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Deep Ecology and Personal Responsibility
Abstract
Inspired by Arne Næss’ writings on ecology, this paper explores his viewpoint about the necessity of a Deep Ecological approach and the need to take a personal ecosophical position. According to Næss, deep ecology is proceeding in two directions; it is trying to bring about a change and it is trying to develop an alternative philosophy called “eco philosophy”. While eco philosophy is a descriptive science without fundamental postulates about values, ecosophy includes the development and eliciting of norms. Arne Næss invites everybody to work out their own individual ecosophy, by which he means a philosophy of ecological harmony. This kind of sophia or wisdom is normative and contains value priorities as well as norms.
... A megoldást az ökológia alapelveit (összetettség, sokféleség, szimbiózis, egység) használó ökofilozófia pluralista nézőpontjától és az ökozófiának nevezett személyes megközelítéstől várja. Ezek alapján az ökológián és a gazdaságon mint egyenrangú eszközökön alapuló személyes ökozófiákban minden embernek képesnek kell lennie kidolgozni teljes egyéni világképét, értékeit, normáit, és azok szerint cselekedni, felelősséget vállalni (Ims, 2015). White (2011) az ökológiai tudatosság fogalmát a mélyökológiával és ökozófiával foglalkozó kutatók munkáiból eredezteti. ...
... White (2011) 1970-es évek óta kutatják, többféle elnevezéssel (ökológiai én, ideális létállapot, én-megvalósítás, ökológiai érzékenység); meghatározásához mélyökológiai, ökozófiai előzmények összefoglalása: mély tudatosság az egyénnek a nem emberi természeti létezőkhöz fűződő biológiai, ökológiai, érzelmi és spirituális kapcsolatairól; a nem emberi természet önértékének tisztelete; mély aggodalom a természet pusztítása miatt és ennek racionális megértéssel, aktív, érzelmi, pszicho-spirituális viszonyulással történő kezelése; késztetés az emberen túli fogalmak megértésére a természethez való tapasztalati, érzelmi kapcsolódás által mélyökológia, ökozófia Naess (1989) és Leff (1978), Devall -Sessions (1985), Devall (1988), Drengson (1989), Milbraith (1989), Beck (1995Beck ( , 1999, Bragg (1996), Morris (2002), Hill et al (2004), O'Sullivan -Taylor (2004), Uhl (2004), Ims (2015) filozófiai és egyben cselekvő megközelítés; a rövid távú problémákra koncentráló, a környezetszennyezést, az erőforrások kimerülését technológiai megoldásokkal orvosolhatónak tartó környezeti gondolkodás ("sekély" ökológia) helyett a problémák gyökerének feltárására, a fennálló redukcionista, antropocentrikus ideológia, az egyén énképének újrafogalmazására, a gondolkodásmód radikális megváltoztatására van szükség; a megoldás a pluralista ökofilozófián (alapértékei: összetettség, sokféleség, szimbiózis, egység) és az ökozófiának nevezett személyes megközelítésen alapul. Az ökozófiában az ökológia és a gazdaság egyenrangú, és minden ember képes meghatározni világképét, értékeit, és azok szerint cselekedni, felelősséget vállalni ökológiai közgazdaságtan Polányi (2004Polányi ( [1944), Boulding (1966), Schumacher (1991), Costanza (1997), Georgescu-Roegen (2002), Daly -Farley (2004) Goodpaster (1990), Hoffman (1991), Brenkert (1995) az üzleti világ a szabad piaci rendszerrel és a gazdasági társaságok nyereségmaximalizáló természetével összefüggő sajátos etikája miatt nem képes környezetileg felelősen működni (közgazdasági modell); a vállalatok morális cselekvők is, akiknek társadalmilag, környezetileg felelősen kell viselkedniük a károkozás minimalizálására, a környezeti problémák megoldására (moralista modell); ehhez biocentrikus vállalati etikára, valamint a vállalat környezeti lelkiismeretéből kifejlődő globális tudatosságra van szükség; a gazdaság és a vállalatok belső törvényszerűségei (vállalkozási attitűdök, értékek, bürokratikus üzleti struktúrák, rövid távú nyereség-és növekedés-érdekeltség, erőforráskihasználás, specializáció, árverseny) miatt a morális cselekvés nehéz, alapvető változás kell: például elszámoltathatóság erősítése, a racionalitás kibővítése, demokratizálás, nyitottság, környezetvédelem, fenntartható fejlődés ...
