Can Science Lead Us to a Definition of Art?

Abstract

For approximately two thousand years, human thinkers have been attempting to define a behaviour, referred to as art, that humans have been practicing for tens of thousands of years. Defining this term has proved to be so difficult that Munro (1949: 5) to claim that the arts “are too intangible and changing to be defined or classified.” In this paper a 12-property cluster theory proposed by Denis Dutton is critically evaluated not in light of how well it fits with current thinking in aesthetics, but in light of its scientific strength and its usefulness for examining art across cultures.

Full text

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rivista!on*line!del!Seminario!Permanente!di!Estetica!
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!anno!VI,!numero!2!!
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Can!Science!lead!us!to!a!Definition!of!Art?!
Kathryn!Coe!! !
!
The!whole!science!of!aesthetics!fails!to!do!what!we!might!expect!
from!it,! being! a! mental! activity! calling! itself! a!science;! namely! it!
does!not!define!the!qualities!and!laws!of!art![…]!!
L.!Tolstoy,!!"#$%&'%()$*!1899!
!
+,$)-./0$&-,% %
If!Plato’s! discussions! count! as! a! formal!beginning! of!attempts! to! define!art,!more! than!
2000!years!have!gone!by!without!reaching!an!agreement.!Defining!art!has!proved!to!be!
so! difficult! that! Lorand! ([2000]:! 250)! was! inspired! to! write! that! every! «proposed!
definition!has! been! demolished,!renounced,! and! its!effectiveness!denied»,! and! Munro!
([1949]:! 5)! to! claim! that! the! arts! «are! too! intangible! and! changing! to! be! defined! or!
classified».! Scientists,! taught! the! importance! of! definitions,! do! not! attempt! to!
objectively!define!the! term! (see! Bullot,! Reber! [2013];! Tooby,! Cosmides! [2001];! Wallin,!
Merker,! Brown! [2000]).!Richard! Alexander! ([2005]:! 5),! a! scientist! and! astute! thinker,!
wrote!that!he!wanted! to! be! vague!in! using! words! like! art! because!he! did! not!want! to!
limit!what!was! discussed.!The!failure!to!define!art! is! surely!part!of!what!led!Tooby!and!
Cosmides! ([2001]:! 7)! to! write! that! the! arts! are! one! of! the! realms! of! human! behavior!
«that!have!resisted!any!easy!or!straightforward!explanation!in!Darwinian!terms».!!
Over!60!years!ago,! Hodin! (1951)! argued! that! science,!at! that! point!in!time,!did! not!
permit!the!development!of!a!theory!of!art.!We!assume!that!scientific!theory,!specifically!
modern!Darwinian!Theory,!is! now! at! a!point!at! which,!as! Denis! Dutton!(2003)!pointed!
out,! it! can! begin! to! contribute!to! an! understanding! of! the! function! of! art! and! place! a!
limit!on!philosophers’!ability!to! speculate.!As!this!understanding!depends,!however,!on!
reaching!an!agreement!about!art’s!definition,!I!briefly!review!attempts!to!define!art!and!
then! critically! evaluate! Dutton’s! (2006)! 12*property! cluster! theory.! Dutton’s! list! of!
properties! was! selected! as! it! holds! promise! for! helping! us! identify! art’s! fundamental!

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properties!because,!first,!his!list!is!built!upon!widely!accepted!thinking!in!aesthetics!and!
the! properties! he! proposes! are! compatible! with! those! found! in! other! cluster! theories.!
Further,!Dutton’s!list!is! one! of!the!few! that! purports!to! be! able!to!broadly! account!for!
works!of! art! found! around!the!world,!a! feature!that! is!necessary! if!we! are!to! come!up!
with! a! definition! that! works! universally.! Finally,! Dutton,! who! is! known! for! his!
appreciation!of!evolutionary!approaches,!appreciates!that!before!we! can! identify! what!
art!does!–!that!is,!its!possible!evolutionary!function!–!we!need!to!define!what!art!is.!!
