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Evolution, Social Roles, and the Differences in Shame and Guilt
... Shame is defined as an adaptive self-conscious emotion, that is universally experienced, particularly when an individual recognises that their personal characteristics or behaviour are perceived to be inappropriate, either within their broader situational context around other people, or at times when this may conflict with the individual's own morality, ethics or values (Gilbert, 2003;Tangney et al., 2004). It is theorised that shame is associated with an evolutionary drive relating to the competitive dynamics of life; to seek acceptance, connection and desire from others; and it is therefore linked to a threat-based system that alerts an individual when this is not the case (Gilbert, 2003). ...
... Shame is defined as an adaptive self-conscious emotion, that is universally experienced, particularly when an individual recognises that their personal characteristics or behaviour are perceived to be inappropriate, either within their broader situational context around other people, or at times when this may conflict with the individual's own morality, ethics or values (Gilbert, 2003;Tangney et al., 2004). It is theorised that shame is associated with an evolutionary drive relating to the competitive dynamics of life; to seek acceptance, connection and desire from others; and it is therefore linked to a threat-based system that alerts an individual when this is not the case (Gilbert, 2003). ...
... When shame is experienced, it can drive a person to distance themselves from others to conceal the shame-inducing stimuli, to prevent distressing outcomes such as social exclusion, rejection and devaluation (Hultberg, 1987). Shame is often associated with guilt, but these two emotions are distinct from one another (Gilbert, 2003). Guilt may arise from a negative evaluation from a behaviour (e.g., I said that wrong and it upset them) which often fuels a person to take action to rectify the perceived problem. ...
Background: Parents of autistic children (PAC) are at increased risk of psychological distress, including parental stress, shame and self-criticism. Poor parental mental health can adversely affect parent-child interactions and their attachment relationship, in a transactional manner. There is a lack of evidence-based PAC-specific interventions focusing on reducing their psychological distress. Furthermore, PAC experience multiple barriers to accessing direct psychological interventions provided by health services. Compassion Focused Therapy (CFT) is a recommended transdiagnostic intervention for high shame and self-criticism and is potentially applicable for use as preventative guided self-help with PAC. Cross-sectional research has shown that increased PAC self-compassion is associated with increased well-being and reduced psychological distress. There is limited research around the use of CFT with PAC. No PAC-specific CFT self-help resources are available.
Study aims: To explore adaptations needed to use a CFT resource as a guided self-help intervention with PAC, and to define anticipated factors influencing successful intervention implementation during future feasibility testing.
Research questions:
• How can a CFT resource be adapted into a guided self-help intervention for PAC, whilst maintaining theoretical coherence, for further investigation during feasibility testing?
• What are stakeholder views regarding anticipated factors influencing successful implementation of the CFT resource during future feasibility testing?
Methods: Abiding by practice guidelines for intervention adaptation, five iterative phases of stakeholder feedback on an existing CFT resource for parents were facilitated, leading to subsequent intervention refinement. Phases one and two involved focus groups with PAC. Phases three and four involved seeking written commentary and a later focus group with clinical psychologists (CPs) working within children’s autism services. The fifth phase involved seeking written commentary from all participants that had opted into receiving updates about the project and CFT experts. Directed Content Analysis supported extraction of adaptation suggestions during each feedback round. A secondary Framework Analysis was later employed to all focus group data to meet the second research aim.
Results: Compassionate Mind Training for Parents of Autistic Children (CMT-PAC) guided self-help intervention was developed. Seven PAC, four CPs and one CFT expert provided feedback on CMT-PAC which led to adaptations. CFT-trained clinicians deemed the final CMT-PAC maintained theoretical coherence. Two key concepts from the Framework Analysis were recognised in all focus groups: ‘personal and social context of parents’ and ‘barriers and facilitators to engagement’. Stakeholders raised several further research questions to consider when CMT-PAC undergoes feasibility testing.
Discussion: This study is the first to adapt a CFT intervention for PAC in collaboration with multiple stakeholder groups. Stakeholders anticipated CMT-PAC will be valuable for PAC and services, and highlighted key facilitators for successful implementation, including cultivating a therapeutic relationship via modelling compassionate qualities within the text, and promoting flexible intervention engagement. Potential issues requiring further consideration were highlighted, such as whether fears of compassion may reduce engagement in self-directed practices, and queries around feasibility of imagery and body-based CMT exercises due to PAC differences associated with neurodivergence. Future research should involve studies of CMT-PAC to investigate the acceptability, feasibility and effectiveness in cultivating compassion and reducing psychological distress among PAC.
... Shame is a self-conscious emotion that can be understood as the product of a complex set of cognitive activities (Lewis, 2022) that translate complex ideas about the self, typically characterized by a feeling of inferiority and worthlessness, leading to a desire to escape or disappear (Tracy & Robins, 2004). According to Gilbert (2003), shame can be experienced internally and externally. External shame refers to the way one believes oneself to exist in the minds of others as unworthy, undesirable, inferior, defective, and unattractive (Allan et al., 1994; Gilbert, 1998, 2003; Kaufman, 1989; Lewis, 1992; Tangney & Dearing, 2002; Tangney & Fischer, 1995. ...
... External shame refers to the way one believes oneself to exist in the minds of others as unworthy, undesirable, inferior, defective, and unattractive (Allan et al., 1994; Gilbert, 1998, 2003; Kaufman, 1989; Lewis, 1992; Tangney & Dearing, 2002; Tangney & Fischer, 1995. In turn, internal shame is internally focused, involving negative self-evaluations of the self as inadequate, inferior, undesirable, empty or isolated (Gilbert, 2003). ...
... Some authors have argued that high levels of shame develop in the context of social interactions (Gilbert, 2003), particularly relationships with parents. According to attachment theory (Bowlby, 1982), attachment relationships with parents are associated with the quality of subsequent social relationships, particularly with peers (Pallini et al., 2014) and with children's ability to regulate their emotions using more adaptive strategies (Cooke et al., 2019). ...
Shame results from a set of complex ideas about the self and, when intense and prolonged, may interfere in adolescents’ socioemotional adjustment. Research with young adults found that parent- child attachment was associated with shame. Due to the limited number of studies during adolescence, this study aimed to examine the role of the perceptions of safe haven and secure base in the relationship with the mother and the father in self-reported shame in a sample of adolescents aged 10 to 15 years. A total of 312 adolescents (45% boys) aged, on average, 12 years, recruited from a school of the Metropolitan Lisbon, participated in the study. Participants answered the Portuguese version of the Security Scale Questionnaire (SSQ) and the External and Internal Shame Scale for Adolescents (EVEI-A) to assess perceptions of safe haven and secure base in the relationships with parents and total, internal, and external shame. Higher scores of secure base and safe haven in the relationships with the father and with the mother were associated with self-reports of lower levels of overall, internal, and external shame. The strength of the associations between the scores of safe haven and internal shame tended to be higher for the relationship with the mother than for the relationship with the father. These findings are consistent with research conducted with young adults and highlight the importance of assessing the role of both fathers and mothers as a safe haven and secure base.
... In other words, the experience of guilt focuses on the idea that one's behaviour is wrong, while with shame, there is an existential sense of being wrong (Lewis, 1971). Secondly, guilt is defined as having more of an interpersonal focus (Baumeister et al., 1994), as one feels bad for having harmed someone or something in the external world, while shame is more self-directed and focused on negative consequences for one's social self (Gilbert, 2003;Lewis, 1971). However, both emotions are inherently social and relational experiences focused on the negative effects that social and moral violations have on others or in the eyes of others (whether actual, imagined, or internalised). ...
... Due to the important distinction that guilt concerns specific behaviours, while shame is existential, several psychological studies argue that the feeling of guilt is less harmful, while shame can be paralyzing and trigger negative and defensive reactions such as withdrawal and anger (e.g. Gilbert, 2003;Nussbaum, 2004;Tangney, 1995). Therefore, shame is generally considered to be maladaptive. ...
... Therefore, shame is generally considered to be maladaptive. While reactions to guilt remain a topic of debate, it is generally considered adaptive and a more productive tool for inducing prosocial behaviour, as it leads to reparative actions (Gilbert, 2003;Tangney & Dearing, 2002;Tangney & Fischer, 1995). However, more recently, some scholars have defended using shame as a productive way of changing behaviour, arguing that no emotion is inherently adaptive or maladaptive. ...
The emotions of guilt and shame have an effect on how individuals feel and behave in relation to environmental crises, yet studies of the moral potential of these emotions remain limited. From a philosophical perspective, some scholars have defended using eco-guilt and eco-shame as morally constructive emotions due to their ability to evoke more pro-environmental behaviour. Meanwhile, others have posited that there are pitfalls to these emotions, claiming that they perpetuate a problematic individualised focus, which diverts attention from the collective and structural conditions considered necessary for pro-environmental change. This paper critically examines these two differing perspectives on eco-guilt and eco-shame, applying insights from moral and political philosophy and the sociology of emotions. Through this exploration, we try to nuance the discussion concerning the moral potential of eco-guilt and eco-shame. We argue that if individuals are able to break their introspective, consumption-based loops of eco-guilt and eco-shame alleviation, the emotions may enforce an individual ethical demand to be more sustainable and foster an ethical and political pro-environmental drive. Furthermore, experiences of eco-guilt and eco-shame have the potential to spread socially and help catalyse emotional shifts within society, sparking a greater political and social pro-environmental movement. Therefore, eco-guilt and eco-shame may indeed transcend the purported introspective and individual-level focus and have the potential to influence broader collective and structural conditions and thus foster environmental change.
... Extensive research indicates that both the experience and regulation of emotions are culturally embedded. Asian values are positively associated with shame proneness (shame culture), which emphasizes threat to one's place within socially complex hierarchies (Gilbert, 2003), while European/American values are positively associated with guilt proneness (guilt culture) (Cozens, 2018;Liw et al., 2022), which emphasizes individual responsibility for harm prevention and caregiving (Gilbert, 2003). Individuals from collectivistic cultures tend to experience more shame and guilt than those from individualistic cultures in similar contexts (Bierbrauer, 1992;Su & Hynie, 2019). ...
... Extensive research indicates that both the experience and regulation of emotions are culturally embedded. Asian values are positively associated with shame proneness (shame culture), which emphasizes threat to one's place within socially complex hierarchies (Gilbert, 2003), while European/American values are positively associated with guilt proneness (guilt culture) (Cozens, 2018;Liw et al., 2022), which emphasizes individual responsibility for harm prevention and caregiving (Gilbert, 2003). Individuals from collectivistic cultures tend to experience more shame and guilt than those from individualistic cultures in similar contexts (Bierbrauer, 1992;Su & Hynie, 2019). ...
