7, 10), more additional reasons for the occurrence of such a pathological behavior are thought to include nutritional status, conflict situations, attention-seeking attitude, and neurological and dermatological diseases (11). ...
Article
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Compulsive disorder is a debilitating condition affecting both humans and animals, characterized by intrusive thoughts and recurring out-of-place behaviors. Among them, tail chasing might represent one of the most common traits in compulsive dogs. Herein, we reported the case of a 7-year-old intact male German Shepherd mixed-breed dog, presenting with tail chasing behavior. He underwent a first behavioral evaluation 1 year before (at the age of 6), when he injured himself with severe wounds at level of the tail and left thigh. To avoid any specific suffering and increase his physical health, of course, the study was carried out through an interdisciplinary approach, employing a veterinary behaviorist and a rehabilitating dog instructor. Three months after pharmacological treatment with fluoxetine and α-s1 casozepine, associated with a behavioral recovery program, the owner reported an improvement of compulsive events in his dog, in terms of intensity and frequency. Interestingly, over the following 3 months, the dog did not experience any new tail chasing episodes.
... Secondly, when exogenous pharmacological agents are employed to affect these systems, it is relevant the way of administration: the effects of direct injection into a brain region may be very different from the effects of oral, subcutaneous or intravenous administration. Thirdly, the effects of exogenous agents are usually dose-dependent, complicating the generalisation of findings regarding drug-induced behaviour [123]. ...
Article
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Background: Stereotypic behaviour can be defined as a clear behavioural pattern where a specific function or target cannot be identified, although it delays on time. Nonetheless, repetitive and stereotypical behaviours play a key role in both animal and human behaviour. Similar behaviours are observed across species, in typical human developmental phases, and in some neuropsychiatric conditions, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Intellectual Disability. This evidence led to the spread of animal models of repetitive behaviours to better understand the neurobiological mechanisms underlying these dysfunctional behaviours and to gain better insight into their role and origin within ASD and other disorders. This, in turn, could lead to new treatments of those disorders in humans. Method: This paper maps the literature on repetitive behaviours in animal models of ASD, in order to improve understanding of stereotypies in persons with ASD in terms of characterization, pathophysiology, genomic and anatomical factors. Results: Literature mapping confirmed that phylogenic approach and animal models may help to improve understanding and differentiation of stereotypies in ASD. Some repetitive behaviours appear to be interconnected and mediated by common genomic and anatomical factors across species, mainly by alterations of basal ganglia circuitry. A new distinction between stereotypies and autotypies should be considered. Conclusions: Phylogenic approach and studies on animal models may support clinical issues related to stereotypies in persons with ASD and provide new insights in classification, pathogenesis, and management.
... Some dog breeds are predisposed hereditarily to certain compulsive behaviours. For example, Bull Terriers and German Shepherds are commonly seen for tail chasing [49,50]. Labrador Retrievers exhibit oral compulsive behaviours such as pica, whereby the dog is driven to pick up any object and eat it. ...
Article
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This review summarizes the aetiology, the species and the prevalence of pathoethological processes of psychic nature in sheltered dogs. The analysis was performed on the mandatory necessity of establishing the type of the dog's temperament, in relation to the owners' proper approach towards the specific animal, as well as its successful primary and secondary socialisation. A neurotic dog may exhibit chronic anxiety, fear, hyperactivity, obsessive behaviour, and inappropriate responses to stimuli. Truly psychotic dogs, however, are deranged. Their behaviour is acute and unpredictable.
... There are several possible explanations for the relationship between high sensitivity (SPS/cSPS) and mental health and/or behaviour problems in both humans and dogs. Firstly, mental health and behaviour problems in humans 33,34 as well as behaviour problems in animals [35][36][37] are influenced by the ability of the individual to cope with stress. What is perceived as stressful depends on genetic predisposition, experience throughout life, individual differences in appraisal of the stimulus 38,39 and epigenetic influences 40 . ...
Article
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Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS) is a personality trait in humans characterised by a tendency to process information deeply, to be easily overstimulated, and to have strong emotional responses and an enhanced sensitivity to subtle stimuli. A trait similar to SPS has recently been identified in dogs (“canine Sensory Processing Sensitivity”, cSPS). In children, this trait interacts with parenting factors to influence emotional and mental development, which in turn are linked to behaviour problems. Paralleling these findings in humans, we demonstrate that cSPS interacts with owner personality and use of aversive communication to influence the likelihood of behaviour problems in dogs. More behaviour problems were reported for more highly sensitive dogs per se, when there was a relative mismatch between owner and dog personality, and when use of “negative punishment” was reported. These findings indicate that a dog’s personality might moderate how an individual is affected by environmental factors, particularly owner personality and communication style, emphasising the importance of considering individuality in prevention, development and treatment of behaviour problems in dogs.
... Unfortunately, there is a paucity of published peer-reviewed research concerning the treatment of ALD in dogs aside from investigations of medical approaches, mainly pharmaceutical interventions (Mills & Luescher, 2006). As such, traditional treatment approaches recommended by veterinarians include the use of physical deterrents (e.g., muzzles, Elizabethan collars), topical therapy, analgesics, and anti-anxiety medications (e.g., fluoxetine, clomipramine) (Beale, 2012;Rapoport et al., 1992). ...
Article
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Canine acral lick dermatitis (ALD) is the outcome of self-injurious behavior (SIB) characterized by excessive licking and biting most often of the dorsal forelimbs. In this single-subject study, the covert SIB of a ten-year-old Rottweiler/Shepherd mix was assessed to determine the variables controlling the occurrence and maintenance of the behavior. Following the assessment, the efficacy of non-contingent toys, contingent and non-contingent petting, and protective equipment were evaluated to reduce self-injury hypothesized to be maintained by automatic reinforcement. To eliminate the protective equipment (e.g., Elizabethan collar), two methods were investigated to remove the component while maintaining low levels of ALD. The treatment plan successfully reduced, and subsequently ameliorated the dog’s ALD for a year following the intervention. More work is needed to determine the applicability of these methods and to identify additional effective behavioral strategies to treat this, often debilitating, condition in dogs.
... Infolge einer Verhaltensstörung vermindern sich Anpassungs-und Leistungsfähigkeit des Organismus, d. h. die Beeinträchtigungen durch eine Verhaltensstörung betreffen überwiegend das Tier selbst, können aber auch mit Gefahren für den Menschen oder andere Tiere verbunden sein(17). Die folgenden Problemverhaltensweisen, die häufig als Gründe für eine Kastration angegeben werden, können dementsprechend nicht per se als Verhaltensstörung und somit als Indikation für eine Kastration angesehen werden (1, 5, 11): Eine Verstärkung ist möglich, wenn dem Problemverhalten überwiegend eine verhaltensbiologische und weniger eine hormonelle Ursache zugrunde liegt. ...