8#09:)-/,.%
Plato’s!definition!specified!that!art!replicates;!that!is,!it!imitates!reality.!Aristotle!agreed,!
defining! art! as! mimesis,! but! adding! the! criterion! that! art! also! had! an! effect! –! it! was!
cathartic.!Definitions! proposed! since! have! built! on! this! thinking,! focusing! on! art! as!
representational! (imitating! reality);! as! formal! (a s! was! implied! in! Plato’s! discussion,! art!
has!such!things!as!line,!color,!pattern,!symmetry!or!a!certain!form);!and/or!as!expressive!
(it! expresses! –! and! arouses! –! emotion).! Disagreements! over! these! characteristics! and!
the!relative! importance!that!each! property! has,! have!split!discussions!of!art’s!definition!
into! two! basic! groups,! one! of! which! either! ignores! the! need! for! a! definition! or! argues!
that!the! term!cannot!be!defined.!The!other!camp!attempts!to!devise!a! widely! accepted!
definition!of!the!term.!!
Into!the!first!category!falls!the!non*essentialist!position,!which! postulates!that!there!
are! no! necessary! and! sufficient! properties! to! art! –! all! we! can! find! are! similarities!and!
relationships,!all!we! can! do!is!describe,! not! define!(Wittgenstein! [1953];! Weitz![1956]).!
Dismissed!by!many! as! not!scientifically!useful,! this! approach! has!been!said! to! be!«too!
vacuous!to!carry!the!explanatory!burden»!(Davies![2004]:!297).!!
The! second! group! argues!that! if! we! examine! a! word’s! various! usages,! we! will! find!
some!element!(or!elements)!that!is!common!to!all!of!them,!but!not!to!other!things,!and!
we!will!be!able!to!isolate!that!element!as!the!essence!that!defines!the!category!of!things!
(McEvilley! [1992]:! 166).! Dickie! ([1971]:! 41),! for! example,! explained! that! definitions!
should! attempt! to! «specify! the! necessary! and! sufficient! conditions! needed! for!
something!to! be!a! work! of!art.!A! necessary! condition! for! being!an! X! is!a! characteristic!
which! any! object! must! have! in! order! to! be! an! X.! A! sufficient! condition! of! an! X! is! a!
characteristic,!which,!if!an!object!has!that!characteristic,!it!is!an!X».!!
Worded!more!skeptically,!«either!all!works!of!art![…]!have!some!common!quality!or!
when!we!speak!of!‘works!of!art’!we!gibber»!(Bell![1958]:!79).!!

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In! trying! to! identify! art’s!necessary! and! sufficient! properties,! one! problem,! pointed!
out!by!a!number!of!scholars,!including!Dutton!(2006),!is!that!it!is!not!always!clear!if!we!
are! trying! to! define! objects! (e.g.,! sculptures,! paintings,! decorated! objects),!
performances!(e.g.,!dance,!storytelling),!psychological!underpinnings,!evolved!proximate!
or! ultimate! functions,! the! behavior! of! making! and/or! viewing! art,! or! the! emotional!
response!aroused!by!art,!or!all!or!some!of!these.!!
Further,!the!term!is!often!used!metaphorically.!Darwin!(1871),!as!one!example,!who,!
according!to! his! son,!Francis,!regarded! himself! «as! an! ignoramus!in! all! matters!of! art»!
(Darwin![1887],!83),!used!the!term!art!frequently!in!;"3%53'03,$%-6%<#,!(1871),!writing,!
for!example,! about! the!«art!of! poetry»! (&=&:!44)!as!well!as!the!«art!of! making! fire»,!the!
«art!of!grinding!rough!flint!tools»!(&=&:!176),!the!«art!of!enumeration»!(&=&:!194),!and!the!
«art! of! writing»! (&=&:! 195).!He! also! claimed! that! «language! is! an! art,! like! brewing! or!
baking»!(&=&:! 53)! and! that! barking!was! a!new! art!that! distinguished! domesticated!dogs!
from!ancestral!wild!species1.!Similar!usage!of!the!term!art,!led!Ruchstuhl!(1916)!to!write:!
