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Estimation of evapotranspiration and crop coefficient on table grape trained on an overhead trellised system
Abstract
During the 2008/09 and 2009/10 seasons, net radiation (Rn), latent heat flux (LE), sensible heat flux (H), soil heat flux (G), and crop evapotranspiration (ETc =LE, where λ is latent heat of vaporization) were measured on a drip-irrigated Thompson Seedless vineyard trained on an overhead trellised system ("parronal español"). The experiment was located in Calle Larga, Aconcagua valley, Chile (32°52'40" S, 70°37'45" O, 795 m s.n.m.). LE and H were measured by an eddy correlation system, and reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was calculated using the FAO-Penman-Monteith method. Results indicated that the closure error (ratio of LE+H to Rn-G) decreased as canopy light interception increased (CLI). With 22% CLI closure error was around 20-30%. Over 74% CLI, closure error was around 10 to 20%. Higher closure error with low CLI can be attributed to errors on measurement of G. At 22% CLI the energy partition relative to Rn were 13, 45 and 13% for LE, H and G, respectively. With higher CLI ( 98%), LE, H and G were 81, 0.1 and 1% of Rn respectively. Derived crop coefficients (Kc = ETa/ETo) under an overhead trellised system are higher than those proposed by FAO 56 for table grapes, from near veraison to end of the season. Kc values from budbreak to harvest period increased linearly as CLI increased (Kc = 0.0137*CLI(%) -0.1492).
... Two studies used weighing lysimeter (Williams et al., 2003;López-Urrea et al., 2012), while only one used a drainage lysimeter (Netzer et al., 2009). Four works applied EC systems to measure actual, ET c act (Villagra et al., 2011;Carrasco-Benavides et al., 2012;Er-Raki et al., 2013;Marras et al., 2016). Villagra et al. (2014) combined the use of EC with the SWB. ...
The present study reviews the research on the FAO56 crop coefficients of fruit trees and vines performed over the past twenty years. The main objective was to update information and extend tabulated single (Kc) and basal (Kcb) standard crop coefficients. The selection and analysis of the literature for this review have been done to consider only studies that adhere to FAO56 method, computing the reference ET with the FAO Penman–Monteith ETo equation and field measuring crop ET with proved accuracy. The crops considered refer to vine fruit crops, berries and hops, temperate climate evergreen fruit trees, temperate climate deciduous fruit trees and, tropical and subtropical fruit crops. Papers satisfying the conditions expressed above, and that studied the crops under pristine or appropriate eustress conditions, were selected to provide for standard Kc and Kcb data. Preference was given to studies reporting on the fraction of ground cover (fc), crop height (h), planting density, crop age and adopted training systems. The Kc and Kcb values obtained from the selected literature generally show coherence relative to the crop biophysical characteristics and reflect those characteristics, mainly fc, h and training systems. The ranges of reported Kc and Kcb values were grouped according to crop density, particularly fc and h, and were compared with FAO56 (Allen et al., 1998) previously tabulated Kc and Kcb values, as well as by Allen and Pereira (2009) and Jensen and Allen (2016), which lead to define update indicative standard Kc and Kcb values. These values are aimed for use in crop water requirement computations and modeling for irrigation planning and scheduling, thus also aimed at supporting improved water use and saving in orchards and vines.
... ETo was estimated by the Penman-Montheith method (Allen et al., 1998). Kc was estimated as proposed by Villagra et al. (2011) and Williams and Ayars (2005). Irrigation was scheduled in a low frequency regime, as recommended by Selles et al. (2003) for the fine textured soil of the Aconcagua valley. ...