Psychological research has made considerable inroads in studying self-forgiveness, as a process of restoration of a moral and positive self following transgression or failure. However, prior research has predominantly focused on Western contexts; or, where cultural influences were considered, it has relied on a dualist individualism–collectivism framework that maintained a Western perspective as comparison baseline. The present study explores self-forgiveness from within the Chinese cultural context, to deepen insights into how Chinese people understand, apply, and (if relevant) achieve self-forgiveness. Employing a qualitative methodology with 51 Chinese nationals, we identified four overarching themes representing Chinese conceptions and experiences of self-forgiveness: (a) be strict with self, (b) be benevolent to self, (c) be responsible to self, and (d) be harmonious with others. We interpreted the theme of “be harmonious with others” as central and connected to the other themes, while these themes also demonstrate the heterogeneity of human experience within culture. This research advances a nuanced understanding of the phenomenon of self-forgiveness in the Chinese context, providing potential language and concepts for counsellors and mental health professionals working with individuals of Chinese cultural backgrounds who have experienced failure or committed wrongs.
... When Braithwaite wrote his book, evolutionary psychology was not as well developed as it is today, but recent research on the evolutionary function of shame gives support to his suggestion. Evolutionary psychologists suggest that shame increases fitness by inhibiting certain behaviors that would potentially disqualify us from the goods that having cooperation partners brings (Gilbert 2003;cf. Jaffe 2008). ...
... The capacity to anticipate what will cause shame is as important as the actual experience of shame, since our anticipation inhibits our behavior before we have done something anti-social (Greenwald and Harder 1998). Shame can induce several different courses of action (Gilbert 2003;Greenwald and Harder 1998;Tangney and Dearing 2002). One domain of shame is shame related to behaviors counter to the norms of the group. ...
... Some scholars have proposed that experiences of shame can be internal or external (Gilbert, 2007). Whereas external shame is experienced when an individual anticipates or experiences that the self may be socially stigmatised, rejected, or criticised by others (e.g., being victim to body shaming), internal shame refers to self-devaluations and perceptions of the self as inferior (e.g., appraising body as inadequate; Gilbert, 2003;Tracy & Robins, 2007). The two types of shame experiences can be experienced separately, meaning that a person may experience external shame as a result of receiving a negative comment from a teammate about their body's abilities, but they may not devalue and judge the self as a result. ...
... Importantly, body-related shame is characterised by attributions toward the global self, body-related guilt is characterised by attributions towards one's behaviour, and body-related embarrassment is more transient and public-facing (Tangney et al., 1996). Given that participants were not told to report on feelings of body-related shame specifically and were only provided with phenomenological descriptions of body-related shame in the interview guide (e.g., wanting to hide and disappear, wanting to cover up, feeling like a bad person; Fredrickson et al., 1998;Gilbert, 2003), participants may have associated these phenomenological descriptions of body-related shame with other negative body-related self-conscious emotions. Some participants may also have had different levels of emotional awareness when attempting to tease these self-conscious emotions apart. ...
... Victims of malicious gossip and shaming may respond with avoidance behaviour or flight as coping methods. A flight response might involve leaving their social space, whereas a fight response means that the people who are talked about confront the source of the gossip (Breugelmans & Poortinga, 2006;Gilbert, 2003;Lewis, 1971;Tangney, 1996;Wu et al., 2018). ...
... E. Hooge et al., 2018). But the two women mentioned above both felt that moving away was the only way to escape the past and the stained reputation, clearly demonstrating how gossip and shame can lead to a desire to hide or escape (Breugelmans & Poortinga, 2006;Gilbert, 2003;Lewis, 1971;Tangley, 1996). ...
Small, tight-knit communities often have the image of being places that are full of gossip and where everybody knows each other’s business. This closeness can be claustrophobic for individuals who might not want to live by the accepted social norms of the community. Gossip and rumours can be used to keep such individuals in their place by enforcing social norms through social control. Shaming is crucial to this form of social control, where certain behaviour is punished and shamed through the spread of gossip. Shaming is gendered and is used more harshly against women than against men, particularly in regard to women’s behaviour in public and their sexual activity.
This paper examines how gossip and shame are a part of gendered social control in small villages/towns in Iceland, and how it affects young women’s lives. The discussion here is based on interviews about gossip with young Icelandic women who either live in or come from small fishing villages. The main themes that were constructed from the analysis were the social control of women through shaming, reputation, and slut-shaming. The analysis shows that slut-shaming and the fear of shame control women’s behaviour and sexual activities.
Keywords: social control, gossip, shame, women, small communities
... Shame, on the other hand, is viewed as the 'grimmer and weightier' (Tangney et al., 1996:) of the two emotions. It is linked to a 'sense of devalued and subordinated self' as a consequence of contravening some implicit social norms (Gilbert, 2003(Gilbert, :1222. It represents what is sometimes phrased as 'a global attack on the self', which can be experienced either privately or publicly (Lewis, 2008: 748), with quite dire consequences for selfperception, including the experiencer's desire to 'hide, disappear, or even die' (Li et al., 2004:768). ...
Do different emotion terms trigger different metaphorical conceptualizations of emotions? What are the effects of the discourse context of the genre on metaphor choice in the conceptualization of emotion concepts? Finally, are such lexical and discourse–contextual effects on emotion-targeted metaphor choice quantifiable? Prior discourse-oriented research has demonstrated from a largely qualitative perspective that metaphor use is dynamic and sensitive to discursive contextual variables (e.g., Deignan et al., 2013; Semino 2010, 2011; Semino et al., 2013; Dorst 2015; Caballero 2016; Knapton & Rundblad, 2018). In the present study, these questions are addressed from a corpus-based multivariate perspective, where detailed qualitative analysis of found examples is combined with quantitative modeling. The study examines negative self-evaluative emotions in English, operationalized through their two nominal exponents, i.e., shame and embarrassment , as attested in the discourse context of three genres – fiction, magazine and spoken TV language. The data are first analyzed qualitatively for relevant contextual variables and then modelled quantitatively. The results demonstrate that while both lexical and genre effects are observed in metaphor choice in the conceptualization of negative self-evaluative emotional experience, their combined effect should also be accounted for, as these two variables are found to interact with each other.
... Shame is a distressing emotion, triggered by negative evaluations of the self (Tangney, 1993). Often arising within social contexts, shame is linked to beliefs about violating group standards or values and associated with feelings of being judged, damaged and of less worth than others (Gilbert, 2003). Feelings of shame following PTE exposures have been linked to the development of posttraumatic stress disorders (La Bash and Papa, 2014) and moral injury (Steinmetz et al., 2019). ...
... As per social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954), people constantly compare their opinions and abilities in social situations. Gilbert (2003) stated that individuals assess their social standing within their social group. Scholars also point out that individuals seek social acceptance in the reference group by acquisition and material possession (Fitzmaurice & Comegys, 2006). ...
The primary aim of this research is to examine what makes millennial Muslim females more materialistic and less satisfied with their lives in Pakistan during the COVID-19 pandemic. In today’s world, investigating the underlying mechanism of the exponential increase in Muslim female materialism tendency is considered a worthwhile problem. Therefore, the current research develops a theoretical model based on the stress–strain model. It uses the framework to test the impact of morning TV show consumption on Muslim females’ life satisfaction, social consumption, and compulsiveness through the mediation of materialism in COVID-19. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used. The data was collected through the mall intercept survey method from 720 millennial Muslim females. During COVID-19, the study findings revealed that high viewing of morning TV shows appears to be a significant determinant that leads to high materialism, which results in highly negative outcomes (i.e., compulsive buying, social consumption, and less satisfaction). Moreover, the results found that materialism mediated the relationship between morning TV show consumption and three studied outcomes.
... As Paul Gilbert observed: "Shame, stigmatization, and ostracism are part of the process by which a group of others decide whom to associate and cooperate with, and whom to exclude, reject, and avoid." (Gilbert, 2003(Gilbert, : 1216. It has been an established fact revealed by various study that rape terrorize and threaten the moral dignity and awareness of a woman. ...
This study delves into the nuanced exploration of human emotion, specifically focusing on the manifestation of compassion through the aesthetic lens of Karuna Rasa in Manjula Padmanabhan’s play, Lights Out. Emotions constitute a fundamental aspect of the human experience, and this research aims to unravel the intricate layers of compassion as depicted in the narrative. Drawing inspiration from classical Indian aesthetics, performing, and theatrical arts, Karuna Rasa encapsulates a complex ecstatic and emotional spectrum associated with compassion, empathy, and benevolence. Through a meticulous examination of Padmanabhan’s portrayal and its impact, this study enhances our interpretation and understanding of the profound role played by Karuna Rasa in invoking and navigating compassionate sentiments. Employing a descriptive qualitative methodology, the research scrutinizes how Karuna Rasa is encapsulated, manifested, and expressed by the characters, contributing valuable insights into the intersection of emotions, artistic representation, and human experiences. By illuminating the interpretative dimensions of compassion within Lights Out, this study adds depth to the existing discourse on emotions in literature, offering a nuanced perspective on the transformative power of compassion in the realm of dramatic expression. This detailed analysis not only underscores the significance of Karuna Rasa but also highlights its ability to evoke a deeper empathetic response from the audience, thus enriching the literary and emotional fabric of the play.
... Shame motivates denial, withdrawal, and an escape from the shameful situation, while guilt motivates reparative actions (Sheikh & Janoff-Bulman, 2010a;Shen, 2018;Tangney, 1995;Tangney & Fischer, 1995;Wolf, Cohen, Panter, & Insko, 2010;Yakeley, 2018). The male emotions of shame and guilt are also affected by traditional Chinese cultural values and beliefs, such as: face-saving, collectivism, and Confucianism (Olwen A Bedford, 1994;Olwen A. Bedford, 2004;Gilbert, 2003;D. Liu & Giner-Sorolla, 2023;Shaoming, 2017;Silfver, 2007;Su & Hynie, 2019;Suh, 2020;Wong & Tsai, 2007;Wu, 2013;Yau, 1988 Solem, 2013;Thackeray & Eatough, 2018;Venter, 2011). ...
Background and objectives. Fathers in families with disabled children play a crucial role in fostering child development. Previous research addressing emotions of father involvement in rearing children with special needs has been rare. Given the culture and masculine norms Chinese fathers experience, shame and guilt are emotions that may causally affect fathers' psycho-behavioural reactions and their involvement in parenting.
This study aimed to (1) study the meaning of fathers who rear children with special needs and their journey with shame and guilt emotions; (2) develop and validate scales measuring of this population's shame, guilt, involvement, and masculine norms; and (3) identify mechanisms of correlational effects of proposed variables and behavioural reactions.
Methods. This study adopted a mixed-method research design. Addressing the first objective, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 31 fathers rearing 2-12-year-old children with special needs. An initial theme was generated to identify the fathers' implicit and explicit emotional expressions of shame, guilt, and behavioural reactions. A cross-sectional online questionnaire was conducted to achieve the other objectives. A sample of 437 effective questionnaires was collected to develop measuring scales and validate the proposed variables. Following path analysis, mechanisms underlying the association between different explanatory variables were investigated. Hereafter, the mediating role of emotion (shame and guilt), behaviour (avoidance and compensation) and moderating effects of masculinity were examined.
Results. Qualitative results (1) indicated that, according to the model of "Flagship of roles as fathers/men in rearing children with special needs", the roles of fathers and men in views of family and societal systems are somehow unique and mutually inclusive; (2) expanded the model of "Five stages of horseshoe-shaped emotional reactions of fathers rearing children with special needs" by highlighting that emotions of fathers in different stages of rearing their children with special needs are ambivalent, mixed and fluctuating; (3) proposed a unifying thematic framework of "Moral emotions (Shame and Guilt) and behavioural reactions of fathers and their children with special needs". Quantitative results highlighted the developing shame, guilt, avoidance, and compensation scales for fathers with children with special needs, validating the shortened form of assessing father involvement (Chinese version) and the Chinese Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory. All proposed variables were significant, except the negative relationship between shame and father involvement. Path analysis results indicated that fathers of children with special needs, their Chinese masculine norms, and the dialogistic period of children had negative effects on their shame, but positive influences on guilt emotions, respectively. These effects were mediated by their avoidance and compensatory behaviour influencing father involvement.
Conclusion. Previously, social science researchers and practitioners addressed the limitations of fathers' emotional expression and accessibility to social services. The results showed societal implications as showcasing the impact of shame and guilt emotions, and their reciprocal relationship influencing father involvement in rearing children with special needs. Fathers/men shared their views on expressing their emotions and underlying service accessibility issues. Stakeholders, including social workers, social science researchers, and policymakers, should echo this voice and review the research and services to address their needs.
... Self-destructive behaviors such as substance abuse, histrionic interpersonal confrontations, and perhaps even some suicide attempts, may also represent a person's attempt to distract their conscious awareness from this shame (Baumeister, 1991). However, although shame may result from a threat to the self, it is also rooted in the need to demonstrate that the self is acceptable to others (Gilbert, 2003). Indeed, Sociometer Theory posits that self-esteem is a gauge of one's acceptance by others, suggesting that maintaining self-esteem and having a positive view of the self is not important in itself, but because it signals high relational value and social acceptance (Leary, 2005). ...
... A person faced with malicious gossip might resort to a fight response, to confront the source of gossip. The reaction may also be a flight response, to leave rather than live with the stigma (Breugelmans and Poortinga, 2006;Gilbert, 2003;Tangley, 1996;Lewis, 1971;Wu et al., 2018). ...
This PhD thesis focuses on young women in small rural communities in Iceland and different social factors that influence their residence and residential satisfaction in these locations. Special emphasis is placed on the social control of gossip and the effects it has on women.
The research is based on quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative data was obtained by surveys conducted in Iceland in 2019-2020 in the project Residential Stability and Migration. The results show that the social control of gossip affects the migration intentions of both men and women. Those who perceive much gossip about their love life are twice as likely to have migration intentions than people who do not experience much gossip about their love- life. Of those who have already migrated to the Capital Region from rural areas, women who mention gossip as a reason for prior migration are statistically less likely to return than other migrants.
Qualitative data comes from interviews conducted with women in small coastal communities in Iceland in 2019-2021. The interviews focused on gossip, and how the women perceive gossip in their community. The results show that there is gendered social control and slut-shaming in these small communities, where women’s freedom to enjoy privacy is restricted without being the subject of gossip. The women show avoidance behaviour whereby the fear of gossip and shaming affects their actions and behaviour. Single women especially experience strong social control when it comes to sexual activities and love life.
... Multiple theoretical perspectives align in suggesting that shame is a complex self-aware emotion associated with a self-evaluative experience with a negative self-focus [24,33]. Nonetheless, it is important to recognize that shame fundamentally revolves around social awareness, involving the exposure of negative aspects of the self and a profound sense of being negatively perceived and judged by others [34,35]. Since the human mouth, with its complex amalgamation of teeth, gums, and oral tissues, is not only an entry point for sustenance but also a crucial element of communication, self-esteem, and social interactions, it is worth noting that shame did not yet been studied as a mediator in the relationship between oral health and psychopathology. ...
Aim: The objective of this study is to explore whether shame mediates the relationship between oral health and psychopathology among elder individuals. Methods: The findings of this cross-sectional study are derived from data collected from a sample of 204 patients, including 120 females and 84 males, aged between 60 and 92 years, with an average age of 74.2 years (SD = 7.1). Participants completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, the 12-item GOHAI scale, the Experiential Shame Scale (ESS), the Other as Shamer Scale (OAS), and the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90). Path analysis was applied in order to test the model that was theoretically developed. In the examined path model, age, gender, medication, oral health (GOHAI) and shame (OAS, ESS), were regressed on psychopathology (GSI), while shame was positioned as mediator in the relation between oral health and psychopathology. Results: Oral health found to have a significant negative effect on both external and internal shame. In turn, both flavours of shame were significant regressors of psychopathology. A noteworthy indirect impact of age on both forms of shame through oral health was also reported as well as an indirect effect of oral health on psychopathology through both internal and external shame. Thus, the relationship between oral health and psychopathology is fully mediated by both internal and external shame. Specifically, as oral health improves, lower levels of external and internal shame are expected to induce a more favorable mental state. Conclusions: As individual's age and their oral health declines, they become more susceptible to feelings of shame, which, in turn, can have profound implications for their psychological well-being. The importance of considering oral health as an integral component of overall well-being is emphasized and its relevance in the context of mental health is highlighted. 1Research Laboratory Psychology
... Indeed, in both crisis periods unpleasant consequences could derived from the actions of the subject, either because a financial failure would deteriorate the financial situation of other people as well, or because the potential status of the virus carrier will make the subject the infection cause of other citizens with potential fatal evolution. The role of guilt and shame on the psychological status of a subject has been recently reported for the health crisis period, however, no research efforts has been devoted concerning the suggested moderator effect of guilt on the shame and somatization relation, setting a interesting research goal for future research [59][60][61][62]. ...
The aim of this study is to investigate the similarities and the differences of the psychological reactions during the economic and the health crisis (Covid-19). In total 818 Greek citizens, 408 during the financial and 410 during health crisis, 611 female and 207 male, of median age of 24 years, participated in the study. The participants older than 30 years old found to suffer less psychological strain than the younger ones, and the age effect was larger during health than financial crisis. Women were more prone than men to report health-related symptoms at ages less than 30 years old and they characterized by larger shame and psychopathology scores. During the ongoing health crisis, shame had not a direct somatization effect. It is suggested that interventions aiming to improve the management of shame feelings will reduce the induced psychological tension as well as the consequent occurrence of somatization symptoms.
... Multiple theoretical perspectives align in suggesting that shame is a complex self-aware emotion associated with a self-evaluative experience with a negative self-focus [24,33]. Nonetheless, it is important to recognize that shame fundamentally revolves around social awareness, involving the exposure of negative aspects of the self and a profound sense of being negatively perceived and judged by others [34,35]. Since the human mouth, with its complex amalgamation of teeth, gums, and oral tissues, is not only an entry point for sustenance but also a crucial element of communication, self-esteem, and social interactions, it is worth noting that shame did not yet been studied as a mediator in the relationship between oral health and psychopathology. ...
Aim: The objective of this study is to explore whether shame mediates the relationship between oral health and psychopathology among elder individuals. Methods: The findings of this cross-sectional study are derived from data collected from a sample of 204 patients, including 120 females and 84 males, aged between 60 and 92 years, with an average age of 74.2 years (SD = 7.1). Participants completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, the 12-item GOHAI scale, the Experiential Shame Scale (ESS), the Other as Shamer Scale (OAS), and the Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90). Path analysis was applied in order to test the model that was theoretically developed. In the examined path model, age, gender, medication, oral health (GOHAI) and shame (OAS, ESS), were regressed on psychopathology (GSI), while shame was positioned as mediator in the relation between oral health and psychopathology. Results: Oral health found to have a significant negative effect on both external and internal shame. In turn, both flavours of shame were significant regressors of psychopathology. A noteworthy indirect impact of age on both forms of shame through oral health was also reported as well as an indirect effect of oral health on psychopathology through both internal and external shame. Thus, the relationship between oral health and psychopathology is fully mediated by both internal and external shame. Specifically, as oral health improves, lower levels of external and internal shame are expected to induce a more favorable mental state. Conclusions: As individual's age and their oral health declines, they become more susceptible to feelings of shame, which, in turn, can have profound implications for their psychological well-being. The importance of considering oral health as an integral component of overall well-being is emphasized and its relevance in the context of mental health is highlighted. 1Research Laboratory Psychology
... For organisms that have benefited from cooperation over millions of years (e.g., social mammals), it is no surprise that the neural signatures for prosocial activities are deeply intertwined with energy-preserving activities. And although we have limited the focus to otherdirected emotions such as anger, resentment, and disgust, it is plausible that more complex self-directed emotions, such as guilt and shame, obey a similar metabolic logic (Jankowski & Takahashi, 2014;Shen, 2018;Gilbert, 2003). Following the established trend -where positive emotions are associated with energymaintenance and preservation while negative emotions are related to costs -it is likely that the experience of shame reflects energy-expenditure of being a 'cost' to others whereas guilt reflects how one's behaviour has led to someone else's cost (which may motivate amendment of one's mistakes). ...
Over the last century, morality has been thoroughly examined through evolutionary biology, psychology, and cognitive neuroscience. However, little work has concerned itself with systematically unifying these levels of inquiry. Here, we propose thermoethics as a framework to fill this gap. Central to this approach is the idea that moral processes are fundamentally tied to the conservation and expenditure of metabolic energy. By integrating physiological concepts like homeostasis and allostasis within the context of prosocial behaviour and cognition, we demonstrate how the thermodynamics associated with pain and stress can be understood as energy-costly processes, while pleasure and relief can be understood as energy-saving processes. We show how studying these metabolic dynamics can serve explanations in the evolution of morality, the mechanisms underpinning moral cognition, and ethical theorizing. This interdisciplinary perspective, we argue, offers a robust, physics-consistent foundation for future research in naturalized ethics, highlighting the unifying links between neurophysiological processes and moral phenomena.
... For example, addressing and probing possible traumatic/ stressful events and external shame from others in treatment for individuals who express paranoid ideation may be beneficial. Understanding the root cause of paranoia may lead to better treatment outcomes [46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56]. ...
Paranoia and persecutory delusions comprise the symptoms of established disorders such as schizophrenia in clinical populations. Paranoia is believed to exist on a continuum within the general population as well. There is limited research on the possible underpinnings of paranoia, but theoretical models of paranoia suggest that negative life events, trauma, negative views of the self and others, and emotional distress are important factors. Specifically, shame and traumatic life events/stress has been extensively entwined with the development of paranoid ideations among individuals. In this study, we explored the role of internal and external shame along with traumatic stress as it related to paranoia and emotional distress in a sample of ninety college students. Results showed that all variables were modestly correlated but further analysis showed that only external shame was related to the presence of paranoid ideation; internal shame was linked to anxiety and depression. Implications for the role of shame in paranoia are discussed.
... Guilt is rooted in a place of caregiving and the avoidance of acts that harm the external world (Baumeister et al., 1994). By contrast, shame is rooted in a self-focused social threat system; it focuses on the negative consequences for one's social self (Lewis, 1971;Gilbert, 2003) and is therefore about a loss of standing in a social hierarchy (Taylor, 1985). A third distinction asks whether the emotion is evoked by internal or external evaluation (Taylor, 1985). ...
Guilt and shame are often mentioned in the context of environmental problems. Exploring how such emotions affect individuals and their behavior is crucial to the effective promotion of more pro-environmental behavior and sustainable consumption. The aim of this article is to further the understanding of eco-guilt and eco-shame by studying these emotions among participants with differing levels of environmental concern (EC). Using a phenomenologically inspired approach, we conducted 18 in-depth interviews with Danish citizens. A clear connection between EC and the experienced emotions emerged, including how these emotions were triggered and how participants reacted to them. While individuals with high EC mainly experienced eco-guilt, individuals with low EC mainly experienced eco-shame and individuals with a medium level of EC experienced both emotions. Both eco-guilt and eco-shame can increase pro-environmental behaviors under certain conditions, but their effects are complex, and eco-shame in particular, risks leading to environmentally harmful behaviors. Therefore, harnessing these emotions to promote pro-environmental behavior introduces moral as well as practical considerations. The novelty of this study is that it questions the view that certain environmental emotions are inherently adaptive or maladaptive and underscores the importance of understanding the individual and social dynamics, which can affect how eco-guilt, eco-shame and their pro-environmental effects are experienced.
... Thus, shame evolved as a defensive strategy to keep oneself safe from potential attacks (e.g., punishment, rejection and criticism) from others. This experience of seeing the other as a threat to the self and the self-identity can trigger two major defenses: one is the shaming response, when the individual adopts a strategy associated with self-devaluation and self-criticism and another is the humiliating response, when the individual displays dominant and aggressive behaviors, e.g., anger (Gilbert, 1998(Gilbert, , 2003. In addition to, individuals who have more trait-anger and express it, tend to have more paranoid beliefs. ...
Background
Early life experiences increase vulnerability to paranoid thoughts, and attachment theory has been used as a conceptual framework to explain this causal pathway. The purpose of this study was to identify and highlight the mediating and moderating mechanisms in the relationship between attachment styles and paranoia in a non-clinical sample.
Method
The current research was a cross-sectional design. A sample of 331 university students was collected by available and online sampling at a period of 3 months. They completed the Paranoia scale (PS), Relationship scales questionnaire (RSQ), Internal and External Shame Scale (EISS), and Self-consciousness scale (SCS). Data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, correlation coefficients, and Process Macro.
Results
The results showed that avoidant and anxious attachment was related to paranoia and shame mediates this relationship. On the other hand, self-consciousness as a buffering moderated and weakened the relationship between attachment and paranoia.
Conclusion
The present study provided preliminary evidence for the mediating and moderating roles of shame and self-consciousness in the relationship between attachment and paranoia.
... Shame is an extremely painful experience that can greatly influence interpersonal behavior [1,[11][12][13][14]. In the professional context, Huff, et al. [2] further specify the experience of shame through four primary features wherein " (1) [i]ndividuals perceive themselves to have failed to meet socially constructed expectations that are relevant to their identities in a professional domains; (2) individuals experience a painful emotional state amid perceived failure; (3) individuals attribute the failure to meet expectations to an inadequate whole, or global, self rather than a domain-specific feature of a certain identity; and (4) individuals within professional domains not only experience the emotional state of shame but also contribute to expectations that form the basis for professional shame to occur" (p. ...
... Shame is considered a universal and unwanted experience, characterised by a sense that one is an unattractive or undesirable social agent and worthy of exclusion or social rejection (Gilbert, 1998, p. 22). From an evolutionary approach, shame emerges as an alert that one has acted in a way that created a negative image in the mind of others, along with a desire to conceal the perceived flaws or escape the situation (Gilbert, 2003;. In a sporting context, external shame might arise when athletes perceive that others look down on and/or negatively evaluate them (e.g., "My teammates are judgmental and critical of me") which, when internalised, might result in internal shame (e.g., "I feel that I have some kind of flaw that stops me from being a good athlete"; Oliveira et al., 2019). ...
... In his evolutionary model of shame, Gilbert (2003Gilbert ( , 2007Gilbert ( , 2010 argues that individuals learn to be ashamed throughout early development and social interactions, particularly with key attachment figures. These early experiences contribute to individuals internalising that they are undesirable and unattractive in the minds and "eyes" of others. ...
Shame is a painful emotion that plays a key role in a range of mental disorders, mainly when individuals employ maladaptive emotion regulation strategies to cope with it. Heightened feelings of shame may lead to increased levels of paranoid ideas. We explored the association between daily shame and paranoia by using Experience Sampling Methods (EMS) in a student sample and the potential roles of the moderator (centrality and trauma-like characteristics of shame memories and perceived social rank) and mediator variables (maladaptive emotion regulation strategies) in this association. In total, 198 undergraduate students completed self-report questionnaires (Perceived Social Rank, Centrality of Event Scale, Impact of Event Scale, General Paranoia Scale) and ESM measures (i.e., shame, anxiety, depression, emotion regulation, and paranoia). Data were analysed using a multi-level model to accommodate the multi-level structure of the data. Our results indicated that shame at t-1 predicts paranoia at t even when controlling for the effects of anxiety and sadness. Self-blame was found to mediate the relationship between shame and paranoia. Finally, the centrality of the shame memory moderated the effect of daily shame on paranoia. Thus, these results indicate that daily shame, past shame experiences, and a tendency to blame oneself are predictors of paranoia and should be taken into account when assessing and treating people with paranoia. Limitations include limited generalizability and use of single-item measurements. These results need replications in more representative samples of the general population and clinical samples.
... Realising that one's action has negative consequences on others is reflected through guilt, which makes adolescents abstain from undesirable behaviours (Broekhof et al., 2021;Malti, 2016). Guilt is based on avoiding harming others, and there is a concern for the welfare of others (Gilbert, 2003). Guilt leads to adhering to standards and taking appropriate responsibility (Ferguson et al., 1999). ...
Classroom intervention focusing on peer interaction persuades children to develop positive behaviour. Peer interaction plays a significant role in managing problem behaviour among adolescent children. It facilitates identifying weaknesses in children’s justification for their problem behaviour. Thus, the study aimed to propose a classroom intervention based on meta-cognitive strategies to subdue problem behaviours among secondary school children. The activities were prepared to inoculate the three components of metacognitive skills—awareness, control and regulation. The study conducted on 36 secondary school children shows a positive change in the behaviour among students who have done the intervention. A quasi-experimental design is used for the study. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses of the data were done. A repeated measures ANOVA (RMA) indicated a significant effect on the outcome, p < .05. Post-intervention interview results showed students’ interest in regulating their problem behaviours. The implication is that the proposed learner-centred class intervention can be part of the secondary school curriculum.
... Researchers have not lost interest in the concept of shame throughout the entire 20 thearly 21 st century. It is studied from a psychological point of view by G. Piers & M. B. Singer (1953), P. Galligan (2016), from a sociological point of view by P. Gilbert (2003), T. J. Scheff (2003) and others. The non-verbal biological aspects of the expression of shame as emotion are studied in the works of J. L. Tracy & D. Matsumoto (2020). ...
The aim of the research is to study the impact of the ethical concept of “shame” on the moral consciousness and behaviour of adolescents in high school. To do this, an analysis of the concept of “shame” in special literature was carried out, as well as an analysis of the content of this concept in the minds of adolescents; the main substantive signs of its lexical representations of various morphological natures were revealed: negativity, reason, external orientation of emotion, and internal emotional traits. The survey of adolescents also established the degree of effectiveness of shame as a social regulator and modifier. The insufficient regulatory and modification effectiveness of the concept of “shame” revealed in the course of theresearch is influenced by several factors: a value crisis in the spiritual state of modern society; psychological characteristics of adolescence; shortcomings of the idea of shame formed in the minds of adolescents (a superficial understanding of emotion, an insignificant degree of the emotions of fear and guilt in the shame complex, lack of logical awareness of cause-and-effect relationships). To eliminate these shortcomings and increase the effectiveness of the concept of shame as a social regulator of adolescents' behaviour, it is necessary to carry out significant work on organizing a system of work on the formation of ideas about shame in adolescents, on their inclusion in practical activities to form the ethical concept under study in the family and school.
... shame) (Cortoni & Marshall, 2001;Reid et al., 2009;Uvnäs-Moberg et al., 2014). A second hypothesised pathway is that shame may also increase the likelihood of sexual offending as a result of shameprone individuals' potential tendency to withdraw from meaningful connections with others (Gilbert, 2003), particularly as social isolation and not having an intimate or emotionally meaningful relationship are considered risk factors associated with sexual recidivism (e.g. Farrington, 2003;Hanson & Bussière, 1998;Hanson & Morton-Bourgon, 2005;Marshall, 2010;Ward et al., 2000). ...
Research investigating potential pathways from Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) to later self-harming and offending behaviours has inconsistent findings. Past research, however, has not fully explored the interplay between ACEs and modifiable psychological factors, such as shame and self-compassion. The present study explored the relationship between ACE, shame, and self-compassion to identify their role in explaining the variance in later harm in a sample of individuals who have committed sexual offences. Two hundred and fifty adults incarcerated for sexual offences participated. Multiple Regression and Mediation Analyses were applied to establish if ACE, shame and self-compassion explained the variance in harm and explore potential psychological pathways between ACE and harm, with shame and self-compassion as potential modifiable mediators. ACE, shame and self-compassion explained 55% of self-harm and 52% of psychological and physical harm variance. A more complex relationship was indicated for sexual harm, with only 19% of the variance explained by the model. The study increases our understanding of the relationship between variables and potential modifiable pathways between ACEs and later harming behaviours in a sample of individuals with sexual convictions. These modifiable psychological factors could be targeted to increase resilience, post-traumatic growth and reduce the risk of harm in later life.
... Shame is recognized to be a negative self-conscious emotion that is triggered by threats to an individual's social identity and status [9]. The literature has suggested that any analysis of shame can be linked to two different types of interpretation -either externally focused or internally focused [10]. ...
Background
Osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee is one of the most common and disabling conditions worldwide. A neglected aspect of knee OA is its psychosocial impact, such as shame. However, assessment tools to measure shame among patients diagnosed with knee OA are lacking. In this study, the psychometric properties of the Chronic Illness-related Shame Scale (CISS) were evaluated among knee OA patients in Singapore.
Methods
Adaptations were made to CISS for use among the knee OA population. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed to analyze the factor structure. Cronbach’s Alpha and corrected item-total correlations were used to evaluate the internal consistency. Spearman correlation coefficient was used to test the correlation between CISS and Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) to determine the validity of the instrument.
Results
The EFA yielded a one-factor structure, with an eigenvalue of 4.78 explaining 68.25% of variance. Cronbach Alpha was 0.92, which indicated good internal consistency. The Spearman correlation revealed a significant correlation between CISS and PHQ-4.
Conclusions
The adapted CISS is a valid and reliable instrument to measure shame for knee OA patients. Both research and clinical settings can benefit from the use of the adapted CISS for assessing shame among knee OA patients.
... Для підтримки підлітків, які відчувають сором через свої злочинні дії, необхідно створити безумовну підтримку та розуміння. Важливо пам'ятати, що сором -це емоційна реакція, і підлітки потребують можливості усвідомлення своїх помилок, прийняття відповідальності за свої вчинки та сприяння у процесі їхньої реабілітації [14]. Підтримка може включати консультування, психологічну допомогу та участь у програмі реабілітації для молодих правопорушників. ...
... Eksternalni stid tiče se socijalnog okruženja i našeg uverenja da nas drugi ljudi procenjuju na negativan način, kao inferiorne, neadekvatne i manjkave. Internalni stid tiče se naših unutrašnjih, privatnih negativnih procena sebe, odnosno sopstvenih karakteristika i sposobnosti (Gilbert, 1998(Gilbert, , 2003. Ovo osećanje je od značaja upravo zbog nalaza pojedinih istraživanja koji pokazuju da stid i sklonost ka doživljavanju ove emocije može uticati na početak i tok depresije kako u kliničkim, tako i u nekliničkim uzorcima (Andrews et al., 2002;Matos & Pinto-Gouveia, 2010). ...
Neplodnost predstavlja ozbiljan problem savremenog čoveka koji osim pojedinca i para, pogađa i društvo u celini. Može se reći da je neplodnost globalni bio-psiho-socijalni problem, sa trendom porasta. Ozbiljnost i učestalost ovog problema ilustruje činjenica da Svetska zdravstvena organizacija (World health organisation – WHO) rangira neplodnost kao peti najveći uzročnik invaliditeta među svetskom populacijom mlađom od šezdeset godina. Svi statistički pokazatelji učestalosti neplodnosti različitih organizacija (WHO, UCLA Health, CDC, United Nations Population Fund)1 su u najmanju ruku zabrinjavajući. Uzroci neplodnosti su brojni, od čega najveći procenat pripada medicinskim uzrocima. Međutim, porast stope neplodnosti u najvećoj meri se dovodi u vezu sa odlaganjem roditeljstva i zasnivanjem porodice u poznijim godinama. Većina izveštaja o prosečnoj starosti žena na području Evrope i Amerike u trenutku rađanja prvog deteta pokazuje trend porasta i iznosi oko dvadeset devet godina (EUROSTAT, National Center for Family & Marriage Research, The Human Fertility Database). Ova pojava se dovodi u vezu sa značajnim demografskim i društvenim promenama poslednjih godina dvadesetog veka, koje su značajno izmenile stil života muškaraca i žena. Obrazovanje postaje dostupnije ženama, one ulaze na tržište rada, postaju finansijski samostalne, angažuju se na radnim pozicijama koje su do početka ovog veka isključivo bile dodeljivane muškarcima. Veća kvalifikovanost i radna kompetentnost žena uz dostupnost kontracepcije vode ka odlaganju roditeljstva, a samim tim i do povećanja reproduktivne disfunkcije povezane sa starenjem kod muškaraca i žena.
... It can also express the need to prove oneself desirable to others. Guilt, on the other hand, is often associated with a desire to avoid causing harm to others [46]. This is a counterpoint to the classical theories already cited. ...
Theories of development point out that childhood experiences are relevant across the lifespan, and that the parent-child relationship is essential for a child's physical and psychological wellbeing. The aim of this study is to investigate whether parental abandonment influences self-conscious emotions such as guilt and shame. This quasi-experiment included 230 adolescents and teenagers (M = 17.1, SD = 1.82), and data were collected via a self-reported questionnaire administered online. We used the Guilt Inventory, the Experience of Shame Scale, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, and the Parental Acceptance/Rejection Questionnaire. Results indicated that the child's environment was significantly associated with feelings of shame. Abuse is associated with both guilt and shame, while paternal rejection is associated with guilt. The environment in which children and teenagers develop is associated with how they perceive themselves in relation to others. This study underlines the importance of considering child development conditions and the paramount importance of social work assistance for abandoned children and teenagers.
Background and Hypothesis
Shame has been linked to the experience of psychosis, with implications for clinical outcomes, however, a meta-analysis of the relationship has not yet been conducted. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to examine the strength of the association between shame and psychosis, and any variations between clinical and non-clinical populations and shame type (internal vs external shame).
Study Design
Searches were conducted in CINAHL, EMBASE, PsycInfo, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science from the inception of the e-databases until July 2023. For inclusion, studies reported a quantitative association between psychosis and shame, or data that could be used to identify a relationship. From 11 372 unique retrieved records, 40 articles met the inclusion criteria and 38 were included in the meta-analyses.
Study Results
A significant large pooled estimate of the psychosis-shame association was identified (Zr = 0.36, [95% CI: 0.28, 0.44], P < .001), indicating that higher levels of shame were associated with greater severity of psychotic symptoms. The strength of the association was similar across clinical and non-clinical populations, however, differed by type of shame and psychosis symptom measured. External shame was strongly associated with paranoia suggesting possible confounding. Only a minority of studies met the highest quality criteria.
Conclusions
Shame is strongly associated with the severity of psychotic symptoms in clinical and non-clinical populations. Given the overlap with paranoia, measurement of external shame alone is not advised. Larger studies in clinical populations, with measures of a range of psychosis symptoms, are needed to better understand the relationship between shame and specific symptoms.
The present study sought to understand how participants in r/hemorrhoid used three coping strategies to improve their health and wellbeing. Drawing upon Shame Resilience Theory (SRT), the typology of social support, and the classification of humor styles, a theory-driven approach to qualitative analysis resulted in the identification of the following themes: Belongingness (building authentic connections with others), Affirmation (asserting the value of own experiences), Safety (feeling able to express emotions and needs), and Efficacy (exchanging information and advice for recovery). The study presents a coping model (BASE) that can inform research on communication patterns in contexts beyond other health conditions. Practical implications are derived from users’ psychological distress and their reliance on diagnostics and treatment advice from peers, offering directions for supporting individuals with hemorrhoids.
This study aimed to test a comprehensive model in adolescent athletes that explores the effect of shame on sports anxiety and whether psychological inflexibility and mindfulness influence this association. The sample study included 210 young Portuguese athletes from different competitive sports. The path analysis results confirmed the adequacy of the proposed model, which explained 49% of the variance in sports anxiety. Results demonstrated that athletes who experienced higher levels of shame tended to exhibit elevated levels of sports anxiety through lower levels of mindfulness and higher psychological inflexibility. The study offers new empirical data that may be relevant for clinical and sport psychology practitioners. These findings seem to underline the importance of addressing shame and, consequently, sports anxiety in adolescent athletes by developing greater psychological flexibility and, inherently, more mindfulness skills among adolescent athletes who are in a phase of their lives where sport can play a crucial role.
Internalized shame is a degrading emotional experience that is associated with avoidance tendencies, negative self-esteem, and feelings of self-control (such as self-loathing) and it can affect a person’s cognition and feelings in self-perception and individual functions. This research aimed to explain internalized shame based on childhood trauma, social-emotional competence, cognitive flexibility, distress tolerance, and age.
Method: The participants in this research were a convenience sample of 906 (53.1% female and 46.9% male) people living in Tehran in 2023. The survey assessments included demographic characteristics, the presence of childhood trauma, social-emotional competence, internalized shame, and the Toronto Alexithymia scales together with measures of cognitive flexibility and distress tolerance. The data were analyzed using the Multilayer Perceptron Classification Model. The input layer included 6 features (childhood trauma, social-emotional competence, alexithymia, cognitive flexibility, distress tolerance, and age) and the output layer included internalized shame divided into Low and High groups Two hidden layers were determined consisting of 4 and 3 units respectively. The sample was divided into two with 70% of used as the training sample.
Results: Classification accuracy in the training and test samples was 93.5% and 92.7% respectively. The AUC of 0.953 in the models indicated an excellent fit. The sensitivity and specificity of the classification were both more than 0.8 in the low and high internalized shame groups.
Conclusion: Alexithymia, distress tolerance, cognitive flexibility, social-emotional competence, childhood trauma, and age were the most important effects in explaining the classification of internalized shame.
This study aimed to present the structural model of appearance management based on self-compassion with the mediating roles of external shame and body image dissatisfaction. The method of the present study was correlation analysis based on structural equation modeling. The statistical population consisted of female students residing in the dormitory of Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamedan. Among them, 400 individuals were selected randomly. They filled out the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), Others As Shamer Scale (OAS), Body Image Concern Inventory (BICI), and Body Management Scale (BMS). Since 23 individuals did not fill out the questionnaires, the 377 completed questionnaires were examined through structural equation analysis. The results of structural equations indicated that all of the direct and indirect relationships were significant; thus, all the variables had pairwise relationships. On the other hand, external shame had a significant mediating role in the relationship between self-compassion and appearance management (z =-3.32, p < 0.01). In other words, self-compassion, due to the mediation of external shame, can predict appearance management. In addition, body image dissatisfaction had a significant mediating role in the relationship between self-compassion and appearance management (z =-4.03, p < 0.01). Hence, self-compassion, due to the mediation of body image dissatisfaction, could predict appearance management. Following the results, it can be concluded that self-compassion, with the mediating roles of external shame and body image dissatisfaction, can predict appearance management. These variables can be considered to modify body management.
Background:
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can be effective in the general population of people with schizophrenia. It is still unclear whether CBT can be effectively used in the population of people with a first-episode or recent-onset psychosis.
Objectives:
To assess the effects of adding cognitive behavioural therapy to standard care for people with a first-episode or recent-onset psychosis.
Search methods:
We conducted a systematic search on 6 March 2022 in the Cochrane Schizophrenia Group's Study-Based Register of Trials, which is based on CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, PubMed, ClinicalTrials.gov, ISRCTN, and WHO ICTRP.
Selection criteria:
We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing CBT added to standard care vs standard care in first-episode or recent-onset psychosis, in patients of any age.
Data collection and analysis:
Two review authors (amongst SFM, CC, LK and IB) independently screened references for inclusion, extracted data from eligible studies and assessed the risk of bias using RoB2. Study authors were contacted for missing data and additional information. Our primary outcome was general mental state measured on a validated rating scale. Secondary outcomes included other specific measures of mental state, global state, relapse, admission to hospital, functioning, leaving the study early, cognition, quality of life, satisfaction with care, self-injurious or aggressive behaviour, adverse events, and mortality.
Main results:
We included 28 studies, of which 26 provided data on 2407 participants (average age 24 years). The mean sample size in the included studies was 92 participants (ranging from 19 to 444) and duration ranged between 26 and 52 weeks. When looking at the results at combined time points (mainly up to one year after start of the intervention), CBT added to standard care was associated with a greater reduction in overall symptoms of schizophrenia (standardised mean difference (SMD) -0.27, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.47 to -0.08, 20 RCTs, n = 1508, I2 = 68%, substantial heterogeneity, low certainty of the evidence), and also with a greater reduction in positive (SMD -0.22, 95% CI -0.38 to -0.06, 22 RCTs, n = 1565, I² = 52%, moderate heterogeneity), negative (SMD -0.20, 95% CI -0.30 to -0.11, 22 RCTs, n = 1651, I² = 0%) and depressive symptoms (SMD -0.13, 95% CI -0.24 to -0.01, 18 RCTs, n = 1182, I² = 0%) than control. CBT added to standard care was also associated with a greater improvement in the global state (SMD -0.34, 95% CI -0.67 to -0.01, 4 RCTs, n = 329, I² = 47%, moderate heterogeneity) and in functioning (SMD -0.23, 95% CI -0.42 to -0.05, 18 RCTs, n = 1241, I² = 53%, moderate heterogeneity, moderate certainty of the evidence) than control. We did not find a difference between CBT added to standard care and control in terms of number of participants with relapse (relative risk (RR) 0.82, 95% CI 0.57 to 1.18, 7 RCTs, n = 693, I² = 48%, low certainty of the evidence), leaving the study early for any reason (RR 0.87, 95% CI 0.72 to 1.05, 25 RCTs, n = 2242, I² = 12%, moderate certainty of the evidence), adverse events (RR 1.29, 95% CI 0.85 to 1.97, 1 RCT, n = 43, very low certainty of the evidence) and the other investigated outcomes.
Authors' conclusions:
This review synthesised the latest evidence on CBT added to standard care for people with a first-episode or recent-onset psychosis. The evidence identified by this review suggests that people with a first-episode or recent-onset psychosis may benefit from CBT additionally to standard care for multiple outcomes (overall, positive, negative and depressive symptoms of schizophrenia, global state and functioning). Future studies should better define this population, for which often heterogeneous definitions are used.
High perceived pressure to breastfeed and poor perceived quality of health care professional support have been associated with early breastfeeding cessation, guilt, and shame. This is problematic because guilt and shame significantly predict post-natal anxiety and depression. No previous attempts have been made to provide quantitative evidence for relationships mapped between the post-natal social context, infant feeding method and post-natal emotional well-being. The current study aimed to empirically investigate aforementioned pathways. Structural equation modelling was applied to survey data provided online by 876 mothers. Guilt and shame both significantly predicted anxiety and depression. Poor health care professional support and high pressure to breastfeed increased anxiety and depression, and these effects were explained by indirect pathways through increases in guilt and shame. Formula feeding exclusivity was negatively correlated with post-natal anxiety symptoms. This finding may be explained by feelings of relief associated with observed infant weight gain and being able to share infant feeding responsibilities others e.g., with one's partner. This relationship was counterbalanced by an indirect pathway where greater formula feeding exclusivity positively predicted guilt, which increased post-natal anxiety score. While guilt acted as mediator of infant feeding method to increase post-natal depression and anxiety, shame acted independently of infant feeding method. These identified differences provide empirical support for the transferability of general definitions of guilt (i.e., as remorse for having committed a moral transgression) and shame (i.e., internalisation of transgressive remorse to the self), to an infant feeding context. Recommendations for health care practitioners and the maternal social support network are discussed.
The need for emergency food aid is increasing across the United Kingdom (UK). Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, an estimated 2.5% of UK households accessed food banks. As of June 2022, 15% of households were using food banks, and emerging evidence suggested increased stigma, shame and embarrassment associated with food aid use, food poverty, and food insecurity. This ethnographic study explored food aid user experiences of stigma-power, and antistigma strategies utilized by both food aid users and volunteers, at one North East of England Independent Community Food Hub (ICFH) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings revealed that stigma-power and the negative dominant narrative adversely affected food aid users, who created stigma avoidance techniques to reduce the perceived stigma of food bank usage. Findings also showed ways in which the ICFH implemented numerous antistigma strategies to reduce the stigma, shame, and embarrassment felt by food aid users.
Awareness of mental health has been increasing rapidly worldwide in recent years, and even more so since the outbreak of COVID-19. Depression is now regarded as one of the most debilitating diseases, and wellbeing is incorporated into the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. In order for all of us to have a happy life, mental health cannot be ignored. As announced by the UK government, our health cannot be achieved without good mental health. Likewise, in Asia, the word ‘health (健康)’ in Chinese and Japanese encompasses both a healthy body and a calm mind. The Japanese government has implemented a work-style reform to protect employees’mental health. While these movements suggest the importance of mental health worldwide, a universal definition of mental health remains to be defined. This is partly attributed to a lack of understanding of mental health from different cultures. How an individual regards mental health can differ significantly according to their culture. Therefore, this Special Issue aims to address this problem by introducing alternative views to mental health through discussion of cross-cultural psychiatric matters.
A woman’s choice to remain childfree is often met with disapproving comments. This article focuses on pronatalism and the social discourse that promotes and maintains motherhood as the preferred choice for women in a country that has achieved high levels of gender equality. Critical discourse analysis is applied to 30 qualitative interviews with women, trans, and non-binary people in Iceland, who are either childfree by choice or who regret motherhood. The results indicate that despite neoliberalism advocating a woman’s right to freedom of choice, pronatalist ideologies continue to undermine reproductive self-determination, promoting motherhood as the right choice. Unsolicited comments act as powerful mechanisms that serve to shame those who can bear children into becoming mothers or facing regret yet simultaneously condemn women who regret motherhood. Women who choose to remain childfree privately challenge unwanted comments by overturning pronatalist discourses, whereas those who regret their choice to become mothers struggle to express their feelings for fear of being judged and branded as failures.
The culture movement challenged the universality of the self-enhancement motive by proposing that the motive is pervasive in individualistic cultures (the West) but absent in collectivistic cultures (the East). The present research posited that Westerners and Easterners use different tactics to achieve the same goal: positive self-regard. Study 1 tested participants from differing cultural backgrounds (the United States vs. Japan), and Study 2 tested participants of differing self-construals (independent vs. interdependent). Americans and independents self-enhanced on individualistic attributes, whereas Japanese and interdependents self-enhanced on collectivistic attributes. Independents regarded individualistic attributes, whereas interdependents regarded collectivistic attributes, as personally important. Attribute importance mediated self-enhancement. Regardless of cultural background or self-construal, people self-enhance on personally important dimensions. Self-enhancement is a universal human motive.
Recent interest in the development and evolution of theory of mind has provided a wealth of information about representational skills in both children and animals. According to J. Perner (1991), children begin to entertain secondary representations in the 2nd year of life. This advance manifests in their passing hidden displacement tasks, engaging in pretense and means-ends reasoning, interpreting external representations, displaying mirror self-recognition and empathic behavior, and showing an early understanding of "mind" and imitation. New data show a cluster of mental accomplishments in great apes that is very similar to that observed in 2-year-old humans. It is suggested that it is most parsimonious to assume that this cognitive profile is of homologous origin and that great apes possess secondary representational capacity. Evidence from animals other than apes is scant. This analysis leads to a number of predictions for future research.
Stereotype research emphasizes systematic processes over seemingly arbitrary contents, but content also may prove systematic. On the basis of stereotypes' intergroup functions, the stereotype content model hypothesizes that (a) 2 primary dimensions are competence and warmth, (b) frequent mixed clusters combine high warmth with low competence (paternalistic) or high competence with low warmth (envious), and (c) distinct emotions (pity, envy, admiration, contempt) differentiate the 4 competence-warmth combinations. Stereotypically, (d) status predicts high competence, and competition predicts low warmth. Nine varied samples rated gender, ethnicity, race, class, age, and disability out-groups. Contrary to antipathy models, 2 dimensions mattered, and many stereotypes were mixed, either pitying (low competence, high warmth subordinates) or envying (high competence, low warmth competitors). Stereotypically, status predicted competence, and competition predicted low warmth.
This article describes the nature and significance of the distinction between the emotions of envy and jealousy and reports 2 experiments that empirically investigated it. In Experiment 1, Ss recalled a personal experience of either envy or jealousy. In Experiment 2, Ss read 1 of a set of stories in which circumstances producing envy and jealousy were manipulated independently in a factorial design. Both experiments introduced new methodologies to enhance their sensitivity, and both revealed qualitative differences between the 2 emotions. Envy was characterized by feelings of inferiority, longing, resentment, and disapproval of the emotion. Jealousy was characterized by fear of loss, distrust, anxiety, and anger. The practical importance of this distinction, the reasons for its confusion, and general issues regarding the empirical differentiation of emotions are discussed.
Hypotheses about age-related differences in objectified body consciousness (OBC; McKinley & Hyde, 1996) based on the cultural, developmental, and familial contexts of women's body experience were tested on 151 undergraduate women and their middle-aged mothers. Mothers had lower levels of surveillance (watching the body as an outside observer) and body shame (feeling one is a bad person when appearance does not meet cultural standards) than daughters. No differences were found in appearance control beliefs, body esteem, or restricted eating, even though mothers weighed more and were less satisfied with their weight than daughters. OBC was related to measures of psychological well-being in both age groups; body esteem was more strongly related to some measures of daughters' psychological well-being than mothers'. Relationships of partner and family approval and OBC and body esteem were also examined.
To communicate effectively, people must have a reasonably accurate idea about what specific other people know. An obvious starting point for building a model of what another knows is what one oneself knows, or thinks one knows. This article reviews evidence that people impute their own knowledge to others and that, although this serves them well in general, they often do so uncritically, with the result of erroneously assuming that other people have the same knowledge. Overimputation of one's own knowledge can contribute to communication difficulties. Corrective approaches are considered. A conceptualization of where own-knowledge imputation fits in the process of developing models of other people's knowledge is proposed.
Tested 4 competing hypotheses (masculinity as enhancer, femininity as enhancer, interactive, masculinity as inhibitor) regarding the potential effects of dispositional sex-role orientation on bystander intervention in emergencies. 20 undergraduates, classified on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, participated in a simulated group discussion via headphones. One member of the group apparently had a choking fit and called for help. Highly masculine Ss were less likely to take action to help the victim than were other Ss. Femininity and actual gender had no effect on likelihood of helping. Results are interpreted according to past research evidence that highly masculine Ss fear potential embarrassment and loss of poise, so they may be reluctant to intervene in emergencies. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A reconceptualization of stigma is presented that changes the emphasis from the devaluation of an individual's identity to the process by which individuals who satisfy certain criteria come to be excluded from various kinds of social interactions. The authors propose that phenomena currently placed under the general rubric of stigma involve a set of distinct psychological systems designed by natural selection to solve specific problems associated with sociality. In particular, the authors suggest that human beings possess cognitive adaptations designed to cause them to avoid poor social exchange partners, join cooperative groups (for purposes of between-group competition and exploitation), and avoid contact with those who are differentially likely to carry communicable pathogens. The evolutionary view contributes to the current conceptualization of stigma by providing an account of the ultimate function of stigmatization and helping to explain its consensual nature.
A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.
This study explored the relation of shame proneness and guilt proneness to constructive versus destructive responses to anger among 302 children (Grades 4-6), adolescents (Grades 7-11), 176 college students, and 194 adults. Across all ages, shame proneness was clearly related to maladaptive response to anger, including malevolent intentions; direct, indirect, and displaced aggression; self-directed hostility; and negative long-term consequences. In contrast, guilt proneness was associated with constructive means of handling anger, including constructive intentions, corrective action and non-hostile discussion with the target of the anger, cognitive reappraisals of the target's role, and positive long-term consequences. Escapist-diffusing responses showed some interesting developmental trends. Among children, these dimensions were positively correlated with guilt and largely unrelated to shame; among older participants, the results were mixed.
A hypothesis is presented for eating disorders, based on Darwinian theory, that contends that these syndromes together with the phenomenon of the pursuit of thinness are manifestations of female intra-sexual competition. It is suggested that eating disorders originate in the human female's psychological adaptation of concern about physical attractiveness which is an important component of female 'mate attraction' and 'mate retention' strategies. It is argued that present-day environment of Western countries presents a range of conditions which have led to the overactivation or the disruption of the archaic female sexual strategy of maximizing 'mate value'. The present hypothesis deals with the ultimate level of causation and is therefore compatible with a range of theories of proximate causation. Although the present hypothesis is not directly testable, it makes predictions that are testable and refutable. Finally it is suggested that the sexual competition hypothesis has more explanatory power than existing evolutionary theories of eating disorders.
The extent to which stigmatized interaction partners engender perceivers' threat reactions (i.e., stigma-threat hypothesis) was examined. Experiments 1 and 2 included the manipulation of stigma using facial birthmarks. Experiment 3 included manipulations of race and socioeconomic status. Threat responses were measured physiologically, behaviorally, and subjectively. Perceivers interacting with stigmatized partners exhibited cardiovascular reactivity consistent with threat and poorer performance compared with participants interacting with nonstigmatized partners, who exhibited challenge reactivity. In Experiment 3, intergroup contact moderated physiological reactivity such that participants who reported more contact with Black persons exhibited less physiological threat when interacting with them. These results support the stigma-threat hypothesis and suggest the utility of a biopsychosocial approach to the study of stigma and related constructs.
Thirty-four people referred to an NHS psychotherapy department were given a modified form of Oatley and Duncan's (1992) emotion diary which included questions about whether each recorded emotion had been subsequently disclosed to anyone (for example a partner, friend or professional). One week later the diaries were collected and participants interviewed. Interviews focused, among other things, on reasons for nondisclosure of recorded emotional experiences and the relationship between shame and non-disclosure. The results indicated that a majority of the emotional incidents recorded in the diaries were not disclosed (68%). This result contrasts with studies on non-clinical samples in which only approximately 10% of everyday emotions are kept secret. Qualitative analysis of the interview data revealed that participants appeared to be habitual non-disclosers of emotional and personal experiences and that non-disclosure was related to the anticipation of negative interpersonal responses to disclosure (in particular labelling and judging responses) in addition to more self-critical factors including shame. It is suggested that these results add to the existing literature on shame by illustrating the interpersonal effects of shame in a clinical sample.
Following a constructivist approach, we propose two dimensions or styles of self-construction that are related to different types of vulnerability to psychopathology. We have called these an 'insecure self' style associated with fear of exclusion, indifference, and rejection by significant others, and an 'engulfed self' style associated with fear of intrusion, control, and possession by significant others. In this paper, we report the psychometric properties of a new 14-item questionnaire, the Self and Other Scale (SOS), which is designed to measure the two types of threat vulnerability. We have produced two forms of the scale, one measuring frequency of beliefs, which was completed by 198 undergraduate psychologists, and one measuring endorsement of beliefs, which was completed by 179 undergraduate psychologists. The SOS has a 2-factor structure, as predicted from the theoretical model, and good internal reliability. We discuss the future development and use of the scale in research and clinical practice.
Five studies tested hypotheses derived from the sociometer model of self-esteem according to which the self-esteem system monitors others' reactions and alerts the individual to the possibility of social exclusion. Study 1 showed that the effects of events on participants' state self-esteem paralleled their assumptions about whether such events would lead others to accept or reject them. In Study 2, participants' ratings of how included they felt in a real social situation correlated highly with their self-esteem feelings. In Studies 3 and 4, social exclusion caused decreases in self-esteem when respondents were excluded from a group for personal reasons, but not when exclusion was random, but this effect was not mediated by self-presentation. Study 5 showed that trait self-esteem correlated highly with the degree to which respondents generally felt included versus excluded by other people. Overall, results provided converging evidence for the sociometer model.
Four theories about cultural suppression of female sexuality are evaluated. Data are reviewed on cross-cultural differences in power and sex ratios, reactions to the sexual revolution, direct restraining influences on adolescent and adult female sexuality, double standard patterns of sexual morality, female genital surgery, legal and religious restrictions on sex, prostitution and pornography, and sexual deception. The view that men suppress female sexuality received hardly any support and is flatly contradicted by some findings. Instead, the evidence favors the view that women have worked to stifle each other's sexuality because sex is a limited resource that women use to negotiate with men, and scarcity gives women an advantage.
In this cross-cultural study of manhood as an achieved status, the author finds that a culturally sanctioned stress on manliness - on toughness and aggressiveness, stoicism and sexuality - is almost universal, and deeply ingrained in the consciousness of men who otherwise have little in common.
This book examines how Western behavioral science - which has generally focused on negative aspects of human nature - holds up to cross-cultural scrutiny, in particular the Tibetan Buddhist celebration of the human potential for altruism, empathy, and compassion. Resulting from a meeting between the Dalai Lama, leading Western scholars, and a group of Tibetan monks, this volume includes excerpts from these dialogues as well as engaging chapters exploring points of difference and overlap between the two perspectives.
Award-winning science writer Steven Mithen explores how an understanding of our ancestors and their development can illuminate our brains and behaviour today How do our minds work? When did language and religious beliefs first emerge? Why was there a cultural explosion of art and creativity with the arrival of modern humans? This ground-breaking book brings the insight of archaeology to our understanding of the development and history of the human mind, combining them with ideas from evolutionary psychology in a brilliant and provocative synthesis.
We propose that the capacity for a symbolic self (a flexible and multifaceted cognitive representation of an organism's own attributes) in humans is a product of evolution. In pursuing this argument, we note that some primates possess rudimentary elements of a self (an objectified self) and that the symbolic self (a) is a trait that is widely shared among humans, (b) serves adaptive functions, and (c) could have evolved in response to environmental pressures, with ecological and social pressures being of particular relevance. We suggest that these two environmental pressures caused the symbolic self to emerge in the Pleistocene epoch as an adaptation for Homo erectus, and we review the possible functions served by such an adaptation.
A primary interest of the field of infant mental health is in the early conditions that place infants at riskfor less than optimal development. The fundamental problem of what constitutes normal and abnormal development is now a focus of developmental psychology, infant psychiatry, and devel- opmental neuroscience. In the second part of this sequential work, I present interdisciplinary data to more deeply forge the theoretical links between severe attachment failures, impairments of the early develop- ment of the right brain's stress coping systems, and maladaptive infant mental health. In the following, I offer thoughts on the negative impact of traumatic attachments on brain development and infant mental health, the neurobiology of infant trauma, the neuropsychology of a disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern associated with abuse and neglect, trauma-induced impairments of a regulatory system in the orbitofrontal cortex, the links between orbitofrontal dysfunction and a predisposition to posttraumatic stress disorders, the neurobiology of the dissociative defense, the etiology of dissociation and body- mind psychopathology, the effects of early relational trauma on enduring right hemispheric function, and some implications for models of early intervention. These findings suggest direct connections between traumatic attachment, inefficient right brain regulatory functions, and both maladaptive infant and adult mental health.
In this chapter, the author presents the research ideas discussed at the 1995 conference on "Altruism, Ethics, and Compassion" that took place in Dharamsala, India. The capacity to feel others' emotions and to experience concern for their welfare, as well as the prosocial behavior that is believed to result from other-oriented concern, are the focus of this chapter. In particular, the relation between empathy-related responding and prosocial behavior is discussed briefly, after which the socialization correlates of empathy/sympathy and prosocial behaviors are reviewed. The author concludes that certain parental practices and behaviors, particularly those related to the socialization of emotion, are associated with Western children's empathy-related reactions. In addition, the constellation of socializers' practices, beliefs, and characteristics, as well as the emotional atmosphere of the home, seems to be related to children's prosocial development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The chapter focuses on the role of shame, which is most frequently presented in the psychological literature as a powerful pathological negative affect that involves a sense of insufficiency or inadequacy that can accompany, and perhaps cause, maladaptive psychological functioning. Undeniably, such severe and extreme emotional shame states occur; however, the authors argue that shame is typically experienced in milder forms that serve to facilitate, rather than impede, socially and personally adaptive behavior. Shame is discussed in its role as a signal that orients one to potential, but usually avoidable, negative social consequences, which can hinder successful reproduction and psychological well-being alike. As such, shame plays an essential part in promoting fitness through the regulation of behavior in the areas of group identity, social bonding, and competitive mating success. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This book helps to develop an understanding of the internal rules and processes that guide thinking, and the factors that lead individuals to become trapped in cycles of negative and distorted thought. In a new approach to cognitive therapy, A. Wells addresses limitations of cognitive theories and describes how metacognition, self-attentional processes, and worry/rumination strategies are central to emotional vulnerability, to the maintenance of trauma-related stress reactions, to and emotional disorders. Using the meta-cognitive model, the author describes in detail new clinical strategies which help to guide the clinician towards a fresh cognitive approach to changing negative thoughts, distorted beliefs, and distressing emotions. The audience for this book includes trainee therapists, practitioners, and experts working at the frontiers of cognitive therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Thirty-four people referred to an NHS psychotherapy department were given a modified form of Oatley and Duncan's (1992) emotion diary which included questions about whether each recorded emotion had been subsequently disclosed to anyone (for example a partner, friend or professional). One week later the diaries were collected and participants interviewed. Interviews focused, among other things, on reasons for non-disclosure of recorded emotional experiences and the relationship between shame and non-disclosure. The results indicated that a majority of the emotional incidents recorded in the diaries were not disclosed (68%). This result contrasts with studies on non-clinical samples in which only approximately 10% of everyday emotions are kept secret. Qualitative analysis of the interview data revealed that participants appeared to be habitual non-disclosers of emotional and personal experiences and that non-disclosure was related to the anticipation of negative interpersonal responses to disclosure (in particular labelling and judging responses) in addition to more self-critical factors including shame. It is suggested that these results add to the existing literature on shame by illustrating the interpersonal effects of shame in a clinical sample.
Social comparison occurs in many forms of interaction. Despite a voluminous literature, the link between human and non-human forms of social comparison has rarely been made or explored. In this paper we consider the evolution of the competency to socially compare self with others and point to its long phylogenetic history. Special regard is given to intrasexual selection, competition for parental investment, and reciprocal exchange. The evolved competency to socially compare has been important in two separate and mutually incompatible forms of social competition, based on displays of either intimidation or attractiveness. This has resulted in two self-concepts which have been called resource-holding potential (RHP) and social attention-holding power (SAHP). These primitive self-concepts derived from social competition may have been stages on the phylogenetic pathway to human self-esteem. It is suggested that an evolutionary approach adds a new dimension to current theories of social comparison.
Are humans by nature hierarchical or egalitarian? Hierarchy in the Forest addresses this question by examining the evolutionary origins of social and political behavior. Christopher Boehm, an anthropologist whose fieldwork has focused on the political arrangements of human and nonhuman primate groups, postulates that egalitarianism is in effect a hierarchy in which the weak combine forces to dominate the strong.
The political flexibility of our species is formidable: we can be quite egalitarian, we can be quite despotic. Hierarchy in the Forest traces the roots of these contradictory traits in chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, and early human societies. Boehm looks at the loose group structures of hunter-gatherers, then at tribal segmentation, and finally at present-day governments to see how these conflicting tendencies are reflected.
Hierarchy in the Forest claims new territory for biological anthropology and evolutionary biology by extending the domain of these sciences into a crucial aspect of human political and social behavior. This book will be a key document in the study of the evolutionary basis of genuine altruism.
Table of Contents:
The Question of Egalitarian Society
Hierarchy and Equality
Putting Down Aggressors
Equality and Its Causes
A Wider View of Egalitarianism
The Hominoid Political Spectrum
Ancestral Politics
The Evolution of Egalitarian Society
Paleolithic Politics and Natural Selection
Ambivalence and Compromise in Human Nature
References
Index
Reviews of this book:
This well-written book, geared toward an audience with background in the behavioral and evolutionary sciences but accessible to a broad readership, raises two general questions: 'What is an egalitarian society?' and 'How have these societies evolved?'...[Christopher Boehm] takes the reader on a journey from the Arctic to the Americas, from Australia to Africa, in search of hunter-gatherer and tribal societies that emanate the egalitarian ethos--one that promotes generosity, altruism and sharing but forbids upstartism, aggression and egoism. Throughout this journey, Boehm tantalizes the reader with vivid anthropological accounts of ridicule, criticism, ostracism and even execution--prevalent tactics used by subordinates in egalitarian societies to level the social playing field... Hierarchy in the Forest is an interesting and thought-provoking book that is surely an important contribution to perspectives on human sociality and politics.
--Ryan Earley, American Scientist
Reviews of this book:
Combing an exhaustive ethnographic survey of human societies from groups of hunter-gatherers to contemporary residents of the Balkans with a detailed analysis of the behavioral attributes of non-human primates (chimpanzees, gorillas, bonobos), Boehm focuses on whether humans are hierarchical or egalitarian by nature...[Boehm's hypotheses] are invariably intriguing and well documented...He raises topics of wide interest and his book should get attention.
--Publishers Weekly
Boehm has been the first to look at egalitarianism with a cold, unromantic eye. He sees it as a victory over hierarchical tendencies, which are equally marked in our species. I would predict that his insightful examination will reverberate within anthropology and the social sciences as well as among biologists interested in the evolution of social systems.
--Frans de Waal, Emory University
Hierarchy in the Forest is an original and stimulating contribution to thinking about the origins of egalitarianism. I personally find Boehm's ideas convincing, but whether one agrees with him or not, he has formulated his hypotheses in such a way that this book is likely to set the terms of the discussion for the forseeable future.
--Barbara Smuts, University of Michigan
The most unique and interesting feature of this clear, well written book is the way Boehm links the study of nonhuman primates (particularly chimpanzees) to traditional concepts of political anthropology. As a political scientist, I was intrigued by Boehm's suggestion that democracy, both ancient and modern, could be understood as the expression of the same natural dispositions that support the egalitarianism of nomadic bands and sedentary tribes. I expect that many scholars in biology, anthropology, and the social sciences would learn from this stimulating book. Even those who disagree with Boehm's arguments are likely to be provoked in instructive ways.
--Larry Arnhart, Northern Illinois University
Chris Boehm boldly and cogently attacks a whole orthodoxy in anthropology which sees hunter-gatherer 'egalitarianism' as somehow the basic form of human society. No praise can be too high for Boehm's brilliant and courageous book.
--Robin Fox, Rutgers University
Mammals stem from the mammal-like reptiles (therapsids) that were widely prevalent in Pangaea 250 million years ago. In the evolutionary transition from reptiles to mammals, three key developments were (1) nursing, in conjunction with maternal care; (2) audiovocal communication for maintaining maternal-offspring contact; and (3) play. The separation call perhaps ranks as the earliest and most basic mammalian vocalization, while play may have functioned originally to promote harmony in the nest. How did such family related behavior develop? In its evolution, the forebrain of advanced mammals has expanded as a triune structure that anatomically and chemically reflects ancestral commonalities with reptiles, early mammals, and late mammals. Recent findings suggest that the development of the behavioral triad in question may have depended on the evolution of the thalamocingulate division of the limbic system, a derivative from early mammals. The thalamocingulate division (which has no distinctive counterpart in the reptilian brain) is, in turn, geared in with the prefrontal neocortex that, in human beings, may be inferred to play a key role in familial acculturation.
Evolutionary psychologists emphasize that self-worth and well-being are largely determined by the degree to which individuals garner and hold the interest of others. Personal attributes, such as physical attractiveness, are viewed as resources which serve as signals to others to pay attention to us.
This study examined (a) the degree to which participant appraisals (N = 75) of self-worth were related to appraisals of how interested others were in them; and (b) the extent to which interest ratings account for the relation among self-worth, dominance and attractiveness ratings.
The main findings of the present study showed (a) that the degree to which individuals derive self-worth from various attributes was strongly related to the degree to which individuals believed others were interested in them; and (b) that the amount of interest one believes others show in them mediated the relation between physical attractiveness and social self-worth.
Results have a number of implications concerning the nature of self-worth and the utility of psychological theories that emphasize evolutionary principles.
Social Groups and Identities: Developing the Legacy of Henri Tajfel
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Multilevel Integrative Analysis of Human Behavior: Social Neuroscience and the Complementing Nature of Social and Biological Approaches
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Measuring Vulnerability to Threats to Self Construction: The Self and Other Scale
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The Evolution of Social Attractiveness and Its Role in Shame, Humiliation, Guilt and Therapy
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The Psychology of Shame
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Shame and Pride: Affect Sex and the Birth of the Self
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The Many Faces of Shame
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The Distinction between Sympathy and Empathy
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Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986): 314-321.