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WDFAD-DBR: Weighting depth and forwarding area division DBR routing protocol for UASNs
Abstract
The design of routing protocols for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) poses many challenges due to long propagation, high mobility, limited bandwidth, multi-path and Doppler effect. Because of the void-hole caused by the uneven distribution of nodes and sparse deployment, the selection of next hop forwarding nodes only based on the state of current node may result in the failure of forwarding in the local sparse region. In order to reduce the probability of encountering void holes in the sparse networks, in this paper we present weighting depth and forwarding area division DBR routing protocol, called WDFAD-DBR. The novelties of WDFAD-DBR lie in: firstly, next forwarding nodes are selected according to the weighting sum of depth difference of two hops, which considers not only the current depth but also the depth of expected next hop. In this way, the probability of meeting void holes is effectively reduced. Secondly, the mechanisms for forwarding area division and neighbor node prediction are designed to reduce the energy consumption caused by duplicated packets and neighbors' requests, respectively. Thirdly, we make theoretical analyses on routing performance in case of considering channel contending with respect to delivery ratio, energy consumption and average end-to-end delay. Finally we conduct extensive simulations using NS-3 simulator to verify the effectiveness and validity of WDFAD-DBR.
... In the power control approach (e.g., [26]- [30]), nodes in the void region increase their transmission powers to extend their communication ranges for finding a next-hop neighbor to forward the packets. In the mobility-assisted approach (e.g., [3], [5], [7], [11], [31]- [34]), the idea is to consume some energy to move the nodes inside the void regions to new depth locations for resuming the packet forwarding. In [39], an analytical framework is proposed to evaluate the performance of the aforementioned void-handling strategies in UWSNs. ...
... In [2], bypassing the void regions as well as power control techniques are jointly utilized. In [35], void regions are avoided by the [13] Bypassing the Void Region Single-sink DFR [14] Bypassing the Void Region Single-sink EAVARP [15] Bypassing the Void Region Multi-sink EERVRM [16] Bypassing the Void Region Multi-sink EVA-DBR [17] Bypassing the Void Region Multi-sink Hydrocast [18] Bypassing the Void Region Multi-sink IVAR [6] Bypassing the Void Region Single-sink LVAR [19] Bypassing the Void Region Single-sink OVAR [4], [9] Bypassing the Void Region Single-sink REBAR [20] Bypassing the Void Region Single-sink RLOR [21] Bypassing the Void Region Single-sink RPSOR [22] Bypassing the Void Region Multi-sink VAPR [23] Bypassing the Void Region Multi-sink VBF [24] Bypassing the Void Region Single-sink VBVA [25] Bypassing the Void Region Single-sink AHH-VBF [26] Power Control Single-sink CARP [27] Power Control Single-sink FBR [28] Power Control Multi-sink LF-IEHM [29] Power Control Single-sink NA-TORA [30] Power Control Multi-sink CTC & DTC [11], [31] Mobility-Assisted Multi-sink DCR [5] Mobility-Assisted Multi-sink GEDAR [3], [7] Mobility-Assisted Multi-sink NGF [32] Mobility-Assisted Multi-sink RVPR [33] Mobility-Assisted Multi-sink WDFAD-DBR [34] Mobility-Assisted Multi-sink ...
... Void regions occur depending on the location of the single sink floating on the surface of the water. On the other hand, in multi-sink architectures (e.g., [1]- [3], [5], [7], [11], [15]- [18], [22], [23], [28], [30]- [34], [36]- [38]), there are many sink nodes available on the surface of the water, and each sensor node conveys its packets to any of the sink nodes (anycast traffic). In multi-sink architectures, the formation of void regions depends on the point of view of the sink nodes. ...
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) typically suffer from the communication void region problem. A common method to handle the void region problem is to re-route the packets around the void regions. As the size of the void regions increases, packets require more hops to circumvent the large void regions, resulting in a short network lifetime. On the other hand, the void region problem is more destructive in UWSNs utilizing a single-sink architecture than a multi-sink architecture since nodes consume excessive energy for bypassing the void regions to reach the sink node, which can be positioned in a hard-to-reach area in single-sink UWSNs. In this work, an integer linear programming (ILP) model is developed for maximizing UWSNs lifetime while bypassing the void regions. Solving the ILP model to optimality, the joint impact of the void region size and the sink architecture type on UWSNs lifetime is investigated. The results show that the performance of UWSNs significantly drops as the size of the void region grows such that UWSNs lifetimes shorten by up to 61% as the total void region size is one-quarter of the network size. Moreover, multi-sink UWSNs yield better performance than single-sink UWSNs in the void region problem.
... In [49], another pressure-based routing protocol was described in detail, namely the weighting depth and forwarding area division DBR routing protocol (WDFAD-DBR). To increase the reliability of the packet transmission and decrease the probability of the occurrence of a void area, WDFAD-DBR uses the weighting depth difference of two-hop nodes to construct its routing decision. ...
... In [49], another pressure-based routing protocol was described in detail, namely the weighting depth and forwarding area division DBR routing protocol (WDFAD-DBR). ...
... In the first category, geographic-based, which includes [44,45,48,57,58], selecting the forwarding set candidates and making the forwarding packet decisions in OR requires information about the geographic position of sensor nodes. While in the pressure-based category, which includes [43,46,47,[49][50][51][52]54,59], the depth information of nodes is needed to select forwarding set candidates and make forwarding packet decisions. ...
One of the most challenging issues in the routing protocols for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) is the occurrence of void areas (communication void). That is, when void areas are present, the data packets could be trapped in a sensor node and cannot be sent further to reach the sink(s) due to the features of the UWSNs environment and/or the configuration of the network itself. Opportunistic routing (OR) is an innovative prototype in routing for UWSNs. In routing protocols employing the OR technique, the most suitable sensor node according to the criteria adopted by the protocol rules will be elected as a next-hop forwarder node to forward the data packets first. This routing method takes advantage of the broadcast nature of wireless sensor networks. OR has made a noticeable improvement in the sensor networks’ performance in terms of efficiency, throughput, and reliability. Several routing protocols that utilize OR in UWSNs have been proposed to extend the lifetime of the network and maintain its connectivity by addressing void areas. In addition, a number of survey papers were presented in routing protocols with different points of approach. Our paper focuses on reviewing void avoiding OR protocols. In this paper, we briefly present the basic concept of OR and its building blocks. We also indicate the concept of the void area and list the reasons that could lead to its occurrence, as well as reviewing the state-of-the-art OR protocols proposed for this challenging area and presenting their strengths and weaknesses.
... In [77] another pressure-based routing protocol was described in detail, namely Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division DBR routing protocol (WDFAD-DBR). To increase the reliability of the packet transmission and decrease the probability of the void areas. ...
... In this section, we review the protocol presented in [83] called Energy and Depth variance-based Opportunistic Void avoidance (EDOVE) protocol. EDOVE was proposed based on WDFAD-DBR, the work presented in [77]. The protocol handles the void area problem by choosing the forwarder candidates, among the total distributed nodes, which have a large residual energy and have several nodes 53 in their transmission range (neighbors). ...
... 12: Void Area Problem[77] ...
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN) are an active area of research and development. The underwater environment is harsh; acoustic channel characteristics such as high attenuation and absorption are an important challenge for the implementation of UWSNs. Void holes in networks, where a node can receive but cannot transmit to any node other than the sender, also present a significant challenge. This dissertation is motivated by these challenges and investigates solutions for energy efficient and void avoiding routing protocols for UWSNs. A proposed greedy routing protocol called Energy Efficient Depth-Based Opportunistic Routing (EEDOR) is designed and simulated. This protocol uses a novel holding time formula that incorporates both the priority of the candidate node and the depth difference between the packet sender and each candidate node of its forwarding set. The protocol uses a simple design that allows sensor nodes to form their forwarding sets by exchanging local information only. Nodes can collect information efficiently by listening and responding to forward request and forward reply messages. Simulation results show that the proposed protocol achieves significant energy savings as compared to popular protocols, thereby also extending network lifetime significantly. A void avoiding protocol called the called Energy Efficient Depth-Based Opportunistic Routing with Void Avoidance (EEDOR-VA) is also proposed. The novelty of this technique lies in employing a hop-count to determine paths between the source node and sink(s). Trapped and void nodes are recognized and eliminated from node forwarding sets. This protocol is shown to have a high packet delivery ratio (PDR). The protocol is evaluated using two different sets of simulation settings. Finally, the impact of the number of sinks and the sink deployment method on energy conservation and PDR is investigated. Simulation results show that using a deterministic multi-sink deployment can reduce the number of request and reply messages. As a result, the network overhead is reduced, decreasing the energy usage and increasing the PDR of the network.
... Another protocol having the same motive of void-hole avoidance and efficient data transmission for IoUT is proposed in [38]. In which, authors have proposed four different schemes, which are the modified versions of the Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division Depth-Based Routing (WDFAD-BDR) routing protocol [39]. The first scheme is the Adaptive transmission range in WDFAD-BDR (A-DBR) is proposed to avoid void avoidance by transmission adjustment. ...