Article
Zusammenfassung Eine Kastration ist immer eine Amputation im Sinne des § 6, Abs. 1 Tierschutzgesetz. Die Indikationen für eine Kastration im Rahmen einer Tierverhaltenstherapie sind von klinisch indizierten Eingriffen zu unterscheiden, auch wenn es sich in beiden Fällen um eine therapeutische Maßnahme handelt. Ebenso wie die klinisch indizierten Eingriffe erfordern die tierverhaltenstherapeutischen Indikationen eine umfassende Diagnosestellung, sowohl aufgrund der individuell unterschiedlichen Genese als auch aufgrund der Schwierigkeit, im Vorfeld die Auswirkungen einer Kastration auf das zu therapierende Verhalten einzu-schätzen. Verbesserungen im Verhalten bei Rüden konnten bisher bei geschlechtsspezifischen Verhaltensproblemen nachgewiesen werden, insbesondere bei rangbezogener Aggression, Harnmarkieren, Stubenunreinheit, unerwünschtem Bespringen und Streunen. Bei Hündinnen gilt die übersteigerte maternale Aggression als Indikation. Bei der Einschätzung der potenziellen Auswirkungen der Kastration auf das individuelle Verhalten müssen die Lernerfahrung (z. B. bei „erfahrenen Deckrüden”), das Alter und die Gruppenzusammensetzung in einem Mehrhundehaushalt berücksichtigt werden. Die indirekten Einflüsse auf das Verhalten, beispielsweise eine Reduzierung der generellen Aktivität oder eine höhere Reizschwelle bei direkter Bedrohung durch Artgenossen (Rüden sind leichter ablenk-und somit trainierbar), machen für viele Besitzer den Umgang mit einem kastrierten Hund im Alltag leichter. Eine Kastration stellt allerdings kein Allheilmittel dar, um den Umgang mit Hunden zu erleichtern, sondern bedarf einer exakten tierverhaltenstherapeutischen Indikation, da sonst mit der Kastration gegen das Tierschutzgesetz verstoßen wird.
... Die oben beschriebenen Unterscheidungskriterien zwischen Stereotypien und Zwangsstörungen haben bisher noch nicht dazu geführt, dass in der Literatur entsprechende abnormal-repetitive Verhaltensmuster einheitlich dargestellt werden. In der angewandten Ethologie werden viele dieser Verhaltensmuster als Stereotypie bezeichnet (Bergeron et al., 2006;Clubb and Vickery, 2006;Mills and Luescher, 2006), wohingegen in der veterinärmedizinischen Literatur bei abnormalen Verhaltensweisen eher von Zwangsstörungen ausgegangen wird, denen die Stereotypien zugeordnet werden oder speziell bei Pferden immer noch von Untugenden gesprochen wird (Cronin und Wiepkema, 1984;Sambraus, 1991;Schäfer und Sambraus, 1996;Nicol, 2000;Mayer et al., 2002;Rushen, 2003). Alle möglichen Ursachen und Auslöser von Stereotypien und Zwangsstörungen bei den einzelnen Tierarten aufzulisten, würde den Rahmen dieses Artikels sprengen, deshalb wird beispielhaft auf einige allgemeingültige Grundsätze eingegangen und für eingehendere Aussagen auch bezüglich den Möglichkeiten einer Therapie auf die noch folgenden Artikel verwiesen. ...
Article
Despite the fact that livestock animals like companion pets have adapted through domestication to a life with human beings, they have the same demands on their environment as their feral conspecifics. Therefore, animal husbandry means keeping animals under conditions which are appropriate to the respective species. Livestock are known to respond to non-appropriate surroundings in ways which lead to serious physiological and behavioural problems. If attempts to adapt fail, abnormal behaviour patterns may result. Compulsive disorders or stereotypies often results from repeated or continued sub-optimal environmental conditions that prevent animals from exercising highly motivated behaviour. An animal's behaviour is the result of multifaceted interactions: endogenous and exogenous stimuli, past and present features of the environment, phylogenesis and behavioural ontogeny. It is difficult to assess the well-being of animals under current husbandry conditions simply by using compulsive disorders and stereotypes as welfare indicators. Consequently, it is not always possible to decrease the occurrence of abnormal behaviours and improve the well-being of an animal merely by optimising aspects of the given environment afterwards.
... We predicted that dogs with stereotypy would show higher resistance to extinction on an arbitrary novel task than dogs from a normal population. As previous research has differentiated between topographies of canine stereotypies and indicated that certain breeds have different topographies (Mills and Luescher, 2006), we also aimed to explore these additional variables in our data set. ...
Article
The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether dogs that exhibit stereotypy also show higher behavioral persistence in an extinction-learning task. Thirteen pet dogs with stereotypy and 13 breed-matched control dogs were assessed on a resistance to extinction test. Each dog was trained for 40 trials using a food reinforcer to nose-touch the experimenter's hand on a continuous reinforcement schedule. After acquisition, the dogs entered an extinction phase, during which food was no longer delivered. The numbers of nose-touches as well as inter-response times during this phase were recorded. A linear regression found that stereotypy status (t=-2.46, P=.027) and breed type (t=2.44, P=.023) were significant predictors of the number of responses in extinction. Dogs with stereotypy responded more in extinction than control dogs. The mean number of responses was 13.4 (SD=14.7) in the control group and 26.0 (SD=15.3) in the stereotypy group. These results suggest a link between previous laboratory and zoo animal findings on the neurophysiology of stereotypy and the pet dog population. They also have implications for the use of extinction procedures to reduce stereotypic behaviors in pet dogs, as these dogs show enhanced resistance to extinction.
... 5 Depending on the individual and the circumstances, the pet might respond passively with depressed behavior, or actively with a state of heightened arousal and possibly chronic displacement behaviors that may ultimately become stereotypic (eg, tail chasing). 47 Genetic factors inevitably play a role in the expression of specific displacement activities, for example, flank-sucking is often associated with Dobermans, 48 tail chasing and spinning with German shepherds and bull terriers, 49 and wool sucking with Oriental cat breeds. 50 However, it important to note that although genetic factors constitute a heightened risk for the development of the behavior, a stressor still needs to be present to trigger its expression. ...
Article
Stressors impact on all areas of a pet's life, potentially to the detriment of their well-being. In addition, should this lead to behavior change, it is likely to cause strain in the owner-pet relationship with an increased risk of relinquishment. Understanding why events may be perceived as stressful to a given individual is essential in remedying their effect. Clinicians need to be skilled in recognizing and categorizing potential stressors as well as auditing the background stress in the animal's environment as only once this has been accomplished can specific measures be implemented to reduce the effects of the stress load.
... Repetitive behavior focused on the tail is not uncommonly presented to behavior practitioners, however in most cases the dog will exhibit spinning or circling behavior as the most significant part of the behavior with the mutilation considered a less common secondary feature. Numerous etiologies need to be considered when repetitive behaviors are investigated, for example Mills and Luescher (2006) list 9 differentials for tail chasing behavior and included in this list is tail trauma. ...