«What!do! we! mean! by!the! word*Art?!The! word! has!been!used!to!designate!everything!
under!the!sun!from!“The!Art!of!Poetry”,!to!the!“Art!of!Goose!Washing”;!from!“The!Art!of!
Living”!to!the!“Art!of!Dying”,!until!every!charlatan!has!his!pet!definition!which!he!knows!
he!cannot!successfully!defend».!
This! metaphorical! usage! of! the! term,! however,! may! help! provide! important! clues!
regarding! art’s! definition.! To! illustrate! this! point! we! turn! again! to! Darwin! ([1871]:! 59)!
who! went! on! to! explain! that! language! is! an! art,! «in! the! sense! of! its! having! been!
elaborately!and!methodically!formed».!Art,!in!other!words,!is!an!activity!that!requires,!or!
can!be! improved! by,! skill! and! practice,! a! proposal! that! we! will! further! examine! in! this!
paper.!
All! definitions! that! attempt! to! specify! art’s! necessary! and! sufficient! characteristics!
have! been! criticized! and! most! have! been! dismissed.! Tolstoy’s! definition! has! been!
criticized! because! he! may! have! developed! it! to! serve! his! own! aim! of! social! reform!
(Ruckstahl![1916]:!75).!Bias!>3)%'3*!however,!is!irrelevant!to!the!accuracy!of!a!definition!
because!bias!is!only!part!of!their!-)&:&,.!While!bias!can!lead!to!an!inaccurate!definition,!it!
also! can! lead! to! an! accurate! one;! the! accuracy! or! inaccuracy! of! a! definition! is!
determined! not! by! showing! a! person! was! biased! but! by! whether! or! not! it! fits! the!
observable!facts.!!
Other!definitions!have!been!dismissed!because!they!are!said!to!be!limited;!as!Dutton!
([2006]:! 375)! pointed!out,! many!of! these!theorists! «began! with!a! particular!paradigm,!
meaning! they!want! to! explain! a! particular! form! of! art! (Greek! tragedy,! say! or! abstract!

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music)»,!and! thus! their!definition!cannot! be! more! widely!applied!to! account!for!other!
forms!of!art.!The!institutional!theory!position,!which!specified!that!X!is!an!art!object!if!it!
is!displayed!in!an!art!space!(Danto![1964]),!was!criticized!because,!clearly,!not!everything!
displayed!in!an!art!space!is!art!(e.g.,!the!fire!alarm!on!a!wall)!and!public!art!is!displayed!
outside!art!institutions.!The!proposal!that!the!significant!form!in!art!(Bell![1958])!arouses!
an!aesthetic!emotion!has!been!criticized!for!its!apparent!circularity!and!because!it!is!not!
clear!there!is!a!particular!emotion!associated!only!with!viewing!art.!For!these!and!other!
reasons,!«the! history! of! the!philosophy! of! art»,! to!quote! Dean! ([2003]:! 29)!«is! littered!
with!failed!attempts!to!provide!definitions!of!art».!!
As!there!has!been!no!widespread!agreement!on!what!art’s!necessary! and! sufficient!
properties!might!be,!recent!attempts!to!define!art!have!resurrected!the!non*essentialist!
position!and!proposed!what!is!called!a!cluster!theory.!A!cluster!theory!provides!a!list!of!
properties! none! of! which! may! be! a! necessary! condition! for! something’s! being! art,!
meaning! that! «there! is! no! property! that! all! objects! falling! under! the! concept! must!
possess»! (see! Dutton! [2006];! Gaut! [2005]:! 274;! also! Anderson! [1979];! Blocker! [1994];!
Moravcsik![1992]).!However,!all!or!some!combination!of!the!properties! would! together!
be! sufficient! to! refer! to! something! as! art;! X! is! art! by! virtue! of! satisfying! an! often!
unspecified!number!of!criteria.!!
Dutton’s! (2006)! cluster! theory! has! twelve! properties! –! 5&)30$% ?43#'/)3,! 29&44% -)%
@&)$/-'&$A,! 2$A43*% B-=34$A% #,.% 1)3#$&=&$A,! 1)&$&0&'C*% D3>)3'3,$#$&-,,! 2>30&#4% E-0/',!