... Very complex algorithm is utilized for the route establishment and performance is affected in sparse deployment. Fuzzy inference scheme [36] VHARD-FS [37] A-DBR [38] B-DBR [38] C-DBR [38] CA-DBR [38] n/a WDFAD-DBR [39] CTP-SEEC [40] CAPTAIN [41] Multi-hop routing. Fig. 2 depicts the multi-hop routing mechanism in EECMR, which indicates how the CH of higher depth level forwards the data to the sink either by forwarding hops or by cluster-relay (CR). ...
... [45] proposed a novel RPSOR scheme for IoUT. RPSOR has attempted significant improvements in the WDFAD-DBR routing protocol [39] in terms of void handling, power utilization, and packet delivery rate at the cost of high propagation delay. RPSOR scheme has multiple sinks based architecture along with two mobile sinks. ...
Internet of Underwater Things (IoUTs) deals in a resource-constrained environment and has several open issues, challenges, and potential applications in both onshore and offshore fields. The distinctive features of acoustic medium and persistent node mobility have spurred the development of a routing protocol for IoUT that ensures the efficient data transfer at the surface station. The efficient data transfer metrics can be achieved either by the emergence of cluster-based or chain-based routing protocols. This paper provides a simulation-based quantitative analysis of the most recent and prominent cluster-based and chain-based routing protocols for IoUT that are intended to enable the efficient data transfer from source to destination. In this context, we use NS3 to conduct extensive simulations for the quantitative analysis of different routing protocols relating to packet delivery rate, packet drop rate, normalized energy consumption, normalized network lifetime, density of alive nodes, and density of dead nodes. In addition to quantitative analysis, we also provide the performance trade-offs, limitations, and applications for IoUT routing protocols for these two classifications. In last, we also perform quantitative analysis for these two classifications head-to-head. This work aims to provide helpful insights into selecting a suitable protocol for routing applications to meet the various specifications and requirements of IoUT for efficient data dissemination.
... Building on DBR, WDFAD-DBR [78] uses a passive participation method involving two-hop depth information to prevent packets from entering a void region, by considering not only the current depth but also the depth of the expected next-hop. If a node is unable to find any neighbor in the upper hemisphere of its transmission range, it will directly drop the packet to create an opportunity for other receivers. ...
... As a result, the node with lower depth and higher residual energy will forward data first, yet the end-to-end path of packets may become longer. Based on WDFAD-DBR [78], EBER 2 [93] considered depth difference, residual energy and the number of potential forwarding nodes (PFNs) of the receiver node when calculating the holding time. The PFNs can be obtained by the two-hop routing mechanism. ...
... However, nodes in such methods are unable to get a full view of the void region and thus provide limited information for void avoidance and recovery. Nodes in WDFAD-DBR [78] maintain the depth of neighbors upon receiving packets from them. In this protocol, neighbors with lower depth are the option for the next hop. ...
Reliable data collection techniques, whose aim is to ensure that sensed data are received successfully by a sink, are essential for applications in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). However, traditional data collection with Radio Frequency (RF) functions poorly in UWSNs due to peculiar features of underwater. Moreover, acoustic communication creates challenges for the reliability of data collection such as high bit error rate, packet collision and voids in routing. Furthermore, the deployment of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) in some scenarios changed the paradigm of data collection and introduced new issues that affect reliability such as inaccurate navigation and lengthy travel time. Consequently, numerous studies focus on the relative reliability of various currently available data collection in UWSNs. In this paper, we first review the problems specific to UWSNs and their impact on reliable data collection. It is followed by a discussion about characteristics, challenges, and features associated with the design of reliable techniques in UWSNs. Afterward, to provide readers with an overview of reliable data collection techniques in UWSNs, this paper categorizes them according to their ability to enhance reliability at all the key stages of data collection. In this categorization framework, the advantages and disadvantages of each technique have been in-depth discussed. Finally, several possible areas for further research are identified and discussed.
... Extensive simulations were conducted, where the state-of-the-art routing protocols like AVH-AHH-VBF [9], ASEDG [11], AEDG [13], EBER 2 [14], and WDFAD-DBR [15] were compared. It was demonstrated that the ROBINA outperforms affordable EC, minimum E2E delay, and high PDR. ...
... Moreover, two sinks are deployed at high-density traffic areas to reduce network latency. The study results show that EBER 2 has lowered energy consumption and identical packets with low packet delivery ratios compared with the Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division-Depth Based Routing (WDFAD-DBR) protocol [15]. The WDFAD-DBR mechanism considers the depth of the next forwarding node, through which it avoids void holes. ...
... In this section, we evaluate the performance of ROBINA against different state-ofthe-art routing protocols like EBER 2 [14], AEDG [13], ASEDG [11], WDFAD-DBR [15], AVH-AHH-VBF [9], and TANVEER [22]. The parameters were average end-to-end delay, network lifetime, total energy consumption, and packet success ratio. ...
The Internet of Underwater Things (IoUTs) enables various underwater objects be connected to accommodate a wide range of applications, such as oil and mineral exportations, disaster detection, and tracing tracking systems. As about 71% of our earth is covered by water and one-fourth of the population lives around this, the IoUT expects to play a vital role. It is imperative to pursue reliable communication in this vast domain, as human beings’ future depends on water activities and resources. Therefore, there is a urgent need for underwater communication to be reliable, end-to-end secure, and collision/void node-free, especially when the routing path is established between sender and sonobuoys. The foremost issue discussed in this area is its routing path, which has high security and bandwidth without simultaneous multiple reflections. Short communication range is also a problem (because of an absence of inter-node adjustment); the acoustic signals have short ranges and maximum-scaling factors that cause a delay in communication. Therefore, we proposed Rotational Orbit-Based Inter Node Adjustment (ROBINA) with variant Path-Adjustment (PA-ROBINA) and Path Loss (PL-ROBINA) for IoUTs to achive reliable communication between the sender and sonobuoys. Additionally, the mathematical-based path loss model was discussed to cover the PL-ROBINA strategy. Extensive simulations were conducted with various realistic parameters and the results were compared with state-of-the-art routing protocols. Extensive simulations proved that the proposed routing scheme outperformed different realistic parameters; for example, packet transmission 45% increased with an average end-to-end delay of only 0.3% respectively. Furthermore, the transmission loss and path loss (measured in dB) were 25 and 46 dB, respectively, compared with other algorithms, for example, EBER2 54%, WDFAD-BDR 54%, AEDG 49%, ASEGD 55%, AVH-AHH-VBF 54.5%, and TANVEER 39%, respectively. In addition, the individual parameters with ROBINA and TANVEER were also compared, in which ROBINA achieved a 98% packet transmission ratio compared with TANVEER, which was only 82%.
... We assume a low bit rate of 80 bps, with an overhead of 24 bits and a payload of 32 bits per packet. The overhead bits consist of 14 for the preamble signal, 2 for packet type, and 8 for cyclic redundancy check (CRC) [52], [53]. They adapt their transmission power based on the channel conditions, with a maximum power of 6.3492×10 −12 Watt. ...
... We consider packets to be received correctly if their received powers exceed 6.3492 × 10 −20 Watt. The SeCH nodes consume 5 × 10 −9 Joule per bit for data aggregation [53], [54]. Figure 5 shows the average ID length ratio between the L 3 EACH and DIVE protocols, computed using Algo. ...
Underwater acoustic cluster networks (UACNs) are commonly used due to their adaptability in dynamic underwater environments. While the low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH) protocol was initially designed for radio frequency (RF) cluster networks, it has also been applied to UACNs. However, the LEACH protocol uses lengthy overheads per packet due to its use of global or wide-scale IDs, leading to increased communication latency and energy usage per packet. To address this issue, we propose the low-latency low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy ( $\text{L}^{3}$ EACH) protocol. The $\text{L}^{3}$ EACH protocol is a comprehensive framework that integrates ID assignment, time slot reservation, packet routing, and self-network organization. The protocol uses shorter overheads by assigning local IDs instead of global or wide-scale IDs. It assigns unique IDs to nodes within a cluster and reassigns the same IDs to nodes in other clusters, i.e., spatial ID reuse. The protocol also allocates IDs and time slots on demand to maximize network resources. To further enhance the protocol, we introduce the $\text{L}^{3}$ EACH-Version 2 ( $\text{L}^{3}$ EACH-V2) protocol, which modulates the preamble bits to embed the IDs in the overhead rather than inserting extra bits. We also provide the computational complexity of the $\text{L}^{3}$ EACH-V2 protocol. Compared to the DIVE protocol, the $\text{L}^{3}$ EACH protocol reduces the ID length and average energy per packet by 50% and 13%, respectively. Furthermore, the $\text{L}^{3}$ EACH-V2 protocol reduces the average energy per packet by 27% and increases the network throughput by 16% compared to the $\text{L}^{3}$ EACH protocol, making it an efficient and scalable solution, especially, for dense UACNs.
