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G@llinformed 8 Newsletter of the Galliformes Specialist Group
13
References
BirdLife International (2013) Species factsheet: Lophura edwardsi. Downloaded from
http://www.birdlife.org on 05/01/2013. Recommended citation for factsheets for more
than one species: BirdLife International (2013) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from
http://www.birdlife.org on 05/01/2013.
Ciarpaglini, P. and Hennache A. 91997. Les origines de la population captive du faisan
d’Edwards Lophura edwardsi. Pp. 36-56 in: Hennache A. ed. Conservation et studbook
International du Faison d’Edwards Lophura edwardsi. The International studbook for the
Edwards’s pheasant Lophura edwardsi and its conservation. Ed. Service du Patrimoine
Naturel, MNHN, Paris.
Hennache, A., Rasmussen, P., Lucchini, V., Rimondi, S., and Randi, E. 2003. Hybrid
origin of the imperial pheasant Lophura imperialis (Delacour and Jabouille, 1924)
demonstrated by morphology, hybrid experiments and DNA analyses. Biological Journal
of the Linnean Society, 80, 573-600.
Hennache, A. 2012. Proposal for an ex situ conservation of the Edwards’s pheasant
(Lophura edwardsi).
Hennache, A., Mahood, S.P., Eames, J.C. and Randi E. 2012. Lophura hatinhensis is an
invalid taxon. Forktail 28: 129-135.
The last indigenous black-necked pheasant population of Europe
Christos Sokos1 and Periklis Birtsas1,2, 1Research Division, Hunting Federation of
Macedonia and Thrace, 173-175 Ethnikis Antistaseos Str., GR 55134 Thessaloniki, Hellas
(Greece) and 2Laboratory of Wildlife, Department of Forestry and Management of Natural
Environment, Applied Science Institute of Larissa, Terma Mavromihali str., GR 431 00,
Karditsa, Hellas (Greece). Email: thiramatologos@hotmail.com
Introduction
Black-necked or Caucasus pheasant Phasianus colchicus colchicus L. maintains small and
isolated populations in countries east of the Black Sea: Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and
Iran and west: Hellas (Greece) (Braasch et al. 2011). These populations of black-necked
pheasant number a few hundred individuals, and consequently the subspecies has been
classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List (Sokos and Birtsas 2005).
Hellas occupies the southeast limit of Europe to Asia, and is a country with rich
biodiversity (Blondel et al. 2010). The economic and political situation of Hellas during
previous centuries seems to have prevented the overexploitation of nature. These details
may have contributed to the conservation of the indigenous black-necked pheasant in
G@llinformed 8 Newsletter of the Galliformes Specialist Group
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Nestos Delta in North Hellas from the twentieth century, when measures were taken by
Hellenic authorities to protect of this population.
Very little information is available on black-necked pheasant status in Europe, and the
species is incorrectly considered extinct or introduced by many authors. Here, we write
about the species in Hellas, its past distribution and today status and concerns.
Black-necked pheasants in Hellas
Pheasants are known to ancient Hellene writers, like Aristophanes and Aristotle (Pollard
1977). The geographer Agatharchides of Cnidus (second century BC) stated that “great
numbers of these birds, known as pheasants, frequent the mouths of the rivers” (Pollard
1977). Ornithologists and hunters of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries gave
information about the distribution of subspecies in Hellas. According to them, the black-
necked pheasant had wide distribution in continental Hellas (Figure 1).
Until the nineteenth century, black-necked pheasant populations existed in Attica,
Euboea and Akarnania (Lindermayer 1860, Powys 1860, Reiser 1905 in Handrinos and
Akriotis 1997). Pringale (1972), states that black-necked pheasant was widely
distributed and located in the valleys of rivers Pineios of Thessaly, Spercheios and the
Gulf of Arta until the ninetheenth century. Tsitsas (1965) adds that after the revolution
of 1821, there were pheasants in riparian forests of Agrinio, West Hellas.
Figure 1. Indigenous black-necked pheasant populations in Hellas at past and present according to
ornithologists and hunters of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The last population exists in
Northeast Hellas, in Nestos Delta (red).
Boev (1997) recorded pheasant bones from archaeological sites, demonstrating the wide
distribution of the species in Bulgaria at the past. The oldest finding comes from
G@llinformed 8 Newsletter of the Galliformes Specialist Group
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Dolnoslav (100 km northeast of the Nestos Delta) and dates from 5530 - 5480 BC.
These findings and the fact that black-necked pheasant had a wide distribution in Hellas
and Bulgaria, strengthens the view that the bird is a native species of the Balkans.