FG>)3''&=3%+,.&=&./#4&$A,!FC-$&-,#4%2#$/)#$&-,*%+,$34430$/#4%1"#443,:3,! ()$%;)#.&$&-,'%#,.%
+,'$&$/$&-,',!and!+C#:&,#$&=3% FG>3)&3,03.!While!he!does!not!refer!to!these!properties!as!
design!features,!or!as!universals,!he! sees! them! as! such! as! he! claims!they!are!useful!for!
studying! art! across! cultures.!Dutton! ([2006]! 369)! begins! his!discussion! by! pointing! out!
the!limitations! of!these! properties!and! acknowledging! that!some! of!the! properties!are!
more! central! to! a! definition! than! others;! Skill! or! Virtuosity,! for! example,! is! a! more!
important! property! than! is! Criticism.! Keeping! these! caveats! in! mind,! now! turn! to! an!
evaluation!of!Dutton’s!properties!using!the!definition!criteria!outlined!below.!!
5/$$-,H'%IJ%>)->3)$&3'%-6%#)$%
(''/C>$&-,'K% L% Given! the! complexity! of! art! –! art! takes! various! forms! (e.g.,! music,!
storytelling,! dance,! plastic! arts)! –! it!is! important,! borrowing! from! Hartwig! (2008),! to!
avoid! an! implicit! definition,! as! resulting! studies! will! «usually! be! highly! be! confused,!
precisely!because!it![the!term]!has!not! been! thought! through!comprehensively!(ix).!Art!
forms,!like! any!other! observable!phenomena,!can! be! defined!(see!Boyer![2004])! and!a!

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scientifically! rigorous! definition! will! specify! necessary! and/or! sufficient! properties.!
Because!art,!according!to!the!evidence!available,!is!both!ancient!and!widespread,!it!may!
be! an! adaptation.! Before! we!can! begin! to! identify! the! effect! of! art! that! promoted! its!
persistence!–!why!art!is!adaptive!–!a!definition!is!needed.!!
1)&$3)&#%6-)%3=#4/#$&-,%
+.3,$&6&#M43:! Are! the! properties! identifiable! by! the! senses?! This! topic,! admittedly,! has!
been!the!focus! of! much! philosophical!debate,!criticized,!among! other!things,!for!being!
too! reductionistic.! Even! though! art! may! prove! to! be! much! more! than! its! visible!
characteristics,! a! definition! that! focuses! solely! on! characteristics! that! are! clearly!
identifiable!provides!a!strong!position!for!coming!up!with!a!testable!definition.!!
14#)&$AN%Are!the!terms!clearly!defined!or!have!clear!referents?!Writing!in!a!simpler!time,!
Jones!([1946:!2*3)! explained! that! the!primary!aim!of!science!writing!is!to! inform! and! it!
does!this!by!stating!facts!accurately,!using!words!with!identifiable!referents!and!avoiding!
devices!that!appeal!to!the!emotions,!such!as!exaggeration!or!the!use!of!a!metaphor!that!
can!be!open!to!many!interpretations.!
B-,O6/,0$&-,#4N% Does! the! property! refer! to! what! art! is! rather! than! what! art! does,! its!
function?!Establishing!the!function!of!something!still!leaves!open!to!debate!the!question!
of! what! that! something! is.! Spiro,! in! his! argument! against! functional! definitions! of!
religion,! wrote:! «/,43''% )34&:&-,% &'% .36&,3.% '/M'$#,$&=34A*% it! would! be! impossible! to!
delineate!its!boundaries»!([1966]:!90;!emphasis!in!original).!!
1)-''O0/4$/)#4N%Are!the!properties!found!in!objects!made!across!cultures!that!we!refer!to!
as! or! that! closely! resemble! art! objects?! This! criteria,! as! Munro! (1951)! pointed! out! is!
important! because! once! it! is! based! on! the! cross*cultural! record,! «the! history! of!
aesthetics!will!have!to!be!completely!rewritten!from!a!much!more!cosmopolitan!point!of!
view»!(&=&:!164);! «All! aesthetic!theory! before! the!late!nineteenth!century!was! cramped!
and!distorted!by!ignorance!of!exotic!and!primitive!styles!of!art»!(&=&:!166).!!