Mindannyian tapasztaljuk, hogy az antropocén korában az emberiség az egész bolygónkra kiterjedő, egyre súlyosbodó ökológiai válságban él. Ezért túlnyomó részt a mainstream üzleti modell tekinthető felelősnek. A mai társadalmi-gazdasági rendszer természeti környezet helyreállítását előtérbe helyező átalakítása elengedhetetlennek tűnik, amihez az etikai nézőpontok figyelembevételére, az ökológiai értékek tiszteletére és ökológiai tudatosságra van szükség. Az 1980-as évektől kezdve egyre növekvő érdeklődés mutatkozik az ökológiai tudatosság (ecological consciousness) iránt. A fogalmat az 1960-as évek végétől kezdve különböztetik meg a környezeti tudatosságtól (environmental consciousness) olyan környezetvédő aktivisták és filozófusok, akik úgy gondolták, hogy a hagyományos természetvédő mozgalmak túl szűken értelmezik a környezeti problémákat, technikai problémákká fokozzák le azokat, ezáltal nem képesek megérteni kiváltó okaikat. A környezeti problémák valójában a modernitás társadalmi és kulturális intézményeiben megtestesülő instrumentális racionalitás elkerülhetetlen következményei, ezért új racionalitásra épülő új társadalmi és kulturális intézmények nélkül a globális katasztrófa elkerülhetetlen. A nemzetközivel összehasonlítva a hazai szakirodalomban az ökológiai tudatosság és a vállalkozások ökológiai tudatosságának tárgyalása még kevéssé elterjedt. Ezt a hiányt hivatott enyhíteni ez az írás, amely a fogalom elméleti koncepcióit tekinti át általánosságban (többek között a mélyökológia, ökológiai közgazdaságtan, felelősségetika, spiritualitásalapú vezetés, integrál ökológia, buddhista közgazdaságtan) és a vállalkozásokra fókuszálva (például a vállalatok moralista modellje, fenntarthatóság által vezérelt, illetve természet által ihletett vállalkozások, „valóban fenntartható” üzleti modellek) egyaránt, valamint néhány kapcsolódó hazai tanulmány rövid összehasonlító elemzését adja.
... To support this, Naess and George Sessions explain that what we need now is an incredibly deep expansion of ecological thinking, called ecosophy (Ims, 2015;Naess, 1986). Ecosophy is the philosophical foundation and platform for achieving deep ecology. ...
Objective: This research aims to: (1) understand the historical development of Holistic Contemporary Worldview (CHW) and Kejawen Philosophy (Hamemayu Hayuning Bawana/HHB); (2) explore the correlation between CHW and HHB; (3) compare the axiology of HHB and CHW to better understand the path to achieving sustainable development goals; and (4) identify opportunities for maintaining sustainability through the perspectives of CHW and HHB. Theoretical Framework: The Earth is currently facing unsustainable changes, which are evident in climate change and the increasing frequency of disasters. These problems are believed to stem from reductionist-mechanist thinking, which fosters an anthropocentric attitude. In contrast, holistic thinking offers a new perspective on nature, seeing it as an interconnected whole where each component supports the others to maintain prosperity and balance. This idea is in line with the Javanese philosophy of life, HHB, which emphasizes harmony between humans and nature to enhance the beauty of life. Both concepts highlight the need for fundamental changes in the way humans interact with each other and nature to support the achievement of Sustainability especially the implementation of the Sustainable Development Golas (SDGs). Method: This descriptive qualitative research uses a literature study technique that is conducted in three stages. First, a literature study on the historical development of human views on nature, both from the Western view (CHW) and the Eastern view, especially Java (Kejawen-HHB). These historical developments are presented in the form of narratives to provide a clear picture of events and context, thus helping in understanding each philosophy. The second stage reviews these narratives to identify the core similarities and differences between the two approaches. Finally, the third stage analyses these comparisons to find clues about new approaches to sustainability, especially attitudinal changes to support the achievement of sustainable development goals Results and Discussion: This research shows that the concepts of CHW and HHB are two concepts that emerged from two different regions and times but have the same philosophical line. Both understand that all components of nature need to coexist and respect each other psychologically and even spiritually. This change in attitude is necessary to avoid the evil nature of humans (greed and arrogance) in fulfilling their needs in the form of development. The goal of sustainable development should be utilized for the benefit of the many