The establishment of the species following introduction and release belongs probably to
mythology (Argonauts, Colchis, Phasis), as the history of establishing galliform
populations is characterized by many failures and few successes (Sokos et al. 2008).
Ancient Hellenes colonized the Colchian coast in the fifth and sixth centuries BC
establishing their trading posts at Phasis. Phasis was a marshy delta created by the Rioni
River, where black-necked pheasant bred and still do today (Sokos and Birtsas 2005).
Pheasants were introduced into this area and thus received their name in hellenic
language: kolchikos phasianos.
After the nineteenth century, the distribution of black-necked pheasant gradually
reduced despite the prohibition of hunting since 1923. In the first third of the twentieth
century, black-necked pheasant was limited to regions of Thrace and Macedonia of North
Hellas (Figure 1, Table 1) and in recent decades, the subspecies has bred only in Nestos
Delta, Northeast Hellas (Sokos et al. 2011).
Table 1. Regions of Forest Districts in which black-necked pheasant populations were recorded in
decade of 1920 (Hunter Calendar, 1927).
Region
Forest Districts
East Macedonia and
Thrace
Komotini, Xanthi, Chrysoupoli
Central Macedonia
Serres, Sidirokastro, Nigrita, Goumenissa, Thessaloniki,
Edessa, Veroia, Naoussa, Katerini
Black-necked pheasants in Nestos Delta
Nestos Delta is the last refuge of black-necked pheasant in Europe. Paralikidis et al.
(1997) found pure black-necked pheasants in Nestos Delta, where releases had not
occurred in the area as they were prohibited for the protection of subspecies from
genetic introgression. Moreover, no male pheasant with white on its neck has been
recorded in the area.
G@llinformed 8 Newsletter of the Galliformes Specialist Group
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Nestos is one of the larger rivers in Hellas, and is the natural boundary between
Macedonia and Thrace. The climate is coastal Mediterranean, with mild winters and dry,
warm summers. The monthly average temperature varies between 5.5°C (January) and
25.6°C (July). The average annual precipitation for the period 1985–2002 is 425 mm,
with a dry season of at least five months.
The plain around Nestos River was covered by one of the biggest riparian forests of
Europe, with an area of 12700 ha at the beginning of the twentieth century, opened by
the frequent flooding of the river (Efthimiou 2000). Embankments were constructed for
the prevention of floods and progressively the natural forested areas were converted to
agricultural land and plantations of either poplar or black locust.
Interpretation of aerial photographs from 1960 show a significant landscape
transformation compared to that of 1945 (Mallinis et al. 2011). A 76.5% decline of the
forested areas was observed because of agricultural expansion. This transition increased
landscape heterogeneity until 1960, which may have improved pheasant habitat.
However, due to increasing changes, the landscape became less heterogeneous over the
following years, as agriculture, forestry and grazing practices all intensified.
Today, the main land types in the lower delta are: 1) farmland, intensively cultivated for
maize, rice, cotton and asparagus (41.7%); 2) grasslands and shrublands, mainly
covered with Rubus species (16%); 3) wetland with riparian, ammophilous and
halophytic vegetation (16.2%); and 4) remnants of former riparian forest and
abandoned plantations of poplar and black locust (12.4%) (Sokos et al. 2004, Mallinis et
al. 2011). In some areas, mainly in previous plantations, local tree species have been
planted and converted back to natural forest vegetation.
The Nestos Delta is of great ecological significance because it hosts a large number of
important ecotopes, offering habitat for many wildlife species. In 1956, the
Figure 2. Male black-necked pheasant
in the Nestos Delta, May 2007.
© P. Birtsas
G@llinformed 8 Newsletter of the Galliformes Specialist Group
17
region was nominated to become a wildlife refuge and in 1971, it was included in the
Ramsar
Convention. The area is also protected by the Bern Convention, the EC Directives
(Natura 2000 Network), and hunting is prohibited (Dafis et al. 1997). Moreover, two
fences were constructed in 1982 by the Forest Service on each side of the Nestos River
for the protection of natural vegetation and pheasants, where grazing is not usually
allowed.
Until the 1980s, there were no population estimations available for the species, with only
accounts from hunters and forest wardens suggesting high abundances of black-necked
pheasants in the area. In 1985, Papageorgiou (1992) mentions that 200-300 black-
necked pheasants were found in the Delta. Jerrentrup and Resch (1989) reported that
the presence of 50 males in this area. Paralikidis et al. (1997) established that the
population size was between 700 – 1050 individuals in the period 1990-1994.