53'0)&>$&-,N%()3%$"3%>)->3)$&3'%&.3,$&6&#M43%MA%$"3%'3,'3'7%
As! art,! during! the! past! few! centuries,! has! been! associated! with! the! term! aesthetic,!
which,!etymologically,!is!concerned!about!feelings!or!emotions!(Fagg![1973]),!definitions!
of! art! often! focus! on! emotions! art!is! said! to! arouse.! A! number! of! Dutton’s! properties!
refer!to!and/or!are!described!in!terms!of!emotionK%!

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In!regard!to!the!property!5&)30$%?43#'/)3,!Dutton!writes!([2006]:!369),!«The!art!object!
–! narrative,! story,! crafted! artifact,! or! visual! and! aural! performance! –! is! valued! as! a!
source! of! immediate! experiential! pleasure! in! itself,! and! not! primarily! for! its! utility! in!
producing! something! else! that! is! either! useful! or! pleasurable».! He! goes! on! to! write,!
«grasping! the! detailed! coherence! of! a! tightly! potted! study! can! give! pleasure! […]! the!
composition! of! a! landscape! painting! can! induce! pleasure;! surprising! harmonic!
modulations!and! rhythmic! acceleration!can! give! pleasure! in! music,! and! so! forth».!The!
«enjoyment! of! artistic! beauty! often! derives! from! multilayered! yet! distinguishable!
pleasures!that!are!experienced!either!simultaneously!or!in!close!proximity!to!each!other.!
These! layered! experiences! can! be! most! effective! when! separable! pleasure! are!
coherently! related! to! each! other,! or! interact! with! each! other! –! or! roughly! put! in! the!
structural! form,! color,! and! subject! matter! of! a! painting,! or! the! music,! drama,! singing,!
directed!acting,!and!sets!of!an!opera».!!
The! property! FC-$&-,#4% 2#$/)#$&-,,! Dutton! ([2006],! 369)! writes,! refers! to! the! fact!
that!in! «varying! degrees,! the! experience! of! works!of! art! is!shot! through!with! emotion.!
Emotion! in! art! divides! broadly! into! two! kinds».! While!these! two! kinds! of! emotion! are!
«fused»!we!first!find!«emotions!provided!or!incited!by!the!represented!content!of!art!–!
the!pathos!of!the!scene!portrayed!in!a!painting,! a!comic! sequence!in!a!play,!a!vision!of!
death!in! a!poem.!These!are!the!normal! emotions!of!life,!and! as! such!are!the!subject!of!
cross*cultural! psychological! research! outside! aesthetics! […].There! is! a! second,!
alternative!sense,!however,!in!which!emotions!are!uncounted!in!art:!works!of!art!can!be!
pervaded! by! a! distinct! emotional! flavor!or! tone! […]! th e! work’s! emotional! contour,! its!
emotional!perspective,!to!cite!to!common!metaphors».!!
In!regard!to!the!property,!+,$34430$/#4%1"#443,:3,!Dutton!(2006)!writes!that!«works!of!
art! tend! to! be! designed! to! utilize! a! combined! variety! of! human! perceptual! and!
intellectual! capacities! to! a! full! extent;! indeed,! the! best! works! stretch! them! beyond!
ordinary! limits.! The! full! exercise! of! mental! capacities! is! itself! a! source! of! aesthetic!
pleasure! […].The! pleasure! of! meeting! intellectual! challenges! is! m ost! obvious! in! vastly!
complicated!art,! [but]! even! in! works!that! are! simple,!on! one! level,!such! as! Duchamp’s!
readymades,!may!deny!easy! explanation! and!give!pleasure!in!tracing!out!their!complex!
historic!or!interpretative!dimensions»!