... Thus, there would be 18 CHs, and 400 source nodes in the network region . A RandomWalk mobility model is utilized to control the nodes' mobility [38,39]. A LinkQuest UWM1000 [36] UASN modem is used to set various other simulation parameters. ...
... Packet Drop Rate (PDrR): It can be elaborated as the sum of total dropped packets ( . ) that could not reach the destination during the packet transmissions to the sum of total generated packets ( . ) by the source nodes. PDrR is measured as follows [39]: ...
Exhaust research work has been carried out in the field of Terrestrial Wireless Sensor Networks (TWSN). Now, research penetration is moving toward Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs). The communication of UASNs has dependencies on acoustic instead of radio. Efficient data collection by the UASN seems a tedious job in comparison with TWSN due to the peculiar features of underwater communication. However, there is a way to accomplish efficient data collection metrics through the design of routing protocols by considering the unique features of UASN communications. In this context, we propose a novel scheme and we call it Floating Nodes assisted Cluster-Based Routing (FNCBR) scheme for efficient data collection in UASNs. In FNCBR, the network space is divided into cuboids to form clusters. Then, every cuboid is consigned with a floating node (FN) at the surface layer and two fixed cluster heads (CHs) are suspended at different depth levels. All CHs of cuboids are supposed to be connected with a floating node via a wired connection, while source nodes are haphazardly distributed in the whole network region. In FNCBR, source nodes are liable to send the sensed data either to the FN or to the nearest CH. The data collected by the CHs is moved towards the FNs, which further disseminate the data to the on-shore monitoring center via a Radio Frequency (RF) link. We conduct the simulations in Network Simulator (NS-3) to appraise the proposed FNCBR protocol with other clustering protocols (e.g., CVBF, BS-CVBF, and ANCRP) in terms of different performance metrics. After describing the results, a quantitative comparison table is also given. The FNCBR scheme is also evaluated in terms of multiple FN densities. The simulation outcomes justify that the proposed FNCBR scheme has given better results in all performance metrics than the baseline schemes.
... Pod Routing protocol (DOW-PR) in order to improve the performance of Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division Depth Based Routing (WDFAD-DBR) (Yu et al., 2016) which only considers the weighting sum of the difference in depth of two hops to select the Potential Forwarding Nodes (PFNs). DOW-PR can select the next PFNs from forwarding and suppressed zones simultaneously dividing the network into various transmission ranges and assigning different power levels to each. ...
... This study seeks to highlight the best possible approaches for designing green UWC protocols and to offer ideas and guidance towards developing more robust solutions to overcome UWC challenges. 2018 Proposed two versions: dolphin and whale pods routing protocol, with the latter delivering lower energy tax compared to WDFAD-DBR (Yu et al., 2016) for any network size, and lower energy consumption as compared to DBR (Yan et al., 2008) for networks larger than 150 nodes. DOW-PR also increases PDR and minimizes end-to-end delay. ...
Underwater wireless communication (UWC) networks have attracted substantial attention in recent years. UWC can facilitate many critical emerging services including the ones relying on communications, such as Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs), environmental monitoring, underwater surveillance, navigation, and exploration. Most UWC devices are battery-powered, where recharging/swapping batteries is not straightforward. Since the reliability of a UWC network depends on limited energy storage, energy-efficient communication is critical for its operation. Whilst communication range and data rate in UWC have been popular research topics, until recently, this energy-efficiency aspect of UWC has not received the same level of attention. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive literature review on existing contributions in the area of energy-efficient UWC. At first, we provide a detailed overview of UWC network architectures and relevant challenges for UWC networks. Next, we discuss and compare the most commonly-used UWC physical layer technologies, reviewing the existing physical layer power-saving techniques proposed in the literature. Then, we review various energy-saving techniques in the upper layers, including Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols, routing protocols, and localization techniques. Lastly, we provide a detailed discussion of alternative energy sources in UWC networks before highlighting future research directions in the field and challenges related to the widespread adoption of the Internet of Underwater Things (IoUT).
... Recently, many research works have been proposed in the literature for data collection in UASNs which is broadly categorized into two categories such as multi-hop routing-based schemes and mobile elements-based scheme [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. Multi-hop routing-based schemes endure with various issues such as long delay, unbalanced energy consumption, and unreliable transmission. ...
... Khan et al. [17] have discussed AUV-assisted clustering scheme for UASN in which wake-up sleep schedule is also determined based on the knowledge of the AUV's visit schedule. Yu et al. [18] have proposed depth-based routing scheme for data collection in UASN where the main aim of the proposed scheme was to avoid the void holes and select the next forwarding node based of the depth difference of nodes. This scheme suffers from limited scalability and high communication overhead issues. ...
In the Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) based Underwater Acoustic Sensor Network (UASN), efficient data collection with minimum delay and high throughput is a fundamental research challenge. Most of the existing data collection schemes using AUVs are suffered from unbalanced energy consumption, long delay, partial coverage, and incomplete data collection problems. To overcome these problems, this paper proposed an optimized coverage-aware target node selection and trajectory planning scheme for AUVs for fast and efficient data collection in the Underwater Sensor Networks. Optimal selection of coverage-aware target nodes and trajectory planning of the multiple AUVs are proposed using Backtracking Search Optimization (BSO) technique. After deployment of the underwater sensor nodes, first, network is partitioned into a set of load balanced cluster-region. After that, optimized coverage-aware target node is selected from each cluster-region for collection of the sensed data using AUVs. For optimizing the trajectory of the AUVs, a BSO-based trajectory planning scheme is proposed with novel fitness function. The proposed scheme dispatches multiple AUVs concurrently for high availability and low delay in the data collected from the cluster-regions. Performance of the proposed scheme is evaluated and compared with some latest state-of-art existing schemes in terms of coverage ratio, total travel distance, maximum travel distance, delay, and average energy consumption. Simulation results confirm that the proposed scheme performs well and very capable in providing the fast and high availability of the sensed data collection from UASN.
... Therefore, it does not perform well in sparse conditions because it cannot find neighbors. • WDFAD-DBR: The WDFAD-DBR protocol [19] is an improved version of DBR that aims to make the routing decisions more intelligent by providing two-hop information. Unlike the DBR, this scheme is based on a two-hop model, where the depth information of the next node's and expected hop is used to calculate the holding time. ...
... The most closely related work with our study is WDFAD-DBR [19] which uses the two-hop methodology and considers depth as well as residual energy of the nodes, PFN of the nodes, and locality of the node for the next forwarder (master node) selection. Such parameters significantly contribute to addressing the problem of void and energy holes in the network. ...
A significant increase has been observed in the use of Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) over the last few decades. However, there exist several associated challenges with UWSNs, mainly due to the nodes' mobility, increased propagation delay, limited bandwidth, packet duplication, void holes, and Doppler/multi-path effects. To address these challenges, we propose a protocol named "An Efficient Routing Protocol based on Master-Slave Architecture for Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (ERPMSA-UWSN)" that significantly contributes to optimizing energy consumption and data packet's long-term survival. We adopt an innovative approach based on the master-slave architecture, which results in limiting the forwarders of the data packet by restricting the transmission through master nodes only. In this protocol, we suppress nodes from data packet reception except the master nodes. We perform extensive simulation and demonstrate that our proposed protocol is delay-tolerant and energy-efficient. We achieve an improvement of 13% on energy tax and 4.8% on Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), over the state-of-the-art protocol.
... Acoustic Propagation speed 1500 m/s [7], [14], [40] 10 Data packet size 100 bytes [14], [20], [41] 11 ...
... Transmission Power 90 dB re Pa [22], [40] 12 Initial energy 100 J [14], [20] 13 Power consumption to transmit packet 2 units [21], [23] 14 ...
... In DBR, the node with the lowest depth has the highest priority to forward packets. On the basis of DBR, the energy-efficient depthbased routing (EEDBR) and weighting depth and forwarding area division DBR (WDFAD-DBR) protocols were developed [26], [27]. EEDBR considers residual energy during the process of candidate set selection, and this optimizes the network lifetime while reducing the packet delivery ratio. ...
... Considering the energy constrained node with limited hardware capabilities in this UWSN, we set Fq = 2 since it can be accomplished by XOR operation, and which has the least coding overhead and decoding overhead. Thus, the coding overhead of the coded packet in CORS is calculated by referring to (27). We use depth threshold h th = 0 m and parameter δ DBR = R tx /2 in the DBR protocol. ...
In underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs), the sensor nodes are sparsely deployed over a large sea area due to their high design cost and high manufacturing cost. Opportunistic routing protocols are a promising forwarding technique for various UWSNs. However, many opportunistic routing protocols suffer from the void problem in sparse underwater scenarios. Hop count-based opportunistic routing protocols inherently alleviate this problem by periodically maintaining the topological information of sensor node. Nevertheless, the robustness of these protocols degrades due to channel variation and node movement in UWSNs. In this paper, we propose a coding-aware opportunistic routing method for sparse UWSNs (CORS). In CORS, we use topological information to adaptively expand the candidate set. On this basis, a forwarding with opportunistic coding strategy is developed to join interflow network coding and opportunistic forwarding in CORS. In addition, we design a sliding window-based coding algorithm to provide effective coding gains with low coding overhead. Then, a sliding window-based decoding algorithm is designed to reduce decoding overhead. Simulation results show that CORS significantly improves upon the network performances of existing protocols in various scenarios.