and the broad (inclusive), which is the core concept of deep ecological understanding (Ecosophy of CHW) and needs to be supported by the concept of roso (spiritual culture of HHB). Both approaches have significant similarities and differences in some aspects but share the common goal of maintaining a dynamic balance to sustain living systems. Research Implications: The findings of this research are expected to contribute to a new perspective on how to achieve sustainability. The old approach based on classical mechanics is still relevant and useful to support the achievement of the SGDs, but the complexity of the world demands a change in behaviour in treating the universe and development. CHW and HHB provide new clues on how to achieve this. Originality/Value: This study compares and correlates two approaches from distinct origins: one rooted in the logic-driven Western culture and the other in the spiritual-based Eastern tradition. These approaches also emerged in different eras: one in the modern, complex age, and the other in the mythology-based ancient kingdom. By examining this correlation, the study underscores the importance of regulating thoughts and behaviors to ensure the continuity of life, particularly within the complexities of modern civilization.
... Solutions may be found by applying the pluralistic view of ecophilosophy, which involves the consideration of ecological principles (complexity, diversity, symbiosis, and unity) and a personal approach called "ecosophy." On this basisby viewing the ecology and the economy as of equal importance -, every human being must be able to develop their individual worldviews, values, and norms, to act upon them, and take responsibility (Ims, 2015). White (2011) derives the concept of ecological consciousness from the work of researchers who deal with deep ecology and ecosophy. ...
This chapter examines the concepts of “ecology” and “human ecology” as elements of the transdisciplinary study of man-made environmental problems. It then presents the different approaches to “consciousness” in Eastern and Western traditions. The chapter continues by showing how “ecological consciousness” differs from “environmental consciousness.” It emphasizes that ecological problems can only be solved if the relationship between nature, society, and human individuals is well understood, and if we recognize that the environmental crisis is the inevitable consequence of an instrumental rationality embodied in the institutions of modernity such as modern capitalism, industrial technology, individualism, and mechanistic science. The chapter summarizes the concepts of deep ecology, ecological economics, and the circular economy, and different ideas such as ecological conscience, land ethics, Gaian ethics, and moral responsibility. Finally, the chapter comments on the real-world relevance of some selected worldviews such as Christianity, Gandhi’s philosophy, and Buddhist economics.
Purpose
This paper analyses children's experiences of school or family visits to Hare Krishna eco-farms in Europe. The article evaluates the extent to which these encounters enable retention and recollection of memories and, consequently, trigger change towards more sustainable behaviour.
Design/methodology/approach
Participatory research, qualitative observations and theories of childhood memory are used to explore the nature of children's environmental encounters on Hare Krishna eco-tours.
Findings
Findings reveal that Krishna eco-tours offer a conducive environment for cerebral registering and future reminiscing through the following components: experiential learning of sustainable practices which are radically different to mainstream alternatives, sensory experiences, nature play and entertainment and freedom from everyday constraints.
Originality/value
The emerging literature on children's eco-tourism has largely focussed on market-related aspects and farmers' needs. In contrast, the authors’ conceptual framework, based on contemporary research in childhood memories, offers a tool to evaluate the impacts of eco-tourism from a more holistic perspective.
In this final chapter, the implications of Buddhist Economics on individuals, society, and the environment are examined. The central question asked is whether there are practical applications of Buddhist teachings in the market economy. With some examples from different sectors, this chapter assesses the potentials and results of applying Buddhist teachings in contemporary economy and society. A sustainable transformation framework toward Buddhist Economics is also proposed. It involves a six “I”s strategy from individual to integral; from independence to interdependence; and from ignorance to insight.
‘Sustainability transitions’ has emerged as one of the most important and influential literatures on understanding the pathways towards a more sustainable future. Yet, most approaches in this literature privilege technological and regime-wide innovations, while people’s agencies, grassroots innovations, and social factors more generally are often underrepresented. This article focuses on the role of ecospirituality as worldview, aiming to understand how spiritual and religious beliefs play an important role in practical, everyday sustainability transitions. In an extensive desk-based study, literature across disciplines is reviewed to explore connections between spirituality, pro-environmental behaviour, climate policy, and sustainability agencies. Showing the importance of ecospiritual practice, the purpose of this article is to make a case for the inclusion of ecospirituality, as worldview, in the study of sustainability transitions. We argue that ecospirituality is a significant dimension to understanding people’s contemporary agencies that shift away from endless economic growth and resource efficiency mantras towards more radical worldviews of degrowth and different ways of achieving happiness and fulfilment in life.
The financial market is undeniably the prime exemplar of capitalism where practitioners compete under intense pressure to excel in decision making every nanosecond. This unrelenting pursuit of outperformance is limited by human physical and mental capacities to make decisions based on the available technology and information. This paper reviews the state of contemplative practices as a form of “mind technology” in the financial market. In order to deliver outperformance, financial Alpha, in the market, this mind technology seems to suggest that it is important to engage in contemplative practices so that our brainwaves could transcend from the faster neural Gamma and Alpha waves to the slower and advanced state of neural Delta waves. This research looks into the benefits of these contemplative practices, particularly in decision making and management. It then evaluates the potential integration and conflict between contemplative practices and material pursuits. It argues that while contemplative practices are conducive to better decision making and management, they have not reached their full potential. It explores the potential unique contribution of Buddhist Economics and offers some avenues for the modern mindfulness movement to rethink how we could develop our mental capacities to cope with the challenges in the market economy.
The encyclical letter of Pope Francis, "Praised Be: On the Care of Our Common Home" (Laudato si'), presented an excellent opportunity to spark a conversation between economics and faith-based discourses on sustainability. The encyclical underlined the human origins of the ecological crisis and proposed fundamental changes in organizing our economic life. Among the important suggestions put forward by the Pope are increased frugality in consumption and acknowledging the intrinsic value of nature. Frugality implies rebalancing the spiritual and material values in economic life. This may lead to the rehabilitation of the substantive meaning of the "economic" and the revival of the corresponding logic of sufficiency. Despite their different ontological and anthropological conceptions, the ecological position of the Pope's encyclical has close links with Deep Ecology and Buddhist Economics. Both Deep Ecology and Buddhist Economics point out that emphasizing individuality and promoting the greatest fulfillment of the desires of the individual together lead to destruction. Happiness is linked to wholeness, not to personal wealth. Mainstream economics fails to acknowledge the intrinsic value of nature. It is happy to put value on environmental goods and services merely on the basis of a market value determined by competing economic actors. But price, for sure, is an inappropriate model for assessing the value of natural entities. There is no algorithmic solution to nature's allocation problems. Decisions and policies related to nature require making qualitative and multiperspective considerations and the proper use of our wisdom, knowledge, and experience.
What sets Naess's deep ecology apart from most inquiries into environmental philosophy is that it does not seek a radical shift in fundamental values. Naess offered a utopian, life-affirming grand narrative, a new Weltanschauung that shifted the focus of inquiry to coupling values, knowledge, understanding, and wisdom to behavior. The core of Naess's approach is that sustainability hinges on developing more thoroughly reasoned and consistent views, policies, and actions, which are tied back to wide-identifying ultimate norms and a rich, well-informed understanding of the state of the planet. But humans can have multiple ultimate norms and these norms sometimes conflict; our neurobiology may not be well-structured for accommodating consequences that are spatially and temporally separated and uncertain; we are governed by bounded rationality; much of human learning results from the passive modeling of unsustainable activities; and our cultures can be maladaptive, creating hurdles and perverse incentives/disincentives that likely demand more than consistent reasoning from wide-identifying ultimate premises. After keenly demonstrating how problem characterization and formulation shape both solution strategies and outcomes, Naess may conceptualize the process of change too narrowly. In the end, deep ecology helps us to shine a brighter searchlight on the gap between our attitudes and our generally unsustainable actions and policies. In doing so it expands the frontier of the unknown, opening more questions. This is its allure, frustration, and promise.
The Buddhist worldview can inform and enrich the efforts to modify consumption into “sustainable consumption” forms that can
bring about and sustain better quality of life and well-being for humans and the living environment. Together production,
consumption and exchange form the essence of economics as the study of livelihood activities and how people, communities and
societies manage, distribute and utilize their scarce human and natural resources in the process of “earning their living”.
Linking sustainability and Buddhist notions some approaches are described for assessing consumption in terms of its environmental
and “karmic” disturbance impact. Some of the studies of problematic modes of consumption are reviewed and major conclusions
are presented examining the primary strategic needs for achieving sustainable consumption in light of the Buddhist economic
perspective.
KeywordsSustainable development-Sustainable consumption and production-Socio-economic metabolism-Material flow analysis-Life cycle assessment
Arne Naess once called himself “a kind of metaphysician”: did or did he not therewith turn his back on his philosophical mentors in the Vienna Circle? To try to determine the meaning of this self-ascription, this paper first considers in detail two works in which his disagreements with the philosophers of the Vienna Circle found their clearest and most detailed expression. Concentrating on Carnap it will be argued that while some of Naess's criticisms cannot be taken as authoritative, he did indicate a clear dividing line between himself and Carnap. Turning then to Naess's valediction to philosophy of science from 1972, Naess's appreciation of the role of metaphysics for science will be discussed and compared with his appreciation for the role of metaphysics for personal and political life as expressed in his still later ecophilosophy. Once allowance is made for the different needs addressed by his writings for the deep ecology movement and a certain 1960s' rhetoric is discounted as no longer appropriate, it can be seen that Naess's theoretical philosophy exhibited a remarkable continuity throughout.
First published in 1949 and praised in The New York Times Book Review as "a trenchant book, full of vigor and bite," A Sand County Almanac combines some of the finest nature writing since Thoreau with an outspoken and highly ethical regard for America's relationship to the land. Written with an unparalleled understanding of the ways of nature, the book includes a section on the monthly changes of the Wisconsin countryside; another part that gathers informal pieces written by Leopold over a forty-year period as he traveled through the woodlands of Wisconsin, Iowa, Arizona, Sonora, Oregon, Manitoba, and elsewhere; and a final section in which Leopold addresses the philosophical issues involved in wildlife conservation. As the forerunner of such important books as Annie Dillard's Pilgrim at Tinker Creek , Edward Abbey's Desert Solitaire , and Robert Finch's The Primal Place , this classic work remains as relevant today as it was forty years ago.
Buddhism and economics are seem to be far from one another. Many people think that Buddhism is an ascetic religion with no
interest in worldly affairs. It is not true. Buddhism has a well-developed social facet. Buddhists are often engaged in progressive
social change. Buddhism poses a radical challenge for mainstream economics because denies the existence of the self. The Western
way of life is centered on self-interest understood as satisfaction of the wishes of one’s body-mind ego. Buddhism challenges
this view by a radically different conception, that is “anatta”, the “no-self”. The chapter gives an overview of the development
of Buddhist economics. It presents E.F. Schumacher’s book “Small is beautiful”, Serge-Christopher Kolm’s formal model which
treats consumption and meditation together, the seminal contribution by Ven. P. A. Payutto in his book “A Middle Way for the
Market Place”, Shinichi Inoue’s view of economics and Buddhism, Richard Welford’s theorizing about Buddhist economics, and
Apichai Puntasen’s conception of “panna”-ism as the Buddhist mode of production.
KeywordsBuddhist economics-No-self-Right livelihood-Middle way-Economic wisdom
The basic thesis of the work is that environmental problems are only to be solved by people - people who will be required to make value judgements in conflicts that go beyond narrowly conceived human concerns. Thus people require not only an ethical system, but a way of conceiving the world and themselves such that the intrinsic value of life and nature is obvious, a system based on 'deep ecological principles'. The book encourages readers to identify their own series of such parameters - their own ecosophies. Ecology, Comunity and Lifestyle will appeal to philosophers, specialists working on environmental issues, and the more general reader who is interested in learning some of the foundational ideas of the rapidly expanding field of environmental philosophy.
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