+C#:&,#$&=3% FG>3)&3,03,! Dutton! ([2006]:! 373)!claims,!is! perhaps! the!most! important!
characteristic!of! art!because!it!«decouples!imagination!from!practical!concerns,!freeing!
it,!as!Kant!instructed,!from!the!constraints!of!logic!and!rational!understanding».!«Works!
of! art»,! he! continues,! also! borrowing! from! Kant,! «are! imaginative! objects! subject! to!

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disinterested! contemplation».! Logic! and! rational! thinking,! he! argues,! are! constraints!
limited!by!their!association!with!the!objective!and!the!practical.!He!sees!imagination!as!a!
distinct!mental!activity,!one!that!draws!on!emotion.!
When!describing!the!property!D3>)3'3,$#$&-,,!Dutton!([2006]:! 371)! writes! that! «art!
objects,!including!sculptures,!paintings,!and!oral!and!written!narratives,!and!sometimes!
even! music,! represent! or! imitate! real! and! imaginary! experiences! of! the!w orld».!W hile!
representation! would! seem! to! be! identifiable,! he! then! turns! his! description! of!
representation! to! a! discussion! of! emotion,! referring! to! Aristotle! who! observed! that!
«human! beings! take! an! irreducible! pleasure! in! representation»! (&M&.K).! We! not! only!
experience! pleasure,! Dutton! explains,! in! a! realistic! painting,!«w e! can! take!pleasure! in!
how!well!a!representation!is!accomplished!and![…]! in!the!object! or! scene! represented»!
(&M&.K).! While! representation! is! potentially! identifiable,! contemporary! forms! of! art! –!
color!field,!for!example!–!do!not!clearly!represent!anything.!!
Dutton!also!describes!the!property!29&44%#,.%@&)$/-'&$A,!which!would!seem!to!be!easily!
identifiable,! in! terms! of! emotion! it! arouses.! He! writes,! «skill! exercised! by! writers,!
carvers,!dancers,!potters,!composers,!painters,! pianists,!and! so! forth! can! cause!jaws!to!
drop,! hair! to! stand! up! on! the! back! of! the! neck,! and! eyes! to! flood! with! tears.! The!
demonstration!of!skill!is!one!of!the!most!deeply!pleasurable!aspects!of!art»!(&=&:!369).!As!
skill!is,!he!admits,!appreciated!not!just!in!art,!but!in!many!aspects!of!life,!what!is!unique!
about!skill!in!art!is!the!unique,!aesthetic!emotion!that!only!occurs!in!response!to!seeing!
that!skill!is!exhibited!in!the!production!of!the!art.!!
When! describing! 29&44% -)% @&)$/-'&$A!Dutton! writes! that! the! making! of! an! «object! or!
performance!requires!and!demonstrates!the! exercise!of!specialized!skills»!(&=&:!369).! He!
goes! on! to! make! several! claims! that! are! potentially! testable! using! the! cross*cultural!
record.!First,!he!writes!that! «these! skills! are!learned!in! an! apprentice! tradition!in!some!
societies!or!in!others!may!be!picked!up!by!anyone!who!finds!that!she!or!he!“has!a!knack”!
for!them»!(&M&.K).!Second,!he!claims!that!skill!is!universally!noticed! and! admired.!A! final!
claim! is! that! «Almost! every! regularized! human! activity! can! be! turned! competitive! in!
order!to!emphasize!the!development!and!admiration!of!its!technical,!skill!aspect»!(&M&.K).!
In! other! words,! he! recognizes! that! skill! involves! competition! and! admits! that! the!
admiration!of!skill!is!not!limited!to!art.!We!discuss!these!below.!
5&'0/''&-,N%()3%$"3'3%>)->3)$&3'%&.3,$&6&#M43%MA%$"3%'3,'3'7%
;"3%>)-M43C%P&$"%3C-$&-,.!The!emotion! most! often! said! to!be!associated!with!making!
and!viewing!art!is!pleasure,!and!while!this!is!not!the!most!important!problem!we!face!in!

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using!this!property!to!define! art,! art! also! can!be! said! to!arouse!grave! feelings! or! leave!
the! viewer! bewildered,! confused,! non*plussed,! unsure! of! any! emotional! reaction!