... Nodes in the shadow zone simply drop the packet, which results in a low packet delivery rate in a sparse topology. WDFAD-DBR [8] is another pressure-based routing protocol in which a void node can withdraw itself from packet forwarding to provide opportunities for other available candidate forwarding nodes. However, the fact that primary forwarding area being fixed may limit the flexibility of routing strategies and the selection of forwarding nodes in different network topologies. ...
... For each next hop in PCR, each node chooses a candidate set from among several transmission power levels, and the energy expenditure for every candidate is then calculated to identify the proper transmission power level and nexthop forwarding set. A pressure-based routing technique called Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division DBR (WDFAD-DBR) [37] allows void nodes to remove themselves from the packet forwarding set to make room for other prospective candidate nodes. Mobicast [68] does data collection using a geocasting approach. ...
Wireless transmission of information using water as a communication channel is one of the potential technologies for the progress of potential underwater observation systems including applications from aquaculture to the oil industry, submarine detection, instrument monitoring, and forecast of natural turbulence and study of marine life. Underwater wireless sensor networks applications are exhilarating but demanding at the same time. Some of the challenges faced by underwater networks are the movement of nodes in three-dimensional space because of which the network could not be well thought-out as a fixed topology, limited bandwidth, exceedingly low data rates, limited battery power, failures due to pollution, and corrosion, and a lot more. Additionally, as acoustic communications consume more power than terrestrial radio ones do, more sophisticated signal processing methods are needed at the receiver to make up for the channel's deficiencies. One of these difficulties is creating a routing protocol for the complexity of an underwater environment. The major aim of all these protocols is to advance data packets toward the sink to lessen the propagation delay, lessen energy expenditure, and utilize the least amount of bandwidth by restricting the broadcasting of multiple copies of the data packet. This article surveys various routing schemes and various challenges involved in the design and development of these routing schemes.
... This process is performed until the received node performs the vector shifting to forward the packet to the destination. Similarly, a Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division Depth Based Routing (WDFAD-DBR) is another scheme to avoid the probability of occurrence of void holes in under acoustic communication [7]. The proposed scheme selects nodes based on the weighted sum of the depth difference of two hops by considering the depth of the current node and the expected next hop node. ...
Underwater acoustic communication is a suitable method that facilitates underwater applications. However, the dynamic underwater acoustic environment poses many challenges, such as the three-dimensional expensive energy constraint deployment of nodes, the limited bandwidth, and the movement of nodes due to water currents. This leads to a void hole in the under aquatic region and affects the network performance in terms of packet ratio and energy consumption. To address these issues, we propose two routing protocols named Pro-GEDAR and GEEDAR for under acoustic communication that route data packets from sensor nodes to sonobuoys via opportunistic geographic routing. When a communication void hole occurs, both methods switch to recovery mode instead of using control messages to analyze and discover routing paths along the communication void hole region. The recovery mode procedure relies on the topology control information through improved depth adjustment of the void nodes with a proactive approach. The method significantly improves network performance in sparse and dense distributed networks with maximum traffic load. Our experimental results prove that the performance of our routing protocols is better in terms of fraction of void node, depth adjustment and packet delivery ratio compared to other schemes.
... Another novel protocol, Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division Depth-Based Routing (WDFAD-DBR) [18] is proposed, which considers the void hole creation for next forwarder node, which affects the performance of the whole network. This is because DBR only considers the current forwarder node that is located on one hop local node's distribution through its depth differences, which may create void holes on the expected next hop forwarding. ...
There exist numerous applications for deploying Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs), including submarine detection, disaster prevention, oil and gas monitoring, off-shore exploration, and military target tracking. The acoustic sensor nodes are deployed to monitor the underwater environment, considering the area under observation. This research work proposes an energy scarcity-aware routing protocol for energy efficient UWSNs. Moreover, it aims to find the feasible region on the basis of the objective function, in order to minimize the energy tax and extend the network life. There are three different sensors nodes in the network environment, i.e., anchor nodes, relay nodes, and the centralized station. Anchor nodes originate data packets, while relay nodes process them and broadcast between each other until the packets reach the centralized station. The underline base scheme Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division Depth-Based Routing (WDFAD-DBR) for routing is based on the depth differences of the first- and second-hop nodes of the source node. The propose work, Betta and Dolphin Pods Routing via Energy Scarcity Aware protocol (BDREA) for packet forwarding from the forwarding nodes considers the first and second hops of the source node, i.e., the packet advancement, the network traffic, the distance to the centralized station, and the inverse normalized energy of the forwarding zone. It is observed that the proposed work improves the performance parameters by approximately 50% in terms of energy efficiency, and prolongs the network life compared to Dolphin and Whale Pod (DOW-PR) protocols. Furthermore, the energy efficiency directly relates to the other parameters, and its enhancement can be seen in terms of an 18.02% reduction in end-to-end delay when compared with the Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division Depth-Based Routing (WDFAD-DBR) protocol. Furthermore, BDREA improves the Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) by approximately 8.71%, compared to DOW-PR, and by 10% compared with the benchmark, WDFAD-DBR, the energy tax by 50% in comparison to DOW-PR, the end-to-end delay by 18%, and the APD by 5% in comparison to WDFAD-DBR.
... Yu et al. [98] proposed a WDFAD-DBR routing protocol for UWSN. WDFAD-DBR is a better edition of DBR since it can avoid the void holes problem in the spare region. ...
Underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN) is a new technology that can be used for various purposes, including ocean tracking and underwater exploration, military surveillance, disaster management, industrial applications, and scientific research. These applications require the sensed data to be routed to the destination, and this results in making the data routing one of the essential parts in designing such applications. High propagation delay, restricted bandwidth, 3D deployment, and energy constraints are some of the challenges that UWSN faces when developing routing protocols. Therefore, to mitigate these challenges, efficient routing protocols are proposed according to the specific application. This paper surveys recently routing protocols for UWSN. Furthermore, each routing protocol's main idea and essential operation are presented and its merits and demerits. There are two types of routing protocols surveyed: location-based and location-free routing protocols. Each type is divided into two sub-categories: those that take into account node mobility and those that do not. The surveyed protocols are evaluated through the analytical method in which these protocols are compared through a wide range of parameters like packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, energy efficiency, and reliability. Some of the surveyed protocols are evaluated through the numerical simulation method by using Aqua-Sim with NS2.30 and are compared through packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and energy consumption. This survey's core goal is to encourage more research into improving UWSN routing protocols for better underwater exploration and monitoring.
... • To improve the performance of Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division Depth Based Routing (WDFAD-DBR) [89] -which only considers the weighting sum of the difference in depth of two hops to select the Potential Forwarding Node (PFNs), Wadud et. al [90] have pro-posed DOlphin and Whale Pod Routing protocol (DOW-PR). ...
This is a pre-print of the published article “A survey on energy efficiency in underwater wireless communication”.
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... During void-recovery, the selected next-hop may be another void-node, which is having its void-recovery path. Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division Depth-based routing (WDFAD-DBR) [20] is an opportunistic, pressure-based routing protocol. It uses a preventive void-handling strategy to avoid void-node in advance by considering a two-hop depth difference. ...
The field of Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) is one of the emerging areas of communication due to the number of marine applications. However, UASNs face several fundamental challenges like node movement, high propagation delay, low throughput, high bit-error-rate, low bandwidth, and void-node during communication. Void-node during routing is one of the major problems during routing, which causes high end-to-end delay to route the packets to the sink. The void-node is a fundamental challenge in UASNs and directly influences the UASNs in terms of the end-to-end delay, packet loss, and reliability of the UASNs. The main objective of this paper is to design a void-aware routing protocol referred to as Location-Free Void Avoidance Routing (LFVAR) protocol. It develops void-awareness among nodes in the UASNs and prevents forwarding of the packets to void and trap nodes. Further, LFVAR capable of selecting the efficient void-recovery path for the void-nodes present in the UASNs. Thus, it aims at reducing the end-to-end delay, lower energy consumption, higher packet delivery ratio, and increasing throughput during routing. The LFVAR protocol is implemented in UnetStack and further compared with the state-of-the-art Interference-aware routing (Intar) protocol. The simulation result shows that the packets in LFVAR reach the sink 32.32 % faster, consumes 20.54 % lower energy, and 9.8 % higher packet delivery ratio than Intar.
... Greedy hop packet forwarding strategy is utilized in Enhanced Channel-Aware Routing Protocol (E-CARP) for effective data transmission with the comparison done with the previously collected sensory data [17]. In Weighting Depth and Forwarding Area Division (WD-FAD) the next-hop forwarding node is selected based on the state of current node and failure in forwarding in local sparse region [18]. Physical distance is taken into account in Distance Based Reliable And Energy Efficient (DREE) protocol but has not been utilized. ...
The challenges faced in underwater communication systems are limited bandwidth, Energy consumption rate, larger propagation delay time, End-End Delay (E-ED), 3D topology, media access control, routing, resource utilization and power constraints. These issues and challenges are solved by means of deploying the energy efficient protocol. The protocol can either be localization-based protocol or localization free protocol. In this paper, review of localization free protocols were discussed and reviewed with reference to environmental factors, data transmission rate, transmission efficiency, energy consumption rate, E-ED and propagation delay. The review analysis gives the pros and cons to give rise to the new directions of research for future improvements in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). This manuscript propose a survey on localization free protocol according to the problem addressed or the major parameter considered during routing in UWSNs. Unlike the existing survey, the present survey focuses on present state and art of routing protocols, in terms of routing strategy issues addressed. The solutions of energy efficient protocol is arrived by highlighting the pros of each protocols. The description of routing strategy for each protocol is presented to understand its operation in an understandable form. The cons of each protocol is taken into consideration for further investigation and to arrive the best protocol. The presented routing strategy, pros and cons provide open challenges and research directions for future investigation.
... A routing scheme is proposed for increasing the lifetime of network by balancing the consumption of energy between network nodes. Yu et al. (2016) divide the network field via reuleaux triangle to ensure that the duplicate packets are discarded to ensure the effective neighbour node selection for efficient energy dissipation. ...
Localization of sensors in Underwater Internet of Things (UIoTs) is difficult due to the mobility. This changing makes the routing decisions difficult, which results in unreliable communication. This paper proposes Adaptive Transmission based Geographic and Opportunistic Routing (ATGOR) protocol for reliable communication between nodes. ATGOR operates in two parts: election of a small cube to avoid redundant transmissions and selection of reliable nodes which forward data from the selected small cube for optimal transmissions. Furthermore, to guarantee the reliability of the data packets in a harsh acoustic environment, we propose Mobility Aware ATGOR (MA-ATGOR), which predicts the locations of neighboring sensor nodes for successful data delivery. In addition, prediction of tthe locations of the sensor nodes helps in avoiding the void holes along with high packet delivery. The performance of the proposed routing protocols is validated based on the PDR, number of void nodes and energy consumption per packet, through simulations.
... Recently, underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) have been considered to be a powerful technology to observe and explore lakes, rivers, seas, and oceans. Water covers approximately two-thirds of the Earth's surface, but just a small part of it has been explored [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Therefore, UWSNs are a valuable research direction in approaching underwater applications. ...
The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer protocol is the most important part of any network, and is considered to be a fundamental protocol that aids in enhancing the performance of networks and communications. However, the MAC protocol’s design for underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) has introduced various challenges. This is due to long underwater acoustic propagation delay, high mobility, low available bandwidth, and high error probability. These unique acoustic channel characteristics make contention-based MAC protocols significantly more expensive than other protocol contentions. Therefore, re-transmission and collisions should effectively be managed at the MAC layer to decrease the energy cost and to enhance the network’s throughput. Consequently, handshake-based and random access-based MAC protocols do not perform as efficiently as their achieved performance in terrestrial networks. To tackle this complicated problem, this paper surveys the current collision-free MAC protocols proposed in the literature for UWSNs. We first review the unique characteristic of underwater sensor networks and its negative impact on the MAC layer. It is then followed by a discussion about the problem definition, challenges, and features associated with the design of MAC protocols in UWANs. Afterwards, currently available collision-free MAC design strategies in UWSNs are classified and investigated. The advantages and disadvantages of each design strategy along with the recent advances are then presented. Finally, we present a qualitative comparison of these strategies and also discuss some possible future directions.
... For the selection of nodes and their route towards the destination, the hop-by-hop dynamic addressing-based routing protocol for pipeline monitoring is discussed (H2-DARPPM) [14]. The parametric value for the selection of nodes is energy consumption. ...
The Internet of Things (IoT) is an emerging technology in underwater communication because of its potential to monitor underwater activities. IoT devices enable a variety of applications such as submarine and navy defense systems, pre-disaster prevention, and gas/oil exploration in deep and shallow water. The IoT devices have limited power due to their size. Many routing protocols have been proposed in applications, as mentioned above, in different aspects, but timely action and energy make these a challenging task for marine research. Therefore, this research presents a routing technique with three sub-sections, Tri-Angular Nearest Vector-Based Energy Efficient Routing (TANVEER): Layer-Based Adjustment (LBA-TANVEER), Data Packet Delivery (DPD-TANVEER), and Binary Inter Nodes (BIN-TANVEER). In TANVEER, the path is selected between the source node and sonobuoys by computing the angle three times with horizontal, vertical, and diagonal directions by using the nearest vector-based approach to avoid the empty nodes/region. In order to deploy the nodes, the LBA-TANVEER is used. Furthermore, for successful data delivery, the DPD-TANVEER is responsible for bypassing any empty nodes/region occurrence. BIN-TANVEER works with new watchman nodes that play an essential role in the path/data shifting mechanism. Moreover, achievable empty regions are also calculated by linear programming to minimize energy consumption and throughput maximization. Different evaluation parameters perform extensive simulation, and the coverage area of the proposed scheme is also presented. The simulated results show that the proposed technique outperforms the compared baseline scheme layer-by-layer angle-based flooding (L2-ABF) in terms of energy, throughput, Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) and a fraction of empty regions.
... Moreover, a sender dynamically changes the pipe radius according to the feedback of neighbor nodes to bypass void region. Weighting depth and forwarding area division (WDFAD-DBR), based on DBR, uses the depth information of the two-hop node to participate in candidate set selection and to address the void problem [28]. To accomplish hybrid candidate set selection, WDFAD-DBR introduces some mechanisms to divide the forwarding area and to predict neighbor nodes. ...
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) have emerged as a promising technology to monitor and explore the oceans instead of traditional undersea wireline instruments. Traditional routing protocols are inefficient for UWSNs due to the specific nature of the underwater environment. In contrast, Opportunistic Routing (OR) protocols establish an online route for each transmission, which can well adapt with time-varying underwater channel. Cross-layer design is an effective approach to combine the metrics from different layers to optimize an OR routing in UWSNs. However, typical cross-layer OR routing protocols that are designed for UWSNs suffer from congestion problem at high traffic loads. In this paper, a Cross-Layer-Aided Opportunistic Routing Protocol (CLOR) is proposed to reduce the congestion in multi-hop sparse UWSNs. The CLOR consists of a negotiation phase and transmission phase. In the negotiation phase, the cross-layer information in fuzzy logic is utilized to attain an optimal forwarder node. In the transmission phase, to improve the transmission performance, a burst transmission strategy with network coding is exploited. Finally, we perform simulations of the proposed CLOR protocol in a specific sea region. Simulation results show that CLOR significantly improves the network performances at various traffic rates compared to existing protocols.
... Moving further, underwater resources are paid attention by scientists due to the depletion of terrestrial resources. UWSNs have many uses, such as being commonly used in coastal surveillance and assurance, an expectation of sea calamity, observation of underwater contamination, military protection, road assistance, management of the aquatic oceanic climate, investigation of underwater properties, monitoring of water quality, and so on in [1][2][3]. ...
Energy-efficient management and highly reliable communication and transmission mechanisms are major issues in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSN) due to the limited battery power of UWSN nodes within an harsh underwater environment. In this paper, we integrate the three main techniques that have been used for managing Transmission Power-based Sparsity-conscious Energy-Efficient Clustering (CTP-SEEC) in UWSNs. These incorporate the adaptive power control mechanism that converts to a suitable Transmission Power Level (TPL), and deploys collaboration mobile sinks or Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) to gather information locally to achieve energy and data management efficiency (Security) in the WSN. The proposed protocol is rigorously evaluated through extensive simulations and is validated by comparing it with state-of-the-art UWSN protocols. The simulation results are based on the static environmental condition, which shows that the proposed protocol performs well in terms of network lifetime, packet delivery, and throughput.
Underwater IoT is incredibly helpful in monitoring a variety of jobs, from instrument monitoring to climate recording, from pollution management to natural catastrophe forecasting. Nevertheless, there exist various issues that have an impact on a network's efficiency such as the formation of void holes, excessive EC, and low PDR. As a result, the IGOR protocol is suggested in this study to increase PDR by reducing the percentage of void hole occurrence. The developed routing protocols' scalability is also examined. Here, the parameter optimization for the EC minimization and PDR maximization is performed by a meta‐heuristic optimization algorithm referred to as TSA. In order to verify that the suggested protocol is EC‐optimal by calculating the viable areas. In addition, suggested protocols are evaluated against contemporaries' benchmark routing protocols. The outcomes of the simulations clearly demonstrate that the suggested routing protocols obtained greater PDR than the current techniques. Additionally, there exists a reduction in the ratio of void hole incidence. Comparative research reveals that suggested routing protocols outperformed benchmark routing protocols by 80–81% in PDR. Further, the suggested routing procedures reduced the frequency of void holes by around 30%.
Due to the huge demand in underwater wireless sensor applications it has attracted many of researchers to work in this area. One of the most important need for underwater wireless communication is that communication between devices with the help of sensor technology. For communication there is need of routing protocol. Now a day's number of routing protocols exist as per demand of the application. Each of these routing protocols have their own advantages and disadvantages. By considering this need so as to overcome the problem in our proposed system we have tried to design a new energy efficient , lifetime enhancing , QOS providing optimum routing protocol. This protocol is designed in such a way that so as to get less consumption of energy, maximum throughput, less delay in communication and achievement of maximum packet delivery ratio.
By receiving information and relaying these facts to the earth stations, underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) play a vital role in ocean research and monitoring. As a result, creating effective routing protocols is essential because they ensure secure and trustworthy data transport from the source nodes to the destination nodes. Designing a routing protocol is a challenging task due to the effects of the underwater environment. This article highlights the common routing protocol design challenges and lists the benefits and drawbacks of the most widely used routing protocols for UWSNs. In more detail, the three major categories of routing protocols are localization-based, localization-free, and cooperative systems. Dealing with different performance parameters including energy use, reliability, network longevity, delay, and communication expenditures, the performance of such protocols is discussed.KeywordsUnderwater sensor networks (UWSNs)Routing protocolsAcoustic wavesCooperating routing (CP)
This article reports two low power wake-up receiver (WuRx) circuits (Type A and B) for underwater acoustic wireless sensor networks. The proposed circuits realize the same novel method to extract the wake-up call from the acoustic signals received by a sensor node using different circuit topologies. This is accomplished by comparing the amplitude and the duration of the received pulses to a predefined code. A combination of these two parameters provides a safe and robust decoding system. The values and duration of the predefined code can be adjusted by tuning the biasing voltages in the circuits. The main advantages of the presented designs are modularity and tunability. To verify the operation of the proposed system, an ASIC has been realized. The WuRxs have been characterized in terms of tuning, duty cycle, and power consumption. Both WuRxs can consume less than 0.5. Type A occupies an area of mode = text0.058mm2, has a data rate of mode = text250bit/s, and presents the lowest power consumption reported, consuming 265nW and 61nW in active and sleep modes, respectively.
The Internet of Underwater Things (IoUT) has attracted a lot of attention because of its promising applications in underwater environmental monitoring; however, the characteristics of acoustic communication, e.g., long propagation delay and high attenuation, pose great challenges for efficient and reliable underwater data transmission. Currently, opportunistic routing is regarded as a key technology to improve the packet delivery ratio, because it can dynamically choose several forwarding nodes and leverage their cooperative forwarding to increase network throughput. However, choosing an excessive number of forwarding nodes may result in energy waste and lengthy communication delays. Therefore, an Opportunistic Routing based on Directional Transmission (ORDT) is studied to improve packet delivery timeliness and reliability and lower energy consumption. ORDT mainly contains three phases: forwarding area division, candidate forwarder selection, and candidate forwarder coordination. The forwarding region is first established based on directional transmission. Only neighbors located in the forwarding region can forward packets. Following that, candidate forwarders in the forwarding region are chosen depending on their forwarding capability. Additionally, the chosen candidate’s time of holding packets is specified so that they might collaborate to reduce redundant data transmission and transmit packets to gateway nodes. Then, an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) is employed to gather packets from gateway nodes. Simulation findings demonstrate that ORDT performs better than existing opportunistic routing in terms of packet delivery success rate, transmission latency, and energy usage.
With the rise of the upsurge of exploiting marine resources and the rapid development of the research of terrestrial wireless sensor networks, the research of underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs,) has become a new research hotspot. In UWSNs, routing protocol plays a very important role as one of the important components. This paper introduces several classical routing algorithms from the following categories: location, sector, reinforcement learning, and intelligent optimization algorithms. Finally, the paper also summarizes and prospects the research direction of underwater wireless sensor network routing algorithms.
Underwater sensor networks system is a promising technology for smart ocean monitoring applications. To address the imbalance problem of network overhead and limited energy of underwater sensor nodes, this paper presents a CH–SH Selection and Sink Path-planning (CSSP) scheme to collect vast amount of data from heterogeneous sensor nodes. The scheme firstly establishes a three-layer network structure model for underwater mobile sensor networks (UMSN) based on multi-mode communication mechanism and provides energy-balanced head nodes (cluster head and sub-cluster head nodes) selection algorithm based on particle swarm iterative optimization. Then, the optimal global-path-plan of mobile sink is proposed to visit all the head nodes to collect data, reduce the multi-hop underwater acoustic transmission distance of relay nodes, and avoid the energy hole problem. Lastly, the upper-layer multi-hop network of UMSN is designed to remotely control local-path-plan over mobile sink, in order to implement joint planning of global and local paths of mobile sink. Simulation results verified that the proposed CSSP scheme outperformed 11%, 16% and 22% over three typical protocols in terms of nodes energy consumption, CSSP was 9%, 12% and 19% lower than three typical protocols in terms of SD of energy consumption, packet delivery ratio of CSSP was 8%, 10% and 12% higher than three typical protocols. The scheme could significantly balance energy and reduce packet loss rate.
Several data forwarding and clustering techniques have been proposed to improve Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) performance, but void communications, packet collisions, and energy efficiency remain unresolved. We introduce a novel routing solution for energy and QoS-efficient data transmission from the underwater sensor node to the surface sink using Swarm Intelligence (SI). The protocol Energy Optimization using the Routing Optimization (EORO) is proposed to overcome the existing challenges. We design Effective Fitness Function-based Particle Swarm Optimization (EFF-PSO) to choose the optimal forwarder node for UWSN data delivery. In EORO, forwarding relay nodes are discovered by the intended source node using location information first. Then EFF-PSO algorithm is applied to select the optimal relay node considering the rich set of parameters. Four parameters of each forwarder node are used for fitness computation as residual energy, packet transmission ability, node connectivity, and distance. These parameters are deliberately chosen to reduce energy consumption, latency, and throughput by avoiding packet collisions. EORO surpassed underlying routing solutions in throughput, energy consumption, latency, and Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR).
With the increasing underwater applications, underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) have become a research hotspot. Routing protocols used to keep network connectivity and reliable transmission are essential in UWSNs. Due to the specific limitations in UWSNs, such as serious ocean interference, high propagation latency, and dynamic network topology, it is challenging to balance multiple performances, such as real timeness and energy efficiency in a routing protocol. To this end, this article proposes a localization-free routing scheme, termed energy-efficient guiding-network-based routing (EEGNBR) protocol, to provide a time saving and reliable routing for UWSNs, which is a good choice for applications characterized by intermittent connectivity. For reducing the network delay, EEGNBR cites the advantageous distance-vector mechanism and establishes a guiding network to provide underwater sensor nodes with the shortest route (minimum hop counts) toward the sinks. Moreover, EEGNBR innovatively replaces the waiting mechanism used in traditional opportunistic routing with a novel data forwarding mechanism named concurrent working mechanism, which could greatly reduce the forwarding delay while guaranteeing reliable routing. In order to ensure routing reliability as well as avoid duplicate transmission, the forwarding protection mechanism is adopted to save energy consumption and extend the service life of the network. Simulation results show that EEGNBR performs significantly better than some classical related protocols in terms of network delay while maintaining comparable or even better energy consumption and packet delivery ratio.
Underwater optical wireless communication (UOWC) is an emerging technology for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs). Compared with acoustic waves and radio frequency waves, optical waves can provide higher data rates and lower latency. However, given the limited transmission range and energy supply, as well as the existence of communication void regions in UOWC which may further deteriorate its transmission performances (e.g. packet deliver rate), effective multi-hop routing schemes are highly desirable for UOWC to expand its transmission range with satisfactory performance. In this paper, we propose a dual-hop topology-aware (DHTA) routing algorithm for UOWC. By adopting dual-hop routing strategy, the proposed algorithm reduces the packet entry possibility into void regions, and thus improves the packet deliver rate. And by selecting the next relay node considering both the available distance of transmission and the deviation of transmission direction, the proposed algorithm can effectively reduce the average energy consumption of the network. Besides, a threshold is employed by the proposed algorithm for energy balance to prevent excessive energy consumption of some nodes. The simulation results verify that the proposed DHTA routing algorithm effectively alleviates the effluence of void regions on forwarding packet and increases the packet delivery rate (PDR), with reduced average energy consumption and energy standard deviation.
Given the unique characteristics of UWSNs, the provision of mountable and energy effective routing in underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) is very hard to achieve. Because of the fact that the nodes are randomly deployed and energy harvesting cannot be employed, the problem of void hole arises which is regarded as the most challenging problem in design of routing protocols. These are the areas where the packet cannot be further forwarded using greedy mode. The void or energy hole creation leads to performance degradation in these networks in terms of energy consumption, throughput, and network lifetime. The paper works on the concept of detecting the void nodes prior and follow proactive routing in which paths can be updated at regular intervals. Holding times can be reduced by using two-hop information. The paper deals with these aspects of the routing process. In terms of energy economy, packet delivery ratio, and end-to-end delay, simulation results show that the proposed protocol outperforms Depth based Routing and WDFAD-DBR routing.
Localization-free depth-based opportunistic routing protocols are an energy efficient choice for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs). However, most depth-based routing protocols are vulnerable to sinkhole attacks caused by depth spoofing. In this paper, we propose an energy-efficient depth-based probabilistic routing protocol (DPR) that is resilient against depth spoofing. By encouraging unqualified (suboptimal) relay nodes to randomly forward data packets, the adversarial effects of depth-spoofing can be mitigated. As the randomized forwarding probability increases, a better packet delivery ratio can be achieved when under depth-spoofing attacks. To keep energy consumption in check, we propose a simulation-based methodology for finding the optimal forwarding probability. By adjusting the unqualified node forwarding probability, the proposed DPR protocol can effectively resist depth-spoofing attacks with a reasonably efficient energy overhead. A delivery ratio exceeding 90% can be achieved under attack with energy overhead as low as 35% under normal conditions. In comparison with relevant existing protocols, the proposed protocol achieves better energy efficiency, resilience efficiency, and scalability.
Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) demonstrate powerful detection capabilities. Diversified underwater applications are emerging, resulting in a substantial increase in the types and amount of perception data. Thus, UASNs need to transmit data to the data center reliably and efficiently. However, problems such as long paths, multiple hops and long delay, etc limit the quality of data transmission. Motivated by the real-time and effective upload of data, we propose a Q-learning-Based Opportunistic Routing (QBOR) protocol with an on-site architecture. The on-site architecture differs from the traditional model of placing the data center on the surface. We deploy the data center underwater closer to the data source. In order to adapt to this new architecture, the QBOR protocol is proposed, which transmits data to seabed. In QBOR, we define a reward function, in which the packet delivery probability and residual energy are considered in routing to obtain higher Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) and energy efficiency. And a Q-value-based wait-competition mechanism derived from the opportunistic routing paradigm is proposed. This mechanism determines the forwarding priority through the competition of holding time to reduce packet redundancy and collisions. Our results show that the new architecture has obvious advantages in energy and delay. Then we analyze the performance of QBOR at varying network sparse scales from the points of the PDR, energy efficiency and end-to-end delay. Compared with other existing protocols, QBOR outperforms them in the three indicators, especially the PDR is significantly improved.
This survey aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current researchon underwater wireless sensor networks, focusing on the lower layers of the communicationstack, and envisions future trends and challenges. It analyzes the current state-of-the-art onthe physical, medium access control and routing layers. It summarizes their security threadsand surveys the currently proposed studies. Current envisioned niches for further advances inunderwater networks research range from efficient, low-power algorithms and.
Recently, underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) have attracted much research attention from both academia and industry, in order to explore the vast underwater environment. UWSNs have peculiar characteristics; that is, they have large propagation delay, high error rate, low bandwidth, and limited energy. Therefore, designing network/routing protocols for UWSNs is very challenging. Also, in UWSNs, improving the energy efficiency is one of the most important issues since the replacement of the batteries of underwater sensor nodes is very expensive due to the unpleasant underwater environment. In this paper, we therefore propose an energy efficient routing protocol, named (energy-efficient depth-based routing protocol) EEDBR for UWSNs. EEDBR utilizes the depth of sensor nodes for forwarding data packets. Furthermore, the residual energy of sensor nodes is also taken into account in order to improve the network lifetime. Based on the comprehensive simulation using NS2, we observe that EEDBR contributes to the performance improvements in terms of the network lifetime, energy consumption, and end-to-end delay. A previous version of this paper was accepted in AST-2011 conference.
In this article, we intend to investigate the performance of channel access protocols in multi-hop underwater acoustic sensor networks, which are characterized by long propagation delays and limited channel bandwidth. An analytical model specifically designed for contention-based protocols in multi-hop underwater acoustic networks is identified and validated. The model is based on an underwater network model, called string topology network model, which provides a method for computing the expected network throughput and the probability of packets’ delivery to the gateway from an arbitrary sensor. This study demonstrates an improvement of an existing model, in which a node is implicitly assumed to be able to transmit two packets at the same time, which is not realistic due to the half-duplex character of underwater acoustic channels. Based on our findings, we propose a modified analytical model and evaluate it using NS-3 simulator. Results show that our analytical model is more precise than the existing one.
Due to the significant advances of wireless sensor networks (WSNs), researchers are eager to use this technology in the subsea applications. Because of rapid absorption of high radio frequency in the water, acoustic waves are used as communication medium, which pose new challenges, including high propagation delay, high path loss, low bandwidth, and high-energy consumption. Because of these challenges and high movement of nodes by water flow, end-to-end routing methods used in most of existing routing protocols in WSNs are not applicable to underwater environments. Therefore, new routing protocols have been developed for underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWASNs) in which most of the routing protocols take advantage of greedy routing. Due to inapplicability of global positioning system (GPS) in underwater environments, finding location information of nodes is too costly. Therefore, based on a need for location information, we divided the existing greedy routing protocols into two distinctive categories, namely, location-based and location-free protocols. In addition, location-free category is divided into two subcategories based on method of collecting essential information for greedy routing, including beacon-based and pressure-based protocols. Furthermore, a number of famous routing protocols belonging to each category are reviewed, and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Finally, these protocols are compared with each other based on their features.
Land-use planning has triggered debates on social and environmental values, in which two key questions will be faced: one is how to see different planning simulation results instantaneously and apply the results back to interactively assist planning work; the other is how to ensure that the planning simulation result is scientific and accurate. To answer these questions, the objective of this paper is to analyze whether and how a bridge can be built between qualitative and quantitative approaches for land-use planning work and to find out a way to overcome the gap that exists between the ability to construct computer simulation models to aid integrated land-use plan making and the demand for them by planning professionals. The study presented a theoretical framework of land-use planning based on scenario analysis (SA) method and multiagent system (MAS) simulation integration and selected freshwater wetlands in the Sanjiang Plain of China as a case study area. Study results showed that MAS simulation technique emphasizing quantitative process effectively compensated for the SA method emphasizing qualitative process, which realized the organic combination of qualitative and quantitative land-use planning work, and then provided a new idea and method for the land-use planning and sustainable managements of land resources.
In this paper, we tackle one fundamental problem in Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs): robust, scalable and energy efficient
routing. UWSNs are significantly different from terrestrial sensor networks in the following aspects: low bandwidth, high
latency, node float mobility (resulting in high network dynamics), high error probability, and 3-dimensional space. These
new features bring many challenges to the network protocol design of UWSNs. In this paper, we propose a novel routing protocol,
called vector-based forwarding (VBF), to provide robust, scalable and energy efficient routing. VBF is essentially a position-based
routing approach: nodes close to the “vector” from the source to the destination will forward the message. In this way, only
a small fraction of the nodes are involved in routing. VBF also adopts a localized and distributed self-adaptation algorithm
which allows nodes to weigh the benefit of forwarding packets and thus reduce energy consumption by discarding the low benefit
packets. Through simulation experiments, we show the promising performance of VBF.
Underwater wireless communications can enable many scientific, environmental, commercial, safety, and military applications. Wireless signal transmission is also crucial to remotely control instruments in ocean observatories and to enable coordination of swarms of autonomous underwater vehicles and robots, which will play the role of mobile nodes in future ocean observation networks by virtue of their flexibility and reconfigurability. To make underwater applications viable, efficient communication protocols among underwater devices, which are based on acoustic wireless technology for distances over one hundred meters, must be enabled because of the high attenuation and scattering that affect radio and optical waves, respectively. The unique characteristics of an underwater acoustic channel - such as very limited and distance-dependent bandwidth, high propagation delays, and time-varying multipath and fading - require new, efficient and reliable communication protocols to network multiple devices, either static or mobile, potentially over multiple hops. In this article, we provide an overview of recent medium access control, routing, transport, and cross-layer networking protocols.
Energy optimized Path Unaware Layered Routing Protocol (E-PULRP) for dense 3D Underwater Sensor Network (UWSN) is proposed and analysed in this paper. In the proposed E-PULRP, sensor nodes report events to a stationary sink node using on the fly routing. E-PULRP consists of a layering phase and communication phase. In the layering phase, a layering structure is presented wherein nodes occupy different layers in the form of concentric shells, around a sink node. The layer widths and transmission energy of nodes in each layer are chosen taking into consideration the probability of successful packet transmission and minimization of overall energy expenditure in packet transmission. During the communication phase, we propose a method to select intermediate relay nodes on the fly, for delivering packets from the source node to sink node. We develop a mathematical framework to analyse the energy optimization achieved by E-PULRP. We further obtain expressions for throughput, delay and derive performance bounds for node densities and packet forwarding probabilities, for given traffic conditions. A comparison is made between the results obtained based on simulations and analytical expressions. The energy efficiency is also demonstrated in comparison with existing routing protocol for underwater sensor networks.
Underwater sensor nodes will find applications in oceanographic data collection, pollution monitoring, offshore exploration, disaster prevention, assisted navigation and tactical surveillance applications. Moreover, unmanned or autonomous underwater vehicles (UUVs, AUVs), equipped with sensors, will enable the exploration of natural undersea resources and gathering of scientific data in collaborative monitoring missions. Underwater acoustic networking is the enabling technology for these applications. Underwater networks consist of a variable number of sensors and vehicles that are deployed to perform collaborative monitoring tasks over a given area.In this paper, several fundamental key aspects of underwater acoustic communications are investigated. Different architectures for two-dimensional and three-dimensional underwater sensor networks are discussed, and the characteristics of the underwater channel are detailed. The main challenges for the development of efficient networking solutions posed by the underwater environment are detailed and a cross-layer approach to the integration of all communication functionalities is suggested. Furthermore, open research issues are discussed and possible solution approaches are outlined.
Wireless sensor networks consist of small nodes with sensing, computation, and wireless communications capabilities. Many routing, power management, and data dissemination protocols have been specifically designed for WSNs where energy awareness is an essential design issue. Routing protocols in WSNs might differ depending on the application and network architecture. In this article we present a survey of state-of-the-art routing techniques in WSNs. We first outline the design challenges for routing protocols in WSNs followed by a comprehensive survey of routing techniques. Overall, the routing techniques are classified into three categories based on the underlying network structure: flit, hierarchical, and location-based routing. Furthermore, these protocols can be classified into multipath-based, query-based, negotiation-based, QoS-based, and coherent-based depending on the protocol operation. We study the design trade-offs between energy and communication overhead savings in every routing paradigm. We also highlight the advantages and performance issues of each routing technique. The article concludes with possible future research areas.
An ad-hoc network is the cooperative engagement of a collection of Mobile Hosts without the required intervention of any centralized Access Point. In this paper we present an innovative design for the operation of such ad-hoc networks. The basic idea of the design is to operate each Mobile Host as a specialized router, which periodically advertises its view of the interconnection topology with other Mobile Hosts within the network. This amounts to a new sort of routing protocol. We have investigated modifications to the basic BellmanFord routing mechanisms, as specified by the Routing Information Protocol, making it suitable for a dynamic and self-starting network mechanism as is required by users wishing to utilize ad-hoc networks. Our modifications address some of the previous objections to the use of Bellman-Ford, related to the poor looping properties of such algorithms in the face of broken links and the resulting time dependent nature of the interconnection topology describing th...
SUMMARY Recently, underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) have attracted much research attention to support various applications for pollution monitoring, tsunami warnings, offshore exploration, tactical surveillance, etc. However, because of the peculiar characteristics of UWSNs, designing communication protocols for UWSNs is a challenging task. Particularly, designing a routing protocol is of the most importance for successful data transmissions between sensors and the sink. In this paper, we propose a reliable and energy-efficient routing protocol, named R-ERP2R (Reliable Energy-efficient Routing Protocol based on physical distance and residual energy). The main idea behind R-ERP2R is to utilize physical distance as a routing metric and to balance energy consumption among sensors. Furthermore, during the selection of forwarding nodes, link quality towards the forwarding nodes is also considered to provide reliability and the residual energy of the forwarding nodes to prolong network lifetime. Using the NS-2 simulator, R-ERP2R is compared against a well-known routing protocol (i.e. depth-based routing) in terms of network lifetime, energy consumption, end-to-end delay and delivery ratio. The simulation results proved that R-ERP2R performs better in UWSNs.Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Engineers asked some questions concerning an instrument to drill square holes. In this paper their questions are answered.
The Nelder-Mead simplex method for function minimization is a “direct” method requiring no derivatives. The objective function is evaluated at the vertices of a simplex, and movement is away from the poorest value. The process is adaptive, causing the simplexes to be continually revised to best conform to the nature of the response surface. The generality of the method is illust'rated by using it. to solve six problems appearing in the May 1973 issue of Technometrics.
A simple yet accurate nine‐term, eight‐variable equation for sound speed in the oceans, suitable for programmable pocket calculators, is presented. Ranges of validity encompass: temperature −2° to 30° C, salinity 30° to 40°/°°, and depth 0 to 8000 m. Good quality oceanographic data at 15 worldwide stations, including two in the Mediterranean, were utilized for the computations. The Del Grosso and Mader [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 52, 961–974 (1972)] sound‐speedequation was employed as ’’truth’’ after comparisons among Wilson [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 32, 641–644. 1357 (1960)] and others. A precise method of computing pressure is detailed. Practical differences in critical depth, excess depth, conjugate depth, deep sound‐speed gradients, and echo‐sounder corrections are shown to be small between computations based on Wilson or Del Grosso and Mader sound‐speedequations.
The design of routing protocols for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) poses many challenges due to the intrinsic
properties of underwater environments. In this paper we present DUCS (Distributed Underwater Clustering Scheme), a new GPS-free
routing protocol that does not use flooding techniques, minimizes the proactive routing message exchange and uses data aggregation
to eliminate redundant information. Besides, DUCS assumes random node mobility and compensates the high propagation delays
of the underwater medium using a continually adjusted timing advance combined with guard time values to minimize data loss.
The theoretical and simulation studies carried out demonstrate its effectiveness.
KeywordsAcoustic communications–Routing–Energy efficiency–Underwater networking
Underwater wireless sensor networks consist of a certain number of sensors and vehicles that interact to collect data and perform collaborative tasks.Designing energy-efficient routing protocols for this type of networks is essential and challenging because sensor nodes are powered by batteries, which are difficult to replace or recharge, and because underwater communications are severely affected by network dynamics, large propagation delays and high error probability of acoustic channels.The goal of this paper is to analyze the total energy consumption in underwater acoustic sensor networks considering two different scenarios: shallow water and deep water. We propose different basic functioning principles for routing protocols in underwater wireless sensor networks (relaying, direct transmission and clustering) and analyze the total energy consumption for each case, establishing a comparison between them.
Providing scalable and ecient routing services in underwater sensor net- works (UWSNs) is very challenging due to the unique characteristics of UWSNs. Firstly, UWSNs often employ acoustic channels for communications because radio signals do not work well in water. Compared with radio-frequency channels, acous- tic channels feature much lower bandwidths and several orders of magnitudes longer propagation delays. Secondly, UWSNs usually have very dynamic topology as sen- sors move passively with water currents. Some routing protocols have been proposed to address the challenging problem in UWSNs. However, most of them assume that the full-dimensional location information of all sensor nodes in a network is known in prior through a localization process, which is yet another challenging issue to be solved in UWSNs. In this paper, we propose a depth-based routing (DBR) protocol. DBR does not require full-dimensional location information of sensor nodes. Instead, it needs only local depth information, which can be easily obtained with an inex- pensive depth sensor that can be equipped in every underwater sensor node. A key advantage of our protocol is that it can handle network dynamics eciently with- out the assistance of a localization service. Moreover, our routing protocol can take advantage of a multiple-sink underwater sensor network architecture without intro- ducing extra cost. We conduct extensive simulations. The results show that DBR can achieve very high packet delivery ratios (at least 95%) for dense networks with only small communication cost.
Due to the long propagation delay and high error rate of acoustic channels, it is very challenging to provide reliable data transfer for time-critical applications in an energy-efficient way. On the one hand, traditional retransmission upon failure usually introduces very large end-to-end delay and is thus not proper for time-critical services. On the other hand, common approaches without retransmission consume lots of energy. In this paper, we propose a new multipath power-control transmission (MPT) scheme, which can guarantee certain end-to-end packet error rate while achieving a good balance between the overall energy efficiency and the end-to-end packet delay. MPT smartly combines power control with multipath routing and packet combining at the destination. With carefully designed power-control strategies, MPT consumes much less energy than the conventional one-path transmission scheme without retransmission. Besides, since no hop-by-hop retransmission is allowed, MPT introduces much shorter delays than the traditional one-path scheme with retransmission. We conduct extensive simulations to evaluate the performance of MPT. Our results show that MPT is highly energy-efficient with low end-to-end packet delays.
Progress in underwater acoustic telemetry since 1982 is reviewed
within a framework of six current research areas: (1) underwater channel
physics, channel simulations, and measurements; (2) receiver structures;
(3) diversity exploitation; (4) error control coding; (5) networked
systems; and (6) alternative modulation strategies. Advances in each of
these areas as well as perspectives on the future challenges facing them
are presented. A primary thesis of this paper is that increased
integration of high-fidelity channel models into ongoing underwater
telemetry research is needed if the performance envelope (defined in
terms of range, rate, and channel complexity) of underwater modems is to
expand