Over the last ten years (2003 - 2012), the population has been monitored using the call
count method every May, using 84 systematically selected points to cover the majority
of the Delta. During this time, we have counted 31 - 92 cock territories. According to
Burger (1966), this means a total spring population of 100 – 250 individuals. In 2003,
All photos © Christos Sokos
Figure 3. Aspects of black-necked pheasant habitat at Nestos Delta
G@llinformed 8 Newsletter of the Galliformes Specialist Group
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we also evaluated whether the Nestos Delta was potential habitat for pheasant using a
habitat suitability index (Sokos et al. 2004).
We found that the habitat is degraded or unsuitable in areas where intensive agriculture
and grazing are practiced, vegetation is sparse, the soil is infertile and stables and
building installations are present. These activities together occupy 85% of the Nestos
Delta. In the remaining 15% of the area, the suitability of the habitat is further reduced
by the lack of openings into woody vegetation and the advanced succession of
herbaceous vegetation (Sokos et al. 2004).
Figure 4. Call counts during the spring in Nestos Delta
© P. Birtsas
Figure 5. Habitat suitability for pheasant in 183 500 × 500 m surface of the
Nestos Delta. The value of the habitat suitability index is Red: 0–0.25 unsuitable,
Yellow: 0.26–0.5 degraded, Blue: 0.51–0.75 adequate, Green: 0.76-1 good.
G@llinformed 8 Newsletter of the Galliformes Specialist Group
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Pheasant predators maintain good populations in the Nestos Delta. These species are
wildcat (Felis silvestris), beech marten (Martes foina) and golden jackal (Canis aureus),
whilst fox (Vulpes vulpes) has low density. Raptors may also cause serious losses.
Paralikidis (2005) released 30 captive reared black-necked pheasants in the area
equipped with radio transmitters: 50% were eliminated by predators in the first week
and 36.67% survived only a month. The main predators were fox and marten with
63.33% and raptors with 23.33%. Moreover, golden jackal, wild boar, corvids and gulls
may predate pheasant nests (Paralikidis 2005).
Conservation actions
The existence of the subspecies only in the Nestos Delta and its low population
abundance, place the black-necked pheasant as Critically Endangered on a national level
(Handrinos 2009). This unique genetic stock in Nestos Delta is susceptible to numerous
threats (e.g. unsuitable habitat, predators, sheep dogs, intensive agriculture, poaching).
A population collapse will have consequences as this could result in the extinction of the
last indigenous population of black-necked pheasant in Europe, particularly as birds from
this population are not reared in captivity.
The Hunting Federation of Macedonia and Thrace has been taking measures to help the
species by improving habitat quality in the Nestos Delta, using wardens, monitoring the
population and publishing an action plan (Sokos and Birtsas 2005).
These efforts should be encouraged and be combined with re-introduction efforts in
areas with suitable habitat and proper management of human activities.
© P. Platis
Figure 6. Female black-necked pheasant found killed in Nestos Delta, probably by beech
marten
© C. Sokos
G@llinformed 8 Newsletter of the Galliformes Specialist Group
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Figure 7. Hybridized black-necked pheasants reared by the Forest Service in Chrysoupoli
Figure 8. Opening of gaps and cereal crops for pheasant habitat improvement in Nestos
Delta by the Hunting Federation of Macedonia and Thrace
References
Blondel, J., Aronson, J. Bodiou, J.-Y. & Boeuf, G. (2010). The Mediterranean Region.
Biological Diversity in Space and Time, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Boev, Z.N. (1997). Wild Galliform and Gruiform Birds (Aves, Galliformes and Gruiformes)
in the Archaeological Record of Bulgaria. Intern. Journal of Osteoarchaeology: 7: 430–
439.
Braasch, T., Peš, T., Michel, S. & Jacken, H. (2011). The subspecies of the common
pheasant Phasianus colchicus in the wild and captivity. International Journal of
Galliformes Conservation 2: 6–13.
Burger, G.V. (1966). Observations on aggressive behavior of male ring-necked
pheasants in Wisconsin. Journal of Wildlife Management 30(1): 57-64.
Dafis, S., Papastergiadou, E., Georghiou, K., Babalonas, D., Georgiadis, T., Papageorgiou
M. et al. (1997). The Greek Habitat Project Natura 2000: an overview. Thessaloniki:
Greek Biotope/Wetland Centre. [in Hellenic, with English summary].
Photos © C. Sokos
G@llinformed 8 Newsletter of the Galliformes Specialist Group
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Efthimiou, G.Sp. (2000). Analysis of stand structure, dynamics and ecological
interpretation of riparian forests of Nestos. Ph.D. Thesis, Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki. [in Hellenic, with English summary].
Handrinos, G. & Akriotis, T., (1997). The birds of Greece. Christopher Helm Ltd., London.
Handrinos, G. (2009). Black-necked Pheasant Phasianus colchicus. In: Legakis, A. and
Maragou, P. (eds), The Red Data Book of Threatened Greek Animals, pp. 243. Hellenic
Zoological Society, Athens [in Hellenic, with English summary].
Hunter Calendar (1927). Hunting in Hellas before 70 years. Kinitro Publications.
Athens.[in Hellenic].
IUCN, (2001). IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1. IUCN Species Survival
Commission. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK ii+30pp.
Mallinis, G., Emmanoloudis, D., Giannakopoulos, V., Maris, F., Koutsias, N., (2011).
Mapping and interpreting historical land cover changes in a Natura 2000 site using earth
observational data: the case of Nestos delta, Greece. Applied Geography 31: 312–320.
Papageorgiou, Ν. (1992). The present and the future of black-necked pheasant in Great
Forest of Nestos. Pages 169-183. Nestos, the natural environment and its problems.
Proceedings of a Conference of GEOTEE, 24-26/4/1992, Kavala, Hellas. [in Hellenic].
Paralikidis, N. (2005). The ecology of the Black-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus
colchicus) in the Kotza-Orman forest. PhD Thesis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [in
Hellenic, with English summary].
Paralikidis, N., Karakousis, Y., Papageorgiou, N., & Triantaphyllidis, C. (1997). Genetic
structure and divergence between two native populations of the black-necked pheasant
(Phasianus colchicus colchicus) from Greece and Bulgaria. Folia Zoologica 46(2): 143-
149.
Pollard, J. (1977). Birds in Greek Life and Myth. Thames & Hudson. London.
Pringale, G. (1972). Hunting in Hellas. Analysis of problems and recommendations.
UNSF/FAO GRE-20/230.
Sokos C., Birtsas P., Papaspyropoulos K., Kelesidou S., & Billinis C. (2011). Galliformes
releases in North, Central and Island Hellas. Proceedings of 15th Pan-hellenic Forestry
Congress. Hellenic Forestry Society, 16–19/10/2011, Karditsa, Hellas. [in Hellenic, with
English summary].
http://www.wfdt.teilar.gr/15_th_Panhellenic_Forestry_CONFERENCE/Presentations/Swko
s.pdf
Sokos, C.K. & Birtsas, P.K., (2005). Management of Black-necked pheasant in Hellas.
Hunting Federation of Macedonia & Thrace - Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning
and Public Works. Thessaloniki. [in Hellenic, with English summary].
G@llinformed 8 Newsletter of the Galliformes Specialist Group
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Sokos, C., Birtsas P., & Tsachalidis Ε. (2008). The aims of galliforms release and choice
of techniques. Wildlife Biology 14(4): 412-422.
Sokos, C.K., Platis, P.C., Birtsas, P.K., Stamkopoulos, C.A., & Karakatsanis, K.D.,
(2004). Pheasant habitat suitability index: its application in Nestos Delta. Proceedings of
1st Pan-Hellenic Environmental Conference: 148 – 158. [in Hellenic].
http://www.panida.gr/site/wp-content/uploads/2004-PHEASANT-HSI.pdf
Tsitsas, S. (1965). The pheasant. Hunting News 406: 997-998. [In Hellenic].
The Ecological Requirements of the Spotted Wood-quail Odontophorus guttatus
in Noj K'a'ax Meen Elijio Panti National Park
Roni Martinez, Conservation Officer, Blancaneaux Lodge, Belize and
Jack Clinton Eitniear, Director, Center for the Study of Tropical Birds, Inc. USA
Figure 1. Spotted wood-quail Odontophorus guttatus Photograph by Paul Scarff
The Spotted wood-quail (SWQ) (Odontophorus guttatus; Figure 1) is widespread in
forest from Mexico to Panama (Johnsgard 1978-1979). Despite its large range our level
of biological knowledge is considered only “fair”, with the nest yet to be described
(Leopold 1959, Gutierrez and Gutierrez 1997). Information collected through
communication with field ornithologists familiar with the species in Belize, the published
literature, and information accessible from the Belize Biodiversity Information System
indicate that the species is widely distributed throughout broadleaf forest (Meerman and
Clabaugh 2012, Eitniear 2004).
As a continuation of our studies on the quail of Belize (Eitniear and Guy 2012, Eitniear et
al. 2009) we are documenting the home range (breeding and non-breeding), population