(Anderson! [1979]).! Indeed,! art! can! be! said! to! arouse! no! emotions! as! it! draws!«no!
aesthetic!interest»!(Brothwell![1976]).!!
An!additional!problem!is!whether!or!not!we!can!actually!demonstrate!that!there!is!an!
«aesthetic»! emotion,! associated! solely! with! art.! Dutton! admits! that! the! emotions!
experienced! with! viewing! art! are! not! unlike! those! said! to! be! aroused! by! other! things.!
When!describing!the!property!5&)30$%?43#'/)3,!for!example,!he!admits!that!the!emotion!
derived!from!art![…]»!is!familiar!in!many!other!areas!of!life,!such!as!the!pleasure!of!sport!
and!play,!of!quaffing!a!cold!drink!on!a!hot!day,!or!of!watching!larks!soar!or!storm!clouds!
thicken»! (Dutton! [2006]:! 369).! When! describing! the! property! 29&44% #,.% @&)$/-'&$A,! he!
writes,!«High!skill!is!a!source!of!pleasure!and!admiration!in!every!area!of!human!activity!
beyond!art»! (&M&.K).! In!regard!to!FC-$&-,#4%2#$/)#$&-,,!he!writes,! «Many!ordinary,! non*
art! life! experiences! –! falling! in! love,! watching! a! child! take! its! first! steps,! attending! a!
funeral,!seeing!an!athlete!break!a!world!record,!a!row!with!a!close!friend!(&=&:!372).!!
One! of! the! two!most! important! problems! related! to! using! emotion! as! a! defining!
property!of!art,!is!the!fact!that!emotions!are!not!readily!identifiable.! While! we!seem!to!
be! approaching! methods! that! will! allow! us! to! identify! emotions! –! the! release! of!
hormones! associated! with! emotion! or! places! in! the! brain! where! they! occur! – ! current!
discussions!of!emotion!rely!on!self*report,!which!is!a!notoriously!weak!research!method.!
It! is! important! to! understand,! however,! that! while! subjective! emotions! should! be!
ignored!in!defining! art!scientifically,!this! does!not!indicate!that!emotion!is!irrelevant!to!
the! study! of! art.! I! assume! that! art! attracts! us! because! it! interests! us,! presumably! by!
provoking! some! physiological! response! in! our! brains,! including! responses! commonly!
referred! to! as! emotion.! However,! even! if! we!could! demonstrate!that! an! emotion,!and!
point!out! which!emotion,! is! associated! with! art,!we! still!would! still! have! to! show! that!
those! emotions! are! universal! and! distinct! from! emotions! aroused! by! other! events.!
Further,!we!still!would!have!to!identify!precisely!what!arouses!the!aesthetic!emotion!–!is!
it! aroused! by! the! color,! pattern,! form,! or! technique,! style,! or! by! certain! sounds! or!
movements,!or!by!the!combination!of!certain!sounds!and!certain!movements?!!
The! most! important! problem! that! we! face! when! with! defining! art! in! terms! of! the!
emotion!it!arouses,!is!that!we!are!focusing!on!what!art!does!–!its!effect!or!function!of!art!
–!not!on!what!art!is.!As!mentioned!earlier!in!this!paper,!if!we!really!wish!to!know!what!
art!does,!we!first!must!know!what!art!is.!

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Turning!now!to!the!cross*cultural!record!and!the!universality!of!these!properties,!key!
words! such! as! art! and! emotion! and! aesthetic! emotion! were! used! to! search! the! 258!
culture! categories! included! in! the! Q/C#,% D34#$&-,'% ()3#% E&43'% RQD(ESK% Aesthetic!
appreciation!is! mentioned!in!only!a!few!ethnographic!studies!and!in!those!studies!that!
emotion!was!said! to! be!aroused!not! by! art,!but!by! rituals.! Among! the!modern!Greeks,!
for! example,! aesthetic!appreciation! was! said! to! be! associated! with! rites! of!passage,!
including!funerals!and!marriages!(Herzfeld![1993]).!As!the!term!aesthetic!is!one!that!may!
not!commonly!be!used!by! ethnographers,!the!terms!«emotion!and!art»! were!also!used!
in! a! search.! Again,! these! terms! also! pulled! up! descriptions! of! rituals;! Speck! writes!