In the Aconcagua Valley, Chile, a 4-year research (2007/11), has been carried out to evaluate the response of table grape cultivar 'Flame Seedless' to different volumes of irrigation water. The experimental site was a commercial orchard of 'Flame Seedless' grafted on Freedom rootstock, located in the Aconcagua valley (70°41'23"W; 32°47'20.9"S), Chile. Four irrigation treatments were applied in a factor of: 0.57, 0.89, 1.12 and 1.51 of crop evapotranspiration (ETc), during the seasons 2007/08 to 2010/11. Soil water content was monitored with a capacitive probe in each treatment. Midday stem water potential was also measured (MSWP). The minimum soil available water (SAW) and MSDWP were found in 60% ETc treatment in all seasons, but this did not affect berry size distribution and bunch weight, in comparison with the other treatments. In average, the maximum exportable yield was obtained in the 110% ETc treatment. Exportable yield diminished 12% with application of 60% of ETc. Application of water over 110% ETc diminished yield around 10%. Probably, this was related to poor soil aeration. The water use efficiency changed, on the average, from 7 kg m-3 of exported fruit at 60% ETc to 2.3 kg m-3 with water applied at 150% ETc.
... The capacity of evaporating water to lower surface temperature is well understood, particularly in relation to transpirational cooling of leaves through the high latent of vaporisation Villagra et al. 2011). This raises the possibility of using evaporating water to cool whole vines. ...
A hydrocooling system applied to Semillon (Vitis vinifera L.) grapevines as a means of protecting the vines from recurrent high temperatures. This system was assessed for impacts on vegetative and reproductive growth and development as well as for carbon economy of vines growing in vineyard conditions. The system maintained canopy temperatures at 35°C over the growing season. Leaf and bunch biomass and yield were all higher in the hydrocooled compared with control vines: the major effect was on dynamics of leaf and berry expansion. Leaf expansion was delayed and occurred over a longer duration whereas berry expansion was advanced and occurred over a longer duration than in control vines. Berry ripening was also faster in the hydrocooled vines and berries had accumulated more sugar at harvest. Leaf photosynthesis along the shoot was also higher in hydrocooled than control vines and there was a significant effect of leaf position on rates of photosynthesis of the hydrocooled vines but not with control vines. However, no differences were observed in the net shoot carbon budget. Lowered canopy temperatures were beneficial for yield and berry composition and, therefore, the cooling system warrants adoption in vineyards at risk from high temperature events during the growing season.
This paper reviews the research on the FAO56 single and basal crop coefficients of fruit trees and vines performed over the past twenty-five years and focus on Mediterranean and warm temperate trees and vines. Two companion papers (López-Urrea et al., (2023) Single and basal crop coefficients for estimation of water use of tree and vine woody crops with consideration of fraction of ground cover, height, and training system for temperate climate fruit crops. Irrig Sci (submitted); Paredes et al. (2023) Single and basal crop coefficients for estimation of water use of tree and vine woody crops with consideration of fraction of ground cover, height, and training system for tropical and subtropical fruit crops. Irrig Sci (submitted)) are dedicated, respectively, to Temperate and to Tropical and Subtropical trees and vines. The main objective of the paper is to update available information on single (Kc) and basal (Kcb) standard crop coefficients, and to provide for updating and completing the FAO56 tabulated Kc and Kcb. The Kc is the ratio between non-stressed crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and the grass reference evapotranspiration (ETo), while Kcb is the ratio between crop transpiration (Tc) and ETo. The selection and analysis of the literature were performed considering only studies that adhere to the FAO56 method, thus computing ETo with the FAO Penman–Monteith ETo equation, the ASCE grass ETo, or another equation that could be properly related with the former, and ETc, or Tc, was obtained using properly accurate field measurements on crops under pristine or eustress conditions. The crops considered refer to Mediterranean (grapes and olive) and warm temperate areas (avocado, citrus, persimmon, loquat, and tea) fruit and leaf crops. Papers satisfying the above conditions were selected to provide for standard Kc and Kcb data. Preferably, studies should report on the crop cultivar and rootstock, planting density or plant spacing, fraction of ground cover (fc), crop height (h), crop age and training systems. Additional information was collected on pruning and irrigation method and strategy. The ranges of reported Kc and Kcb values were grouped according to crop density in relation with fc, h, and the training system, namely vase, hedgerow, or trellis systems. Literature collected Kc or Kcb values were compared with previously tabulated Kc and Kcb values, namely in FAO56, to define the standard Kc and Kcb values for the referred selected crops. The tabulated values are, therefore, transferable to other locations and aimed for use in crop water requirement computations and modeling, mainly for irrigation planning and scheduling, and for supporting improved water use and saving in orchards and vineyards.
In the Aconcagua Valley, Chile, a 5-year research (2007/2012), has been carried out to evaluate the response of table grape 'Thompson Seedless' vines to different volumes of irrigation water. The experimental site was a commercial orchard of 'Thompson Seedless' grafted on Freedom rootstock, located in the Aconcagua valley (70°41'23"W. Long. and 32°47'20.9"S. Lat.), Chile. Four irrigation treatments were applied: 60, 90, 120 and 140 percent of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) during the seasons 2007/08 to 2010/11, and 40, 54, 92 and 108% of Etc in the last season (2011/12). Soil water content was monitored with a capacitive probe in each treatment. Midday stem water potential was also measured. Soil available water as a result of irrigation treatments affected berry size distribution. A linear relationship between berry size and SAW was found. The bunch weight was also affected by a lower application of water (60% ETc). Maximum exportable yield was obtained in the 120% ETc treatment. Table grape production was lowered either by a water application of less than 90% ETc or more than 120% ETc. In the former case, yield reduction may be related to soil water deficit. In the latter case it may be related to poor soil aeration. The water use efficiency changed, on the average, from 7 kg/m3 of exported fruit at 40% ETc to 2.3 kg/m3 with water applied at 140% ETc.
Water transport in grape trunk and berries has been studied with several methods. However, there are no studies that simultaneously evaluate water transport in both organs. This study was conducted in the Aconcagua Valley (Chile) with the cultivar Crimson Seedless using electronic dendrometers. It was observed that trunk growth ceased at the beginning of berry coloring. At the beginning of berry growth stage II resistance to water flow increased; this was attributed to a change in the phloematic discharge in the berry from a symplastic to an apoplastic via. Thus, there are growth interactions among organs, contributing to the hypothesis of physiological interactions between the xylem and phloem during berry development. Also, there would be no xylem dysfunction while a flow of water predominates; this flow is governed by an osmotic gradient that maintains the water potential gradient between the berry and plant until harvest.
The actual evapotranspiration (ETc) of mature 'Valencia' orange trees [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osb.], drip-irrigated and non-irrigated, was calculated using the water balance method, over three years. Annual ETc was 24% higher from irrigated trees that from non irrigated trees (767 and 620 mm year -1, respectively). Maximum monthly average ETc was 3.3 mm day -1 or 80 L tree-1 day-1 (trees were spaced at 6 x 4 m). Generally ETc rate was reduced in January, the month of maximum atmospheric demand, compared with December, even under fully irrigated trees. The average annual value of the crop coefficient (Kc) for irrigated trees was 0.69. Monthly Kc values also showed a clear seasonal trend, with minimum values in summer (0.60), intermediate values in autumn and spring (0.77 and 0.80, respectively) and maximum values in winter (0.87). These values provide a useful base for the design and operation of microirrigation systems, for mature citrus trees in Uruguay.
Hourly pear water consumption (ETc) was determined with a large weighing lysimeter during 2002. The lysimeter was located in the middle of a 4000 m2 pear plot and it contained 3 adult pear trees (c.v. 'Conference'), spaced at 4 m x 1.6 m. The Lysimeter container had a cross sectional area of 9.5 m2 and a depth of 1.65 m (minimum). Weight was determined by means of 4 load cells with an individual capacity of 15 t, which gave to the lysimeter a total weight capacity of 60 t. The weighing sensitivity was 0.5 kg what produced a lysimeter sensitivity of 0.053 mm. ETo was determined from an automatic weather station adjacent to the lysimeter, and pear crop coefficients were determined as a ETc/ETo ratio. Tree intercepted radiation (LI) was weekly determined at solar non by using a Ceptometer and correlated to the determined Kc. LI and Kc resulted strongly correlated, indicating the potential capacity of LI to be used for estimating Kc values in pear orchards.
Experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of crop development on evapotranspiration and yield of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) at the Instituto Agronômico (IAC), Campinas, State of São Paulo, Brazil, during the dry season of 1994. A completely randomized design was carried out with three population density treatments and four replications. The treatments were: (a) crop sown in evapotranspirometers at a density of 50plantsm−2, and thereafter thinned to 25plantsm−2, when the canopy achieved full ground cover; (b) crop sown with population densities of 14 and 28plantsm−2 in an irrigated field. Crop growth was evaluated considering dry matter (DM), vegetative ground cover (GC%) and leaf area index (LAI). These parameters were successfully related to basal crop coefficient (kcb) and crop coefficient (kc), demonstrating the strong dependence of both coefficients on canopy development. A simulation study was carried out and showed that kcb based on LAI would allow good estimates of water use for different plant density populations in the field.
Seasonal water use of Vitis vinifera L. (cv. Thompson Seedless, clone 2A) was determined with a large weighing lysimeter in the San Joaquin Valley of California from 1994 to 1996. The first year of the study, the vines growing within the lysimeter were treated as would be done to produce fruit for use as table grapes; the application of gibberellic acid (GA3) and trunk girdling at berry set (approximately 2 weeks after anthesis). Both practices will increase berry size of this seedless cultivar. In 1995, the vines in the lysimeter were only girdled at berry set, no application of GA3 at that time. Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) between March 15th and the end of October averaged 1124mm across the 3 years. Water use shortly after the vines were girdled in 1994 increased as would be expected for non-girdled grapevines while in 1995 water use after girdling decreased for a period of approximately 4 weeks. Once the girdles healed (callused over) in 1995 water use increased to values similar to those of the previous year. The crop coefficient (Kc) subsequent to girdling in 1994 remained constant for a period of 4 weeks while the Kc decreased after girdling in 1995. The Kc increased after the girdles healed both years and remained at a value of approximately 0.9 until the end of October. In 1996, the vines in the lysimeter received none of the treatments used the previous 2 years. The seasonal water use and maximum daily water use in 1996 of the vines in the lysimeter were greater than in 1994 and 1995. Water use of the vines was equivalent to 838, 708 and 936mm from March 15 until the end of October while that of ETo was 1136, 1060, and 1176 during the same period in 1994, 1995 and 1996, respectively. At full canopy in 1996 the Kc leveled off at a value of 1.1 and remained such until the end of October. The results indicate that girdling the trunks of grapevines can affect water use when compared to non-girdled grapevines. Additionally, the Kc of this perennial horticultural crop does not decrease after harvest or later in the season if the vines are fully irrigated and insect pests are controlled.
Field experiments were conducted in 1992 and 1993 in a commercial vineyard near Lamesa, TX, to evaluate soil and canopy energy balances. In 1992, grapevines were wrapped tightly to trellis wires, creating compact hedgerows that were 3 m apart, 1.6 m high and 0.4 m wide with little foliage below 1 m above the soil surface. In 1993, vines were allowed to grow outward and downward from the trellis because of concerns that excess shading of vines and fruit had occurred the previous year. This change in trellising created wider, less dense hedgerows that increased sunlit leaf area and reduced sunlit soil area from the previous year. Leaf area was also 55% larger in 1993. We examined how the change in trellising affected soil and canopy energy balances. The Bowen ratio method was used to measure the vineyard energy balance including total latent heat flux (λE). Latent heat flux from the canopy (λEc) was determined from sap flow measurements of transpiration. Soil latent heat flux (λEs) was calculated as the difference between λE and λEc. These values were combined with measurements of soil net irradiance to partition the vineyard energy balance into soil and canopy components. The change in trellising in 1993 had little effect on vineyard net irradiance (Rn) and λE, but did alter the partitioning of Rn and λE into soil and canopy components. Canopy Rn and λE were substantially higher for the open hedgerows in 1993 whereas soil Rn and λE were lower than for the dense hedgerows in 1992. Both trellising and leaf area contributed to changes in the energy balance. A comparison of λEc per unit land area with λEc per unit leaf area suggested that roughly 60% of the difference in λEc between years was caused by the change in trellising.
Crop evapotranspiration estimates are frequently obtained using an approach that combines reference evapotranspiration and empirical crop coefficients, disseminated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Several recent studies made in orchards showed that the crop coefficients (Kc) proposed by the FAO methodology and those obtained experimentally may not agree for Portuguese conditions. The Kc values obtained locally were consistently lower. Therefore, for such conditions, a verification of the FAO crop coefficients might be needed, in order to obtain more rigorous estimates, especially if the goal is to minimize water consumption. For a crop such as pear (Pyrus communis L.) cv. 'Rocha' in the Oeste region of Portugal (95% of the total national pear production), water savings can have economical and environmental benefits. The experimental work took place during the summer of 2004, in the Oeste region of Portugal (Vale de Maceira, Alcobaça) in a 2.5 ha plot, part of an area of 34 ha of pear and apple orchards, with daily drip irrigation. This study presents some results on Kc values obtained with direct measurements of evapotranspiration using eddy covariance method. The closure error of the surface energy balance equation was 10%. The data were selected according to footprint analysis. The results, combined with calculated reference evapotranspiration, allowed the determination of orchard Kc values. The evapotranspiration rates were on average 1.9 mm/day and the mean Kc (for the mid-season stage) was 0.5, below the tabled Kc for pear orchards with no ground cover (0.95) or with active ground cover (1.2), confirming the need for adjusting published values for local conditions.
Water use of Thompson Seedless grapevines during the first 3 years of vineyard establishment was measured with a large weighing lysimeter near Fresno, California. Two grapevines were planted in a 2ǸǶ m deep lysimeter in 1987. The row and vine spacings in the 1.4-ha vineyard surrounding the lysimeter were approximately 3.51 and 2.15 m, respectively. Vines in the lysimeter were furrow-irrigated from planting until the first week of September in 1987. They were subsequently irrigated with subsurface drip-irrigation whenever they had used 2 mm of water, based upon the area of the lysimeter (equivalent to 8 liters per vine). The trellis system, installed the second year, consisted of a 2.13 m long stake, driven 0.45 m into the soil with a 0.6 m cross-arm placed at the top of the stake. Crop coefficients (Kc) were calculated using measured water losses from the lysimeter (ETc) and reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) obtained from a CIMIS weather station located 2 km from the vineyard. Water use of the vines in 1987 from planting until September was approximately 300 mm, based on the area allotted per vine in the vineyard surrounding the lysimeter. Daily water use just subsequent to a furrow-irrigation event exceeded ETo (>6.8 mm dayу). Water use from budbreak until the end of October in 1988 and 1989 was 406 and 584 mm, respectively. The initiation of subsurface drip-irrigation on 23 May 1988 and 29 April 1989 doubled ETc measured prior to those dates. Estimates of a 'basal' Kc increased from 0.1 to 0.4 in 1987. The seasonal Kc in 1988 increased throughout the season and reached its peak (0.73) in October. The highest Kc value in 1989 occurred in July. It is suggested that the seasonal and year-to-year variation in the Kc was a result of the growth habit of the vines due to training during vineyard establishment. The results provide estimates of ETc and Kc for use in scheduling irrigations during vineyard establishment in the San Joaquin Valley of California and elsewhere with similar environmental conditions.