Article
A 30 month old Labrador Retriever bitch with a history of atopy presented for acute onset tail biting which was leading to self mutilation. The problem began eight months prior to the consultation. It resolved after two months, but recurred three months later and continued for three months until the time of consultation. The current episode was difficult to interrupt and was being controlled through the use of an Elizabethan collar. There had been no history of injury to the tail. On examination of the tail an irregularity was palpated approximately mid way on the dorsal surface. Radiographs of the tail showed soft tissue swelling cranially and an ossicle present between the mid-caudal vertebrae. Mutilation stopped with administration of tramadol and paracetamol and started again when the medication was discontinued. No behavior modification was implemented. Although there is a possibility that the tramadol was treating a psychogenically driven self mutilation behavior, it is more likely that pain was the initiating cause for the behavior. This case report highlights the importance of careful medical evaluation of suspected behavioral problems and discusses the possible use of tramadol in self mutilation.
... Exaggerated, inappropriate and repetitive behaviours in animals are referred to as stereotypic or compulsive behaviours. These are often compared to symptoms of human OCD, although the existence of obsessive thoughts in animals remains controver- sial [9]. Stereotypic behaviour in animals (observed only in captive and/or domesticated animals) are suggested to be exaggerated forms of natural behaviours, such as feeding, locomotion or predation [10,11]. ...
Article
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Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a neuropsychiatric disorder observed both in humans and animals. Examples of Canine Compulsive Disorder (CD) include excessive tail chasing (TC), light/shadow chasing and flank sucking. We performed a questionnaire survey to investigate the characteristics of compulsive (TC) and its possible associations with environmental correlates and personality in a pet population of 368 dogs from four dog breeds. We observed an early onset of TC at 3-6 months of age and a large variation in TC frequency in all breeds, with an overrepresentation of milder cases. Almost half of the TC dogs showed lowered responsiveness during bouts and displayed also other types of compulsions more often than the controls. Interestingly, dogs that received dietary supplements, especially vitamins and minerals, expressed less TC compared to dogs that did not receive any supplements. Neutered females had less TC, suggesting an influence of ovarian hormones on TC. Tail chasers were shyer and had separated earlier from their mothers than the controls. Finally, our genetic study did not find an association between TC and CDH2, a locus previously associated with the canine flank sucking compulsion. In conclusion, the early-onset and the variable nature of the repetitive behaviour, which is affected by environmental factors such as micronutrients, neutering and maternal care, share several similar components between canine and human compulsions and supports canine TC as a model for human OCD.
... Infolge einer Verhaltensstörung vermindern sich Anpassungs-und Leistungsfähigkeit des Organismus, d. h. die Beeinträchtigungen durch eine Verhaltensstörung betreffen überwiegend das Tier selbst, können aber auch mit Gefahren für den Menschen oder andere Tiere verbunden sein(17). Die folgenden Problemverhaltensweisen, die häufig als Gründe für eine Kastration angegeben werden, können dementsprechend nicht per se als Verhaltensstörung und somit als Indikation für eine Kastration angesehen werden (1, 5, 11): Eine Verstärkung ist möglich, wenn dem Problemverhalten überwiegend eine verhaltensbiologische und weniger eine hormonelle Ursache zugrunde liegt. ...
Article
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... A range of activities termed 'abnormal repetitive behaviours' [1], 'restricted repetitive behaviours' [2], or 'stereotypic behaviours' [3,4] spontaneously occur in certain human clinical conditions (e.g. mental retardation, schizophrenia, or autism) and in some caged animals. ...
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... Second, when exogenous pharmacological agents are administered to affect these systems, it is relevant how this is done: the effects of direct injection into a brain region may be very different from the effects of oral administration or subcutaneous or intravenous injection. Third, the effects of exogenous agents are often dose-dependent, complicating the generalization of findings relating to drug-induced behavior (Mills and Luescher, 2006). ...
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Repetitive and stereotyped behavior is a prominent element of both animal and human behavior. Similar behavior is seen across species, in diverse neuropsychiatric disorders and in key phases of typical development. This raises the question whether these similar classes of behavior are caused by similar neurobiological mechanisms or whether they are neurobiologically unique? In this paper we discuss fundamental animal research and translational models. Imbalances in corticostriatal function often result in repetitive behavior, where different classes of behavior appear to be supported by similar neural mechanisms. Although the exact nature of these imbalances are not yet fully understood, synthesizing the literature in this area provides a framework for studying the neurobiological systems involved in repetitive behavior.
... Based on the individual effects that have been attributed to these psychopharmaceuticals, it is proposed that multiple neurotransmitters may be involved in the neurobiology of FDB. However, it is important to realize that many of the drugs have a general effect on all behaviour by either blocking or enhancing their 'direct' (execution of behaviour) and/or 'indirect' (inhibition of behaviour) pathway (Garner, 2006a;Lewis et al., 2006), potentially masking the symptoms rather than treating them (Mills and Luescher, 2006). ...
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Feather damaging behaviour (also referred to as feather picking or feather plucking) is a behavioural disorder that is frequently encountered in captive parrots. This disorder has many characteristics that are similar to trichotillomania, an impulse control disorder in humans. Unfortunately, to date much of the information regarding the aetiology and treatment in both syndromes is based on ‘expert’ opinion rather than on experimentally founded results. Comparative research in humans and parrots might therefore be mutually beneficial.
... Second, when exogenous pharmacological agents are administered to affect these systems, it is relevant how this is done: the effects of direct injection into a brain region may be very different from the effects of oral administration or subcutaneous or intravenous injection. Third, the effects of exogenous agents are often dose-dependent, complicating the generalisation of findings relating to drug-induced behaviour (Mills and Luescher 2006). Pharmacological modulation of repetitive behaviour: GABA and glutamate ...
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Repetitive behaviour in autism: Imaging pathways and trajectories Repetitive and rigid behaviour is one of the core symptoms of autism, a severe and lifelong child psychiatric disorder. Although repetitive behaviour symptoms often form a significant impairment for affected individuals, systematic study of the phenomenology and in particular the neurobiology of repetitive behaviour has been lacking. In this thesis we address this gap by using neuroimaging techniques (structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), diffusion tensor imaging and magnetisation transfer imaging) to investigate brain differences associated with repetitive behaviour in autism. We compared groups of individuals (children and adolescents, as well as adults) with and without autism and examined anatomical differences in specific structures and networks of the brain and related these to behavioural measurements. Furthermore, we explored the involvement of differences in developmental trajectories of these structures and networks in autism. Our studies showed differences in grey and white matter of the corticostriatal system, a complex of brain regions known to be involved in motor, cognitive and emotional-motivational behaviour. These differences were found in all age-groups studied, suggesting that the corticostriatal system continues to be involved in autism over development. Closer examination of the developmental trajectories of grey matter structures in striatum and white matter pathways between striatum and the frontal cortex showed differences in development of this brain network for individuals with autism. Furthermore, the studies in this thesis showed associations between corticostriatal grey and white matter and repetitive behaviour. In conclusion this thesis: - Implicates changed development of corticostriatal grey and white matter in autism, especially in the repetitive behaviour which characterises the disorder. - Emphasises the dynamics of the brain in autism: it is the time course of brain development rather than the outcome that seems to be most disturbed. - Emphasises that the brain needs to be considereda complexof inter- and intra-communicating networks in constant interaction with the environment, rather than a collection of isolated structures or regions. - Highlights the need for research strategies that take the heterogeneity of autism into account: Narrow the field of view by reclassifying autism as more homogeneous and well-phenotyped symptom-groups. - Highlights the need for research strategies that take the etiologic overlap with other disorders into account:Broaden the field of view by including other diagnostic groups with similar symptomatology.
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Chapter
Behavioral welfare concerns for shelter pets can be a result of the shelter environment itself or due to behavior disorders preexisting the intake of a sheltered pet. Addressing immediate welfare concerns and anticipating long‐term behavior concerns can help to improve adoptability, facilitate a smoother transition to the new home, and often lead to a shorter‐term treatment overall for shelter animals. Understanding the indications and goals for behavior medication use, factors to consider prior to prescribing, requirements to prescribe, monitoring, and medication choices are keys to success. Practitioners must also recognize that behavioral medications should not be used alone, without a working diagnosis, and other aspects of a treatment plan (environmental management, behavior modification). Even shelters with limited resources can do something to meet the requirements of a comprehensive behavior treatment plan that includes the use of medications to improve shelter animal health and welfare.
Chapter
Over the last 150 years, animal sheltering has evolved from its origins as a public health and safety industry to one that also highly prioritizes animal health and welfare. Animal welfare science has also expanded during this time and provides objective, evidence‐based approaches to the assessment of animals’ experiences both in and outside of the shelter setting, as well as means by which to guide quality of life judgments made by animal caretakers. Many questions around animal welfare and quality of life inherently involve ethical determinations. A variety of ethical decision‐making frameworks can be used for these purposes and may carry the benefits of inclusivity, transparency, objectivity, and minimization of moral stress.
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Big cats are often on display in zoos around the world. The study of their time budget is the basis of ethological research in captivity. The paper considers the features of the behavior of the subfamily Pantherinae, the daily activity of animals in the summer, methods of keeping, the exposition of enclosures, and relationships with keepers. The studies were conducted in the summer of 2012 and 2013 at the Barnaul Zoo. The total observation time for the animals was 120 hours. The behavior of the African lion (Panthera leo leo – male), the Ussuri tiger (Panthera tigris altaica – female), and the Amur leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis – male) has been studied. In the course of the work, the compilation of ethograms, continuous recording, and free observations were used. The clustering method was applied to analyze the patterns of behavior of animals in captivity. Cluster analysis breaks down the behavior of captivities animals into two large blocks. Locomotion in animals should be considered as a separate block. The animal’s growth and development period require a high proportion of physical activity, which is noticeable when observing the Amur tiger. Locomotion occupied 32.8% of the total time budget of this animal. Large cats have never been in a shelter (in wooden structures of the appropriate size). They used the roof of the houses only as a place for rest and observation. The proportion of marking, hunting, eating, exploratory behavior, grooming, and such forms of behavior as freezing, static position, orienting reaction did not differ significantly. Play behavior with elements of hunting and manipulative activity took 5.5% of the Amur tiger’s time budget for the period under review. We associate this primarily with the age of the given animal. Play behavior was observed two times less often in the Far Eastern leopard (2.9%) and African lion (2.6%)..
Article
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Thesis
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Im Sinne des Refinements von Tierversuchen sollen alle Bedingungen während der Zucht, der Haltung und des Transports von zu Versuchszwecken gehaltenen Tieren und alle Methoden während des Versuchs so verbessert werden, dass die verwendeten Tiere ein minimales Maß an potentiellem Distress, Schmerzen oder Leiden erfahren. Zudem soll ihr Wohlbefinden durch die Möglichkeit des Auslebens speziesspezifischer Verhaltensweisen und die Anwendung tierschonender Verfahren maximal gefördert werden. Zur Etablierung von Grundsätzen des Refinements sind grundlegende Kenntnisse über die physiologischen Bedürfnisse und Verhaltensansprüche der jeweiligen Spezies unabdingbar. Die Experimentatoren sollten das Normalverhalten der Tiere kennen, um potentielle Verhaltensabweichungen, wie Stereotypien, zu verstehen und interpretieren zu können. Standardisierte Haltungsbedingungen von zu Versuchszwecken gehaltenen Mäusen weichen in diversen Aspekten von der natürlichen Umgebung ab und erfordern eine gewisse Adaptation. Ist ein Tier über einen längeren Zeitraum unfähig, sich an die gegebenen Umstände anzupassen, können abnormale Verhaltensweisen, wie Stereotypien auftreten. Stereotypien werden definiert als Abweichungen vom Normalverhalten, die repetitiv und ohne Abweichungen im Ablauf ausgeführt werden, scheinbar keiner Funktion dienen und der konkreten Umweltsituation nicht immer entsprechen. Bisher war unklar, in welchem Ausmaß stereotypes Verhalten den metabolischen Phänotyp eines Individuums beeinflusst. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es daher, das stereotype Verhalten der FVB/NJ-Maus erstmals detailliert zu charakterisieren, systematisch zusammenzutragen, welche metabolischen Konsequenzen dieses Verhalten bedingt und wie sich diese auf das Wohlbefinden der Tiere und die Verwendung stereotyper Tiere in Studien mit tierexperimentellem Schwerpunkt auswirken. Der Versuch begann mit der Charakterisierung der mütterlichen Fürsorge in der Parentalgeneration. Insgesamt wurden 35 Jungtiere der F1-Generation vom Absatz an, über einen Zeitraum von 11 Wochen einzeln gehalten, kontinuierlich beobachtet, bis zum Versuchsende wöchentlich Kotproben gesammelt und das Körpergewicht bestimmt. Zusätzlich erfolgten begleitende Untersuchungen wie Verhaltenstests und die Erfassung der physischen Aktivität und metabolischer Parameter. Anschließend wurden u.a. die zerebralen Serotonin- und Dopamingehalte, fäkale Glucocorticoidlevels, hepatisches Glykogen und muskuläre Glykogen- und Triglyceridlevels bestimmt. Nahezu unabhängig von der mütterlichen Herkunft entwickelte sich bei mehr als der Hälfte der 35 Jungtiere in der F1-Generation stereotypes Verhalten. Diese Daten deuten darauf hin, dass es keine Anzeichen für das Erlernen oder eine direkte genetische Transmission stereotypen Verhaltens bei der FVB/NJ-Maus gibt. Über den gesamten Beobachtungszeitraum zeichneten sich die stereotypen FVB/NJ-Mäuse durch ein eingeschränktes Verhaltensrepertoire aus. Zu Gunsten der erhöhten Aktivität und des Ausübens stereotypen Verhaltens lebten sie insgesamt weniger andere Verhaltensweisen (Klettern, Graben, Nagen) aus. Darüber hinaus waren Stereotypien sowohl im 24-Stunden Open Field Test als auch in der Messeinrichtung der indirekten Tierkalorimetrie mit einer erhöhten Aktivität und Motilität assoziiert, während die circadiane Rhythmik nicht divergierte. Diese erhöhte körperliche Betätigung spiegelte sich in den niedrigeren Körpergewichtsentwicklungen der stereotypen Tiere wieder. Außerdem unterschieden sich die Körperfett- und Körpermuskelanteile. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass das Ausüben stereotypen Verhaltens zu Differenzen im metabolischen Phänotyp nicht-stereotyper und stereotyper FVB/NJ-Mäuse führt. Im Sinne der „Guten Wissenschaftlichen Praxis“ sollte das zentrale Ziel jedes Wissenschaftlers sein, aussagekräftige und reproduzierbare Daten hervorzubringen. Jedoch können keine validen Resultate von Tieren erzeugt werden, die in Aspekten variieren, die für den vorgesehenen Zweck der Studie nicht berücksichtigt wurden. Deshalb sollten nicht-stereotype und stereotype Individuen nicht innerhalb einer Versuchsgruppe randomisiert werden. Stereotype Tiere demzufolge von geplanten Studien auszuschließen, würde allerdings dem Gebot des zweiten R’s – der Reduction – widersprechen. Um Refinement zu garantieren, sollte der Fokus auf der maximal erreichbaren Prävention stereotypen Verhaltens liegen. Diverse Studien haben bereits gezeigt, dass die Anreicherung der Haltungsumwelt (environmental enrichment) zu einer Senkung der Prävalenz von Stereotypien bei Mäusen führt, dennoch kommen sie weiterhin vor. Daher sollte environmental enrichment zukünftig weniger ein „Kann“, sondern ein „Muss“ sein – oder vielmehr: der Goldstandard. Zudem würde eine profunde phänotypische Charakterisierung dazu beitragen, Mausstämme zu erkennen, die zu Stereotypien neigen und den für den spezifischen Zweck am besten geeigneten Mausstamm zu identifizieren, bevor ein Experiment geplant wird.
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The field of clinical animal behavior has a growing scientific basis, with three main paradigms having different perspectives on the assessment of animal emotion. The Behavioral approach, grounded in classical behaviorism, makes little reference to emotion in assessment, despite covert recognition of its importance. The Medical approach, drawing on human psychiatric approaches, emphasizes the importance of physical evidence (behavior descriptions and physiological parameters) for validation of diagnoses centred on abnormality and disorder. The more recent Psychobiological approach synthesizes affective neuroscience, ethology and psychology to propose a systematic and rational framework for making inferences about emotion, that result in the construction of testable (falsifiable) hypotheses relating to four domains derived from component process theory using field-based evidence.
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Despite the fact that livestock animals like companion pets have adapted through domestication to a life with human beings, they have the same demands on their environment as their feral conspecifics. Therefore, animal husbandry means keeping animals under conditions which are appropriate to the respective species. Livestock are known to respond to non-appropriate surroundings in ways which lead to serious physiological and behavioural problems. If attempts to adapt fail, abnormal behaviour patterns may result. Compulsive disorders or stereotypies often results from repeated or continued sub-optimal environmental conditions that prevent animals from exercising highly motivated behaviour. An animal's behaviour is the result of multifaceted interactions: endogenous and exogenous stimuli, past and present features of the environment, phylogenesis and behavioural ontogeny. It is difficult to assess the well-being of animals under current husbandry conditions simply by using compulsive disorders and stereotypes as welfare indicators. Consequently, it is not always possible to decrease the occurrence of abnormal behaviours and improve the well-being of an animal merely by optimising aspects of the given environment afterwards.
Article
Various studies indicate that reduced levels of serotonin in the blood are associated with the aetiology of abnormal-repetitive behaviour (ARB). The precursor of serotonin is tryptophan, an essential amino acid that is absorbed from the diet. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether an increase in oral absorption of tryptophan would stimulate serotonin production resulting in an (selective) improvement of ARBs in dogs. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study, 29 dogs with various ARB (circling, coprophagia, canine licking granuloma, light chasing and shadow staring) received a dietary supplement of 16 mg/kg tryptophan and were observed for seven weeks. There was no significant improvement in the duration or frequency of ARB. Regardless of the feeding treatment, dogs with coprophagia showed a significant improvement in the course of the study (p = 0.015). In addition, a significant correlation between coprophagia and confrontation with faeces was observed (p = 0.026). Taken together, oral administration of tryptophan as a dietary supplement does not seem to be generally effective against ARB in dogs. However, further studies under controlled conditions are needed before tryptophan in the diet may be disregarded as a potential therapeutic approach.
Article
Identifying the causal factors and triggers of abnormal-oral behaviours is a key point in successful small animal behaviour therapy. Moreover, knowing about such causal factors seems to help some owners to recognise that they themselves are not solely responsible for the development of abnormal behaviour in their dogs. However, triggers causing the level of the dog's abnormal behaviour do stem from the current owner-animal interactions and environment conditions. The diagnosis of abnormal-oral behaviours (e. g. repetitive self-licking, flank sucking, coprophagia) should begin with a reliable exclusion of medical problems that might also cause such behavioural signs. Furthermore, behaviour problems like attention-seeking behaviour that the dog has learned from human-dog interaction, have to be differentiated. Treatment always starts with changing the animal's environment to eliminate the existing triggers and reduce the general level of the dog's arousal. Altering the behaviour of a dog is based on changing people's reaction to it. Pharmacological intervention may be necessary in more serious, long-standing cases which considerably disturb the well-being of the dog as well as owner-dog companionship. Due to the fact that there are many environmental and medical causes of abnormal-oral behaviours, total prevention seems impossible. Nevertheless, not all dogs, e. g. those with an adverse history, develop abnormal-oral behaviours. There are several factors, e. g. physiological and psychological exercises relating to age and breed, which can reduce a dog's susceptibility to abnormal behaviours.
Article
Background: Relationships have been established between trichoglyphs (whorls) and temperament, laterality and the occurrence of abnormal behaviour in multiple species. Within the equine industry stereotypic behaviour is considered to impair performance and reduce value in affected individuals, potentially reducing career longevity and compromising welfare through preventing their expression when they occur. Aim: The study aimed to determine whether dermatoglyph profiles (whorl morphology, orientation, number and topography) could be used to predict susceptibility to perform abnormal repetitive behaviours (ARB) in thoroughbred racehorses. Method: Trainer interviews combined with experimenter direct observation were used to ascertain expression of ARBs. Whorls were digitally photographed and overall whorl profiles derived using remote computer analysis. Results: Non-parametric statistical analysis revealed significant relationships between aspects of whorl morphology and performance of ARBs (round epicentre: sum ARBs p<0.05; round gross morphology: sum ARBs p<0.0001), orientation and distribution (abdominal trichoglyph orientation asymmetry: sum ARBs p<0.05; clockwise orientation: sum ARBs p<0.05 and social stereotypies p<0.05). Conclusion: This study indicates that whorls may be viable physical indicators of predisposition to perform ARBs in the thoroughbred. Assessment of dermatoglyph profiles have potential to assist with the improvement of horse welfare via informed management practices if patterns exposed are transferable to other breeds and can reliably predict individuals with a propensity to develop ARBs.
Article
Repetitive behaviour is common in kennelled dogs, yet its motivational basis remains relatively unexplored. We examine the repetitive behaviour of 30 kennelled working dogs in ten contexts both coinciding with, and in the absence of, commonly occurring arousing stimuli, such as care staff, other dogs and food preparation. A large proportion (93%) of subjects performed some repetitive behaviour, most commonly bouncing, but only 17% in the absence of the arousing stimuli. Subjects could be divided into four groups according to the stimuli eliciting, and the duration, of their repetitive behaviour, and these groups were compared on the basis of their cortisol response to an acute psychogenic stressor - a veterinary examination. Urinary cortisol/creatinine response curves differed significantly between the groups. In particular, those dogs which performed repetitive behaviour at times of minimal stimulation, showed a distinctly different pattern of response, with cortisol levels decreasing, as compared to increasing, after the veterinary examination. We conclude that dogs showing repetitive behaviours at times of high arousal are motivationally distinct from those "stereotyping" in the absence of stimulation. We suggest that those dogs showing spontaneous repetitive behaviours may have past experiences and/or temperaments that affect both their reactions to a veterinary examination and to long-term kennelling. For example, some dogs may find isolation from humans particularly aversive, hence affecting their reactions both to being left in a kennel and to being taken to the veterinary surgery. Alternatively, such dogs may have atypical responsiveness of their hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, possibly brought about through chronic stress. High levels of repetitive behaviours in response to inaccessible husbandry events may be explained if such behaviour has inadvertently been reinforced by attention from staff, and therefore may not always be indicative of aversion to kennelling or compromised welfare.
Article
This paper summarises recent findings on the causation of stereotypic behaviours and other abnormal repetitive behaviours (ARBs) in captive animals: primarily motivational frustration and/or brain dysfunction, with possible contributory roles also being played by habit-formation and ‘coping’ effects. We then review the extent to which ARBs occur in zoos and similar, estimating that at least 10000 captive wild animals are affected worldwide. We argue for ‘zero tolerance’ of such ARBs, because stress and poor welfare raise ethical issues, while abnormal behavioural phenotypes and possibilities of impaired brain development challenge both the indirect (e.g. educational) and the direct, intrinsic conservation value of affected animals. We then consider five potential means by which ARBs may be tackled: genetic selection; pharmacological treatment; the reinforcement of alternative behaviours; punishment; and environmental enrichment. All except punishment have potentially useful roles to play, but enrichment is the preferred approach: it is most likely to tackle the problems underlying stereotypic behaviours, and thence to improve both welfare and behaviour with few unwanted side-effects. Nevertheless, in zoos, environmental enrichment to date has only had partial success, with no study managing to abolish ARBs in all its subjects—suggesting either that the enrichments currently being used are never quite optimal, or that by the time they are tackled, ARBs have become resistant to change. We suggest some ways in which the effectiveness of enrichments may be enhanced; propose that certain properties of ARBs may usefully help evaluate their likely ‘treatability’; and emphasise that if improving welfare is more important than just reducing ARB, then additional measures are needed in order to first, reliably identify those individuals most at risk from poor welfare, and then, to fully evaluate the welfare impact of enrichments. This paper also emphasises, with examples, the enormous potential value of zoo-derived data for helping understand how taxon, ecological niche, rearing history, and current housing together affect animals’ responses to captivity.
Article
Stereotypies are common in captive animals; yet, their underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. One hypothesis [Garner, J.P., 1999. The aetiology of stereotypy in caged animals. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Oxford, UK] proposes them to be symptoms of altered behavioural organisation (behavioural disinhibition) mediated by striatal dysfunction, and thus, fundamentally analogous to the repetitive behaviours associated with human pathologies such as schizophrenia and autism, or induced in animals by stimulant drugs and striatal lesions. Consistent with this, we previously showed stereotypy frequency to be positively correlated with inappropriate responding during the extinction phase of learning, a measure of 'perseveration' consistent with striatal dysfunction, in caged bears [Vickery, S.S., Mason, G.J., 2003. Behavioral persistence in captive bears: implications for reintroduction. Ursus 14, 35–43]. Here, adding new data, we strengthen this finding and look for further evidence of striatal involvement. Twenty-one bears of two species (Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) and Malayan sun bears (Helarctos malayanus)) were taught a simple food rewarded spatial discrimination task. Home cage stereotypy levels ranged between 1 and 45% of all observations (S.E. = 2.75), and high and low stereotypy bears did not differ in the ease with which they learnt the task. However, when responses were no longer rewarded (i.e. food rewards were withheld), as predicted, the most stereotypic animals took the longest to extinguish responding. Contrary to some previous studies, however, further evidence of striatal involvement was limited: behavioural switching rates were not related to stereotypy frequency or to perseveration, and levels of normal activity were only weakly related to perseveration (a trend), leaving the mechanism underlying the relationship between stereotypy and perseveration in these animals unclear.
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We compared the acute effects of intragastric administration of protein and carbohydrate on tryptophan and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT) in rat brain, pineal, intestine, and pancreas. Protein decreased and carbohydrate increased brain indoles relative to water-infused controls. These effects were due to competition between the large neutral amino acids for entry into the brain. This competition does not exist in the pineal. The macronutrients had no effect on pineal tryptophan metabolism. In the intestine, protein resulted in higher tryptophan levels as compared to controls, owing to absorption of tryptophan in the protein. However intestinal 5HT levels were influenced by factors other than precursor availability. Pancreatic indoles were affected in a similar manner to the brain indoles. Competition between the large neutral amino acids for entry into the pancreas was also indicated by the finding that valine administration lowered brain and pancreatic tryptophan, but not the levels in the intestine and pineal. It remains to be seen whether the decrease in pancreatic 5HT after a protein meal and the increase after carbohydrate modulate the release of insulin and glucagon.
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Effects on environmentally induced oral stereotypies (object pecking and drinker-directed activity) and other behavior (sitting, standing, pacing, preening), of preferential antagonists and agonists of central 5-HT and GABA receptor subtypes, were examined in individually caged broiler breeder fowls subjected to chronic food restriction. All drugs were injected intravenously at three doses, and their effects compared with a saline control treatment. The only significant (p < 0.05) effect of 5-HT antagonists [NAN-190 (5-HT1A), ketanserin (5-HT2), MDL-72222 (5-HT3)] was an increase in pacing with ketanserin (0.8 mg/kg). With 5-HT agonists, 8-OH-DPAT (5-HT1A) suppressed the two oral stereotypies and increased standing (all 1.0 mg/kg) and preening (0.2 mg/kg), alpha-methylserotonin (5-HT2) suppressed the oral stereotypies and increased sitting (all 1.0 mg/kg), and m-CPBG (5-HT3) suppressed drinker-directed activity (1.0 mg/kg). The GABA antagonists (bicuculline (GABAA), 5-aminovaleric acid (GABAB) had no effect, and of the GABA agonists [muscimol (GABAA), baclofen (GABAB)], muscimol suppressed preening and increased sitting, standing (all 1.0 mg/kg), and pacing (0.2 mg/kg). Most of the significant effects of serotonergic and GABAergic agents on behavior here appeared to reflect at least some degree of sedation, and there was no real evidence of any specific influence of these compounds on the oral stereotypies within the range of doses tested.
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Stereotypical behaviors are common in captive animals, particularly captive polar bears. Effects of oral administration of fluoxetine on chronic stereotypical and typical behaviors in a captive polar bear were monitored. Fluoxetine treatment terminated stereotypic pacing behavior, facial tic, and huffing/coughing activity. The expression of typical polar bear behaviors was not affected by fluoxetine treatment, although the proportion of time spent engaged in typical behaviors changed during the course of the observation period. Response of the bear to fluoxetine treatment indicated that pharmacologic manipulation of the serotonergic system can safely eliminate stereotypical behaviors in captive polar bears.
Article
Compulsive tail chasing in dogs is a stereotypic or obsessive-compulsive disorder that is seen most frequently in Bull Terriers and German Shepherds. It is a displacement activity associated with unresolved conflict that may be due to any of a multitude of different aversive circumstances. Successful management depends very much on the ability of the clinician to identify and eliminate the preventable factors, and on the vigilance of the owner in implementing the appropriate environmental changes. Management procedures are dictated by the need to eliminate or reduce all controllable predisposing factors, to break the habit, and to minimise exposure to the stimuli that evoke the behaviour. Remedial action is based on behavioural therapy (such as desensitization or counterconditioning), with or without concomitant drug therapy.
Article
The effect of orally administered tryptophan on horses' reaction to acute isolation stress was studied in two groups of mature mares. Group 1 consisted of six Standardbred mares, Group 2 had two Standardbreds and two Arabians. Three oral doses of tryptophan (0.1, 0.05 and 0 mg kg−1) were administered in 14 g of confectioners sugar 2 h prior to testing in a 3×3 latin square design (two mares per treatment day−1 in Group 1, one mare per treatment day−1 in two treatments and two in the third in Group 2). The horses were isolated in a totally enclosed stall (5.3 m × 4.2 m) for 15 min (isolation environment). Behavior and heart rate were recorded continuously by video camera and a heart rate monitor, respectively. Blood samples were taken by venipuncture immediately before and after isolation. Four hours after dosing the horses were placed in the stall as before, but allowed visual contact with another mare (visual contact environment).
Article
PART 1 of this article, published in the last issue, described an approach to the medical investigation of feather plucking in psittacine birds. However, even when medical causes of plucking have been identified, most cases will be multifactorial in origin and so rarely resolve permanently with a single therapy. When presented with a plucking bird, it is generally necessary to take a holistic view of the bird's lifestyle to ascertain whether other non-medical triggers are also involved. This article discusses the social and behavioural/psychological factors associated with feather plucking and suggests how affected birds might be managed.
Article
Acral lick dermatitis (ALD) is a condition described in dogs that is believed to be an animal model of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) in humans. In both conditions, serotonergic neural dysfunction is believed to be responsible for aberrant grooming behaviour. ALD is the first animal model proposed for a psychiatric condition. Serotonergic antidepressants are recommended as first line treatment in OCD. However, many patients have been discouraged from using these by reports of aggression and suicide-inducing effects of these drugs. This study examined behavioural effects of a 2 month extension phase of fluoxetine treatment in dogs previously diagnosed with ALD. A 2 month extension phase on fluoxetine 20 mg daily, immediately followed on a 6 week double blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine in 63 dogs with ALD, diagnosed for at least 6 months. The Dodman scales measured excitability, fearfulness, dominance and territorial aggression at the start and end of the 2 month extension phase. Excitability was rated in four settings, referred to as questions 1 to 4. Fifty-four dogs completed the extension phase. Three subjects were withdrawn with no reason given, one for vomiting on fluoxetine. At the end of the extension phase, the analysis of variance showed no significant difference between dogs who received placebo or fluoxetine during the original trial, for scores of fearfulness (p=0·127), dominance (p=0·274) or territorial aggression (p=0·172). Excitability also caused no significant difference on the four questions (p1=0·822, p2=0·607, p3=0·975, p4=0·820). After the extension phase, owners assessed dogs as being neither more aggressive nor anxious. Particularly, there was no difference in levels of dominance aggression (p=1). Using the paired t-test there was no statistically significant difference between scores obtained both at the end of the 6 week trial and the extension phase for fearfulness (p=0·128), dominance aggression (p=1·0), territorial aggression (p=0·422) and excitability (p1=0·487, p2=0·571, p3=0·711, p4=0·086). These results may serve to refute further the reports of the emergence of impulsive aggression in human subjects on fluoxetine treatment as no significant behavioural changes were noted in the dogs treated with fluoxetine for ALD. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Article
Psychotropic drugs often are helpful in the treatment of selected behavior problems in dogs and cats. Drug therapy is rarely curative by itself and in most cases is only indicated as ancillary therapy in a behavior modification program. Very few of the psychoactive drugs are approved for use in companion animals, and owners should be made aware that their use is considered experimental. Before prescribing any of the psychotropic drugs, veterinarians should be thoroughly familiar with dosages, side effects, and contraindications. Some of the more common behavior problems in which drug therapy may be useful are reviewed.
Article
Captivity-induced stereotypies in bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) were inhibited at the age of 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 months by 0.2 mg/kg haloperidol s.c., while 35 mg/kg naloxone s.c. only inhibited them at the age of 4-6 months. Other activities were not significantly inhibited. The change in the naloxone effect was not due to desensitization as animals treated only at 6 or 8 months reacted similarly. It is suggested that the expression of such stereotypies is influenced by endogeneous brain opioid peptides during an early stage of their development, but that thereafter only motoric automatisms remain, essentially under dopaminergic control.
Article
We evaluated 2 narcotic antagonists, naltrexone and nalmefene, for treatment of refractory self-licking, self-chewing, and scratching behavior in dogs. Eleven dogs with various irritative or pruritic disorders were medicated with naltrexone (1 mg/kg of body weight, sc) or nalmefene (1 to 4 mg/kg, sc), after a period of control observation during which the dogs had not been medicated. The time for which the dogs were involved in self-licking, self-chewing, or scratching was determined retrospectively by analysis of videotapes. The rates of involvement in either activity before and after treatment were calculated and compared statistically. Treatment with a narcotic antagonist significantly reduced the time spent self-licking, self-chewing, or scratching in 7 of 11 dogs, was partially effective in 3 dogs, and was ineffective in one dog. Dogs with acral lick dermatitis responded most to treatment.