([1935]:!193),!for!example,!that!the!function!of!the!quasi*ritualistic!games!played!by!the!
Naskapi! hunters! of! the! Labrador! Peninsula! is! «comparable! to! that! of! decorative! art,!
since!the!emotional!pleasures!of!the!arts!stand!forth!as!nourishment!to!the!soul».!Speck!
admits! that! he! might! be! accused! of! telling! the! reader! what! Naskapi! thinks! (&=&:! 193).!
While!he!denies!the!possibility,!he!provides!no!solid!evidence!to!back!up!his!claim.!This!
discussion,!however,!points!out!an!interesting!feature!of!much!of!the!ethnographic!data.!
The!thoughts,!beliefs,!and!emotions!of!the!people!being!studied!are!based!solely!on!the!
anthropologist’s! interpretation.! Any! subjective! emotions! underlying! these! behaviors! is!
merely! hypothetical,! the! opinion! of! the! ethnographer! (Rappaport! [1999];! Steadman,!
Palmer![2008]).!
Before!we!leave!this!discussion,!the!reader!should!note!that!the!descriptions!focusing!
on!non*verifiable!properties! –! emotion! &! intellect!–!are!likely! to! lack!clarity!are! those,!
such!as! emotion!and!intellect.! Even! though!artists!and! art!critics!are! comfortable! with!
such! terminology,! it! generally! falls! into! the! humanities! or,! the! quasi*art*quasi*science!
category!(Zald! [1991]).!A!small! poll!of!twenty!studio!artists!and!art!historians!regarding!
Dutton’s! discussion! of! FC-$&-,#4% 2#$/)#$&-,!indicated! that! they! felt! that! they!
understood!the!meaning.!When!asked!to!explain!what!he!meant,!however,!the!majority!
was!at!a!loss!for!words.!One!participant!(personal!communication,!September!27,!2011),!
who! bravely! attempted! to! explain! it,! wrote:! «”Science”! relies! on! left*hemisphere!
analytic! type! of! thinking.!There’s! a! whole! other! hemisphere! that! perceives! the! world,!
but! it! is! mute! and! its! perceptions! are! disregarded! by! the! rational,! analytic! left!
hemisphere.! A! poem! does! not! "mean"! what! it!says! if! one! were! to! reword! it! in!"plain!
language".! It! is! the! "tone"! that! the! whole! generates,! apart! from! the! semantic!
"meaning",!that!Denis!is!talking!about!here,!I!think».!
This!description!concluded:!«I!don’t!think!that!Denis! is!a!scientist!nor! does!he!try!to!
be».!While!the!implication!here!is!that!he! should!not!be!held!to! standards!of!clarity,!as!

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Dutton!himself!recognized!(1995),!social!scientists!should!«defy!and!eschew!the! jargon!
and! willful! obscurity! which! so! often! replaces! hard! thinking! in! theoretical!writing»! (&=&:!
43).! What! both! Dutton! and! this! participant! may! be! trying! to! communicate! is! that!
FC-$&-,#4% 2#$/)#$&-,!involves! elements! of! what! we! might! call! absorption,! meaning,!
perhaps,!that!our!entire!attention!is!captured!and!held,!perhaps!involuntarily!(see!Rader!
[1974]:!131;!Rowe![1991]:!274).!This!could!be!a!testable!proposition.!Although!we!value!
literary!eloquence,!we!agree!with!Bruner!([2002]:!5)!that!«too!good!a!story!is!somehow!
not!to!be!trusted».!As!Einstein!explained,!we!«must!look!at!substance!rather!than!at!the!
form»!(Einstein! [1956]:! 23)! and! "If! you! are! out! to! describe! the! truth,!leave!elegance!to!
the!tailor"!(Einstein,!cited!in!Harriger![2009]:!ix).!!
;"3%>)-M43C%P&$"%29&44:!I! wish!to!take! a! moment! to! resurrect!the! property!skill,!as!it!
can!be! defined! in!ways! that! make! it! identