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The Mediterranean Diet
An Evidence-Based Approach
Edited by
Victor R. Preedy
King’s College London, London, UK
Ronald Ross Watson
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Chapter 56
Mediterranean Figs (Ficus carica L.)
Functional Food Properties
Oguzhan Caliskan
Department of Horticulture, Mustafa Kemal University, Antakya-Hatay, Turkey.
ABBREVIATIONS
cy cyanidin
dw dried weight
FRUC fructose
fw fruit weight
GAE gallic acid equivalent
GLUC glucose
HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography
ns not significant
Pg Pelargonidin
Pn Peonidin
SUC sucrose
TA total anthocyanins
TAC total antioxidant capacity
TP total phenolics
INTRODUCTION
The fig (Ficus carica L.) belongs to the Eusyce section of the Moraceae family, with over 1400 species classified into about
40 genera [1]. Functionally, it is gynodioecious, consisting of monoecious wild types (caprifig) and pistillate domesticates
[2]. Figs were one of the earliest fruits cultivated in the Mediterranean region, and a wild genetic resource for fig species still
exists in many countries. Syria and Anatolia are the natural habitats of the fig tree, and from there it was transferred to north
Africa, Spain, Mexico, Chile, Peru, and California. It was also transported to South America via France and to Mesopo-
tamia, Iran, and India from Anatolia [2]. Figs are mentioned in a Babylonian hymnbook dated about 2000 BC. As early as
2900 BC, in early Sumerian times, the medical use of figs was already being stressed. Legend has it that the Greek goddess
Demeter first revealed this fruit of autumn to mortals, and they called it the fig. It was the favorite fruit of Cleopatra, and she
ended her life with an asp brought to her in a basket of figs [3]. The fig is cultivated in most warm and temperate climates
and has been celebrated from the earliest times for the beauty of its foliage and for its “sweetness and good fruit,” with
frequent allusions to it in the Torah, Bible, and Koran [4].
The fig tree produces the fruit that, in its fresh and dried forms, has been valued for ages. In addition, fig fruit is used in
jams, Fig Newtons, and fig rolls. The plant is almost universally known as fig, common fig, or edible fig. It has been an
important food crop for thousands of years and is thought to be a highly beneficial part of the diet. Thousands of cultivars,
mostly unnamed, have been developed or have come into existence as human migration brought the fig to many places
outside its natural range [4].
Seventy percent of the world’s fig production occurs in the countries along the Mediterranean coast. In these countries,
figs are an important constituent of the Mediterranean diet, which is considered to be one of the healthiest in the world and is
associated with longevity [5,6]. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2011) estimates that figs are harvested
from 388,624 hectares worldwide, annually producing over 1 million metric tons (t) of fruit, with Turkey, Egypt, Algeria,
Morocco, Iran, Syria, the United States, and Spain producing 76% of the crop, while Turkey produces nearly 24% of the
The Mediterranean Diet
©2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 629
total [7]. The economic importance of fig production is likely to continue into the future. In the world market, there is an
increasing demand for fresh figs and a stable demand for dried figs.
The Mediterranean region includes northern countries, including Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, France,
Greece, Italy, Malta, Monaco, Serbia-Montenegro, Slovenia, and Spain, and southeastern countries, including Algeria,
Cyprus, Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Morocco, Libya, Palestinian Authority, Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey. The countries of
the Mediterranean region cover 8,759 million km
2
and presently hold 427 million people [8]. Mediterranean countries
are also rich sources of plant germplasm with the potential for new crops and the revival of old crops. Recently, interest
in traditional diets, particularly in the Mediterranean diet, has increased among the public and scientific health communities
[9]. A major benefit of the Mediterranean diet is its high level of natural antioxidants derived from vegetables and fruits,
including figs. In addition to contributing antioxidant vitamins [10], figs have some of the highest polyphenol levels in
commonly available fruits [11]. Traditional Mediterranean fruit and nut crops include grapes, olives, figs, almonds,
hazelnuts, pistachios, pomegranates, apricots, and citrus. The Mediterranean has both active consumption and commerce
in these crops. Fig products are widely used both as a food and as a medicine. In Mediterranean traditional medicine, the
fruits, which are sweet, have antipyretic, purgative, and aphrodisiac properties and are used to treat inflammation and
paralysis. The juice of the fruit with honey has also been prescribed for controlling hemorrhages [12].
FUNCTIONAL FOOD CHARACTERISTICS OF FIGS
Nutritional Properties
As with many other food plants, figs are low in fat (0.30 g/100 g for fresh and 0.9 g/100 g for dried), sodium free, choles-
terol free, and high in fiber (2.9 g/100 g for fresh and 9.8 g/100 g for dried) [11]. A comparison of the nutrient content of figs
is given in Table 1. One serving of dried figs is 100 g, about 1/4 cup, or about three Calimyrna figs or four to five Mission
figs. In terms of percentage of recommended daily consumption, the main minerals and vitamins provided per 100 g fig
serving are: iron 6%, calcium 6%, potassium 7%, thiamin (BI) 7.1%, and riboflavin 6.2%. Fig fruit contains 15 types of
TABLE 1 Nutrient Contents of Dried Figs.
Dietary Component Amount per 100 g Serving Daily Value (%)
Total calories 283.0 –
Calories from fat 4.7 –
Total fat 0.52 g 0
Saturated fat 0.0 0
Cholesterol 0.0 0
Sodium 12.26 mg 0
Potassium 609.0 mg 7
Calcium 133.0 mg 6
Iron 3.07 mg 6
Total carbohydrate 66.16 g 9
Total dietary fiber 12.21 g
Insoluble 8.74 g 20
Soluble 3.47 g
Sugars 49.0 g –
Protein 3.14 g –
Vitamin A 9.76 IU <2
Vitamin C 0.68 mg <2
630 SECTION 4Novel Nutraceuticals and Edible Plants Used in the Mediterranean Region
amino acids, with Ala, Ser, Lys, and Glysergin present in the highest amounts [13], and of all the common fruits, dried figs
offer the highest crude fiber contents (5.8%) (Table 2). More than 28% of the fiber is of the soluble type, which has been
shown to aid the control of blood sugar and blood cholesterol and to contribute to weight loss. Thus, figs are an ideal
addition to adults’ and children’s diets because they represent an excellent source of naturally sweet and fiber-rich food
that may help with weight reduction [11]. In one study, C¸ alis¸kan and Polat [14] indicated that the predominant sugars
present in figs were fructose (56%) and glucose (43%), as determined by high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC). The fructose (FRUC), glusose (GLUC), and sucrose (SUC) contents of brown and purple fig accessions were
higher than those of other color groups. The sugar composition of fig fruit can influence perceived fruit sweetness. Fructose
has a higher relative sweetness than glucose [15]. Therefore, the perception of a fig accession’s sweetness is likely due to
the prevalence of fructose [6].
Phytochemical Properties of Figs
The green, yellow, brown, purple, and black colors of figs originate from carotenoid and anthocyanin pigments produced in
the fruits during maturation. There have now been more than 50 metabolites identified in fig fruit. The consumption of these
health-promoting compounds in figs may provide protection against several human diseases [16]. Dried figs also contain
one of the highest concentrations of polyphenols found in any commonly consumed fruit [17], and thus, they produce foods
and beverages with the highest polyphenol concentrations (Table 3). Only barley, some sorghums, and some beans have
similarly high levels of polyphenols. Compared with figs, red wine and tea, well-known and well-publicized sources of
polyphenols, are relatively low in phenols. Putting it in perspective, 40 g of figs, the suggested serving size, provide an
average of 444 mg of phenols, which is more than the daily per capita consumption of polyphenols from vegetables, esti-
mated 218 mg/day [18]. Vinson et al. [19] determined the amount and quality of polyphenol antioxidants in dried fruits and
compared them with the corresponding fresh fruits. They found that the processes used to produce the dried fruit signif-
icantly decreased the polyphenols in the fruits on a dry-weight basis. Compared with vitamins C and E, dried fruits have
superior quality antioxidants, however, with figs and dried plums having the most. Solomon et al. [10] studied the potential
health-promoting constituents of six commercial fig cultivars differing in color (black, red, yellow, and green) for total
polyphenols (TP), total flavonoids, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and amount and profile of total anthocyanins
(TA). Analysis with a reversed-phase liquid chromatograph (RP-LC) revealed varying concentrations of anthocyanins
but similar profiles in all cultivars studied.
The phytochemical contents of plant materials are also influenced by numerous factors such as genotype, phenological
stage, ecophysiological conditions, and cultivation techniques. For fruits especially, the phenological stage is a most
important factor because, during growing and ripening, a series of biochemical, physiological, and structural modifications
occur that determine the fruit’s compositional quality and hold great significance from dietary, nutritional, and biological
points of view [30]. The phytochemical characteristics of Turkish fig cultivars and genotypes are presented in Table 4.
These characteristics are affected at different levels by genotype, harvest year, and genotype-by-year interaction, but
the effect of the genotype on TA, TP, and TAC (50–96%) appear to be higher than harvest year (1–9%) and genotype-
TABLE 2 Comparison of Nutrient Contents Provided in Serving Sizes of Common Fruits.
Fruit (g) Calories Dietary Fiber (g) Potassium (mg) Calcium (mg) Iron (mg)
Apples (154 g) 91 3.0 177 11.0 0.3
Bananas (126 g) 75 1.7 324 4.9 0.3
Dates (40 g) 113 3.8 240 10.0 0.2
Dried figs (40 g) 113 4.9 244 53.0 1.2
Grapes (138 g) 98 0.8 255 15.0 0.4
Oranges (154 g) 72 2.9 279 62.0 0.2
Prunes (40 g) 109 2.4 290 7.2 0.6
Raisins (40 g) 126 2.3 306 16.0 1.2
Strawberries (147 g) 147 2.2 244 20.6 0.6
Functional Food Properties of Figs Chapter 56 631
by-year interaction (2–16%). In addition, variance components analysis displayed that genotypic effect (29–67%) con-
tributed more than year (1–11%) and genotype-by-year (17–49%) to the overall variation in FRUC, GLUC, and SUC
[14]. These results demonstrated that the cultivar was the main variable influencing the phytochemical characteristics
of figs. The black-colored Bursa Siyahı fig has been shown to have excellent fruit quality and the richest phytochemical
characteristics of any Turkish fig. The Sarılop fig with yellow fruit, which is the most important dried fig cultivar, had fruit
quality equal to that of a fresh fig, but it had lower phytochemical profiles [31].
Fig fruits have 15 types of anthocyanins (Table 5). Hydrolysis revealed cyanidin as the major aglycon. Proton and
carbon nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) confirmed cyanidin 3-rhamnoglucoside, cyanidin 3-glucoside, and cyanidin
3-rutinoside as the main anthocyanin in all fruits (Figure 1). The color of fig extract also correlated well with total poly-
phenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and antioxidant capacity. Extracts of darker cultivars showed higher contents of phy-
tochemicals, as compared to lighter-colored cultivars. Antioxidant capacity correlated well with the amounts of
polyphenols and anthocyanins. Fruit skins contributed most of the phytochemicals and antioxidant activity just mentioned,
compared to the fruit pulp. In the dark-colored Mission and the red-colored Brown Turkey cultivars, the anthocyanin
fraction contributed 36% and 28% of the total antioxidant capacity, respectively. Cyanidin 3-rhamnoglucoside contributed
92% of the total antioxidant capacity of the anthocyanin fraction. The average daily intake of anthocyanins per person has
been estimated to be up to 200 mg. Mission was the richest fig cultivar in anthocyanins of the six cultivars examined, con-
taining 11.0 mg/100 g of fresh weight. Because skins wereshown to be the major source of anthocyanins and polyphenols, the
consumption of whole ripe fruits was recommended. Piga et al. [20] detected phenolic compounds in the peel and pulp of figs
and found that the black fig cultivar had the highest content, and most of the polyphenols were concentrated in the peel.
Antioxidant compounds, such as phenolics, organic acids, vitamin E, and carotenoids, scavenge free radicals, thus inhi-
biting the oxidative mechanisms that may lead to degenerative illnesses [21]. Phenolic compounds are common plant sec-
ondary metabolites, which not only have physiological functions in plants but also produce positive effects for human
health, because they can act as antioxidants. Phenolic compounds may serve this purpose by reducing or donating hydrogen
to other compounds, scavenging free radicals, and quenching singlet oxygen [22,23]. Phenolic compounds are important
TABLE 3 Total Polyphenol Content of Common Foods and Beverages.
Food/Beverage Total Polyphenols
Cereals (mg/100 g dw)
Barley 1.200–1.500
Corn 30.9
Oats 8.7
Rice 8.6
Sorghum 170–10.260
Wheat 22–40
Legumes (mg/100 fw)
Kidney bean 948
Pinto bean 856
Snap bean 36
Vegetables (mg/100 g fw)
Beet 246
Broccoli 108
Corn 147
Garlic 387
Red onion 120
Tomato 39
Food/Beverage Total Polyphenols
Fruits (mg/100 g fw)
Apple 27–298
Blueberry 135–280
Cherry 60–90
Figs 1.090–1.110
Grape 50–490
Grapefruit 50
Orange 50–100
Plum 4–225
Strawberry 38–218
Beverages (mg/200 ml)
Apple juice 0.4–3.2
Orange juice 3.7–710
Black tea 150–210
Coffee 267–733
Beer 12–20
White wine 40–60
Red wine 200–800
632 SECTION 4Novel Nutraceuticals and Edible Plants Used in the Mediterranean Region
TABLE 4 Effect of Genotype and Harvest Year on Phytochemical Properties and Sugar Compositions of Some
Fig Cultivars and Genotypes Grown in Turkey.
Variable
Phytochemical Property Sugar Composition
TA, mgcy
3-rutinoside g
–1
of fw
TP, mgGAE
100 g
–1
of fw
TAC,
mmolFe
2+
kg
–1
of fw
FRUC,
g100 g
–1
of
fw
GLUC,
g100 g
–1
of
fw
SUC,
g100 g
–1
of fw
Genotype
Bursa
Siyahı
113.6
a
105.2
a
10.9
a
8.1
ef
6.3
efg
0.14
g
G€
oklop 2.7
d
64.5
ef
5.2
f
10.6
a
9.0
a
0.23
cd
Morgu
¨z 22.4
b
81.1
b-e
8.9
abc
9.1
bcd
8.1
bc
0.16
efg
Sarılop 5.2
cd
69.7
def
6.3
def
10.7
a
7.8
bcd
0.16
fg
Sarı
Zeybek
4.9
cd
57.9
f
7.4
cde
8.4
def
7.0
def
0.19
def
Sarı I
˙ncir 9.3
c
85.0
bcd
10.4
a
9.6
b
7.4
cd
0.21
de
Yediveren 4.2
cd
90.9
abc
7.6
cd
10.6
a
8.4
ab
0.22
d
Yes¸ilgu
¨z 20.4
b
59.4
f
6.4
def
7.2
g
6.0
g
0.15
fg
31-IN-01 6.3
cd
73.4
c-f
6.8
c-f
8.7
cde
6.3
efg
0.28
c
31-IN-09 3.6
cd
60.0
f
5.3
ef
7.7
fg
6.0
g
0.36
b
31-IN-16 4.5
cd
55.9
f
8.1
bcd
9.4
bc
7.1
de
0.53
a
31-IM-05 9.0
cd
96.9
ab
10.0
ab
8.6
de
6.2
fg
0.22
d
HSD
0.05
6.4 17.7 2.1 0.8 0.8 0.05
Harvest Year
2008 15.5
b
74.4
b
7.7
b
9.3
a
6.7
b
0.27
a
2009 15.9
b
76.5
a
7.8
b
8.8
b
6.9
b
0.24
b
2010 20.1
a
73.4
b
8.6
a
9.1
a
7.8
a
0.20
c
HSD
0.05
2.2 2.1 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.02
Analysis of Variance (Mean Square)
Genotype
(G)
8674.8** 2499.3** 33.4** 12.0** 9.1** 0.10**
Harvest
year (Y)
236.8** 70.5* 1.1* 2.0** 11.8** 0.04**
GxY 86.1** 375.5* 3.9* 1.2** 3.4** 0.01**
Error 16.1 124.3 1.8 0.3 0.3 0.0
CV (%) 23.4 14.8 17.4 5.6 7.0 13.3
Variance Component Distributions (%)
Genotype
(G)
96 50 53 67 29 67
Harvest
year (Y)
1 9 7 1 11 5
GxY 2 16 10 17 49 22
Error 2 26 30 15 12 7
Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p<0.05). **: Significant at p<0.01, *: Significant at p<0.05.
Functional Food Properties of Figs Chapter 56 633
TABLE 5 Anthocyanins Found in Figs, Skins, and Pulps with Different Colors.
Anthocyanin Reference
Cy 3-rhamnoglucoside [10,36]
Cy 3-glucoside [10,37]
Cy 3-rutinoside [10,37]
Cy 3-rutinoside dimer [37]
Cy 3,5-diglucoside [37]
Cy 3-malonylglicosyl-5-glucoside [37]
Cy 3-malonylglucoside [37]
Pg 3-glucoside [37]
Pg 3-rutinoside [37]
Pg 3-rhamnoglucoside [37]
Pn 3-rutinoside [37]
Quercetin 3-rutinoside [37]
(Epi)catechin-(4-8)-Cy 3-glucoside [37]
(Epi)catechin-(4-8)-Cy 3-rutinoside [37]
(Epi)catechin-(4-8)-Cy 3-rutinoside [37]
(Epi)catechin-(4-8)-Pg 3-rutinoside [37]
(Epi)catechin-(4-8)-Pg 3-rutinoside [37]
5-Carboxypyranocyanidin-3-rutinoside [37]
Cyanidin 3-glucoside
HO
HO
HO
HO
HO
HO
OH
OH
OH
OH
H3C
CH3
OO
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O+
O
+Cl−
+Cl−
O
O
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH OH
OH OH
HO
Cyanidin 3-rutinoside
C
y
anidin 3-rhamno
g
lucoside
FIGURE 1 Chemical structures of main anthocyanins
found in figs.
634 SECTION 4Novel Nutraceuticals and Edible Plants Used in the Mediterranean Region
components of the color, flavor, and aroma of fresh fruits, vegetables, and their products. In addition to antioxidative roles,
phenolic compounds may also engage in antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, antiinflammatory, and antimicrobial activities
[24]. Fig fruits contain phenolics such as gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, (+)-catechin, ()-epicatechin, and
rutin [25]. Most phenolic compounds, especially anthocyanins (cy 3-rutinoside), cinnamic acid, and flavonoids, are con-
centrated in the skin of fig fruits [10,26]. The other predominant phenolic compounds in figs have been identified as hydro-
xycinnamic acid derivatives, such as 3-O- or 5-O-caffeoylquinic acids and ferulic acid, flavonoid glycosides such as
quercetin 3-O-glucoside and quercetin 3-O-rutinoside, and furanocoumarins such as psoralen and bergapten [26,27].
C¸ alis¸kan and Polat [6] showed that antioxidant capacity was significantly correlated with the polyphenol and antho-
cyanin contents of fig fruits. In addition, black fig accessions had the highest TAC (12.4 Fe
2+
mmol/kg fw), TA
(128.4 g cy 3-rutinoside/g fw), and TP content (118.9 mg GAE/100 g fw). These black-fruited accessions had 2-fold greater
TAC, 15-fold greater TA, and 2.5-fold greater TP than green and yellow fig accessions.
Solomon et al. [10] reported thatfig fruit skin is a majorsource of anthocyanins and polyphenols. Fig fruitsare often prepared
by peeling to remove skin; however, fig fruit skins contain healthful nutrients that should not be discarded. Researchers recently
isolated and identified cyanidin 3-0-rhamnoglucoside as the main anthocyanin in all fig cultivars examined. Cyanidin 3-0-
rhamnoglucoside showed in vitro inhibitory effects on proliferation of skincancer cell lines. Another group of fig compounds,
psoralens, are currently being investigated for the treatment of skin cancer and have been recommended for clinical trials
because of their low skin phototoxicity [28]. Yang et al. [29] demonstrated that water extract of fig fruit and a crude hot
water-soluble polysaccharide of fig fruit haveantioxidant activity, as shown in the scavengingDPPH radical, superoxide radical,
hydroxyl radical, and reducing power. Therefore, fig fruit could be considered to be a functional food and the biological prop-
erties of the fruit may be important factors for establishing strategies for the rational use of this plant.
Functional Food Properties of Figs
The term functional food refers to a food that enhances adequate nutritional effects on one or more target functions in the
body in a way that is relevant to either an improved state of health and wellbeing or a reduction of disease risk. A great
benefit of the Mediterranean diet is its high level of natural antioxidants derived from figs and other fruits and vegetables. In
recent years, consumer interest in fruits and vegetables has been increasing due to increased knowledge of the high content
of health-promoting nutrients found in those food items. More than 200 epidemiological studies now support the fact that
the phytochemical contents of fruits and vegetables are responsible for the reduction of cancer risk offered by food plants.
The Mediterranean diet has been reported to promote health and quality of life, specifically by preventing pathophysio-
logical conditions related to coronary heart disease and cancer. The increased intake of natural antioxidants, achieved
by consuming fresh salads, vegetables, fruits, and their products, is generally considered to be a major contributor to
the benefits of the Mediterranean diet. Along with the olive, the fig is a characteristic and abundant fruit in this diet
[9,10]. In this regard, the fig is one of the most important fruit species in the Mediterranean diet, and it is accepted as
the symbol of long life throughout the world.
Fig antioxidants can enrich lipoproteins in plasma and protect them from subsequent oxidation. Figs also produce a
significant increase in plasma antioxidant capacity for 4 h after consumption and overcome the oxidative stress of con-
suming high-fructose corn syrup in carbonated soft drinks [19]. In addition, fig leaf preparations (such as teas) are popularly
used for patients with diabetes in Spain and other areas in southwestern Europe [31], though the active components of these
preparations are unknown. Several studies of animal models with diabetes have shown both short- and long-term hypo-
glycemic effects, although human trials are lacking. Potential hypolipidemic effects in diabetic rats have also been shown
[32]. Marrelli et al. [30] indicated that the photoactivation of fruit extracts from the F. carica L. cultivar Dottato caused a
very promising in vitro antiproliferative effect on melanoma cancer cells.
Figs contain other compounds with anticancer activity, specifically benzaldehyde and coumarins. Benzaldehyde has
been used successfully to treat terminal human carcinomas. Following the benzaldehyde treatment of 57 patients, 19 dis-
played complete remission, and 10 responded with a greater than 50% regression in their tumors [33]. Coumarins are the
major compounds isolated from the volatile extract of figs [34].
Elevated levels of cholesterol and triglycerides are risk factors for developing heart disease. Figs have been found to
contain cholesterol-lowering phytosterols. Jeong and Lachance [35] studied the phytosterol composition in unsaponifiables
of Mission figs, as well as fatty acid composition, using gas chromatography and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.
Fourteen compounds were separated in the fig fruit. Sitosterol was the predominant sterol in all parts. Also detected were
campesterol, stigmasterol, and fucosterol. Fatty acids in fig fruit, determined as their methyl esters, were myristic (14:0),
palmitic (16:0), stearic (18:0), oleic (18:1), linoleic (18:2), and linolenic (18:3) acids. The results indicate that figs might
serve as a good source of phytosterols.
Functional Food Properties of Figs Chapter 56 635
SUMMARY POINTS
lFigs are one of the first fruits to be cultivated in the Mediterranean region.
lFigs are among the most important fruit species in the Mediterranean diet, and they are accepted as the symbol of long
life throughout the world.
lThere is considerable interest in developing food products from plants rich in protective vitamins or other compounds
with potential health benefits.
lGiven that the fig can provide the consumer with such nutrient richness and food functionality, fresh figs could certainly
play a more important role in the global marketplace.
lFurther research is needed to show whether human consumption of figs can lead to a lowering of the risk factors for
cancer and other diseases.
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