Article
Serotonin uptake inhibitors (SUIs) have been established as the first-line pharmacotherapy of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). However, approximately one half of patients who receive an adequate trial with these agents remain clinically unchanged. The addition of drugs that enhance serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmission, such as lithium and buspirone, to ongoing treatment in SUI-refractory patients has generally proved to be an ineffective strategy. The addition of dopamine antagonists to the regimens of SUI-resistant patients appears to be a useful approach for OCD patients with a comorbid chronic tic disorder (e.g., Tourette's syndrome) and possibly for those with concurrent psychotic spectrum disorders. These drug response data suggest that both the 5-HT and dopamine systems may be involved in the treatment, and possibly the pathophysiology, of specific subtypes of OCD.
Article
Background: This study examined the effect of longterm (mean, 19 months) treatment with clomipramine hydrochloride on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of several neuropeptides and monoamine metabolites in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Methods: The CSF levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone, vasopressin, somatostatin, and oxytocin and of the monoamine metabolites 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid, homovanillic acid, and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol were measured in 17 children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder before and after longterm treatment with clomipramine. Results: Treatment resulted in significant decreases in CSF levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone (mean±SD, 175±32 vs 152±25 pmol/L, P<.03) and vasopressin (mean±SD, 1.30±0.57 vs 0.86±0.54 pmol/L, P<.02) and a trend toward a decrease in somatostatin levels (mean±SD, 21.3±8.5 vs 15.3±9.8 pmol/L, P<.06). Treatment also significantly increased CSF oxytocin levels (mean±SD, 6.05±1.60 vs 6.70±1.44 pmol/L, P<.01). Significant changes in CSF monoamine metabolite levels with treatment included significant decreases in CSF levels of 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid (mean±SD, 109±31 vs 77±23 pmol/mL, P<.001), CSF homovanillic acid (mean±SD, 273±111 vs 237±101 pmol/mL, P<.04), and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (mean±SD, 42.4±10.2 vs 36.1 ±4.8 pmol/L, P<.02) and a significant increase in the homovanillic acid—5-hydroxyin-dolacetic acid ratio (mean±SD, 2.44±0.46 vs 3.42±0.84, P<.0001). Conclusions: These neuropeptide results coupled with evidence that central administration of corticotropinreleasing hormone, vasopressin, and somatostatin to laboratory animals increases arousal and acquisition of conditioned behaviors whereas central administration of oxytocin has opposite behavioral effects are consistent with a role for these neuropeptides in the pathophysiologic processes and pharmacologic treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Article
A comprehensive review of controlled investigations examining the effectiveness of exposure with response prevention (ERP) and clomipramine (CMI), as well as other serotonergic anti-depressants, in the treatment of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) was conducted. Overall, findings suggested that ERP is more effective than CMI, particularly in alleviating rituals, but CMI may be more effective in reducing obsessive compulsive behavior among individuals with concomitant severe depression, obsessions only, and overvalued ideation. In addition, the literature favors ERP in terms of side-effects and risks, dropout, and maintenance, while one advantage of drug therapy is that less time and effort are required by the therapist and patient. Directions for interdisciplinary treatment are discussed.
Article
In a double-blind cross-over study the effect of a single injection of naloxone (1 mg/kg s.c.) was investigated in 12 cats which suffered from excessive grooming with subsequent coat damage. Based on clinical observations and reports of the owners, naloxone had a beneficial effect on grooming which lasted between 2.5 weeks and 6 months (median 3 months). In another double-blind placebo-controlled study the effect of a single injection of haloperidol (2 mg/kg i.v.) was investigated in 20 cats with excessive grooming. Within 24 h haloperidol significantly reduced the time spent grooming. Four months after the injection no effect remained in nine of 10 cats injected with a placebo solution, whereas six of 10 cats injected with haloperidol the improved condition of the coat was maintained. It is hypothesized that naloxone is only effective in counteracting recently developed stereotypic behaviors and that haloperidol rather reduces stereotyped behaviors over a longer period.
Article
Tourette Syndrome (TS) is a disorder comprised of involuntary motor and phonic tics often associated with psychiatric conditions. The etiology for TS is unclear, with both genetic and immunological theories being studied to date. When pharmacotherapy is considered by the patient and physician to be required, owing to either functional impairment from tics or comorbid psychiatric illness, dopamine receptor antagonists are commonly used. Our first-line agents for tic suppression include clonidine, guanfacine, clonazepam and baclofen. Should these agents be ineffective, we would recommend pimozide, fluphenazine, risperidone or haloperidol. The potential benefit of other agents, such as olanzapine, ziprasidone, pergolide and botulinum toxin, is encouraging. Despite many years of concern, we have found little exacerbation of tics with stimulant medications for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, but clearly clonidine and guanfacine can ameliorate both comorbid conditions. Obsessive compulsive disorder, when associated with TS, may be treated with either a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in association with a dopamine receptor antagonist or risperidone alone. New therapies for all aspects of TS and its comorbid conditions are in active clinical trials.
Article
Primates reared in captivity may display stereotypic behaviors. These behaviors are arguably reminiscent of human obsessive-compulsive or posttraumatic symptoms, which respond to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Captive primates with marked stereotypic behaviors were entered into a randomized controlled study of the SSRI, fluoxetine. A sample of 10 vervet monkeys with behaviors such as marked saluting, somersaulting, weaving, or head tossing was selected. Subjects were randomized to receive fluoxetine 1 mg/kg for 6 weeks (n=5) or no treatment (n=5). A rater blind to the medication status of subjects noted the frequency of the stereotypic behaviors. Repeated-measures analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA) demonstrated a significant GroupxTime difference with significantly fewer stereotypic symptoms in the fluoxetine group by endpoint. At this time, three of the five fluoxetine-treated subjects (but none of the no-treatment subjects) were responders on the Clinical Global Impressions (CGI) change item (CGI < or =2). Stereotypic behaviors in captive vervets gradually and partially decrease in response to administration of an SSRI, paralleling research on human anxiety symptoms. Further research on animal stereotypies may be useful in providing appropriate veterinary care, and in exploring the underlying neurobiology of certain psychiatric disorders.
Article
This double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was performed to evaluate the efficacy of clomipramine for the treatment of feather picking disorder in otherwise healthy cockatoos. Twenty cockatoos with chronic feather picking disorder were screened for medical conditions and then randomly assigned to either a clomipramine or placebo group. Based on caregiver assessments and physical examination findings, treatment with clomipramine significantly improved feather picking when compared to a placebo at 3 weeks (P=0.028) and at 6 weeks (P=0.021). Clomipramine had no significant effect, however, on videotaped preening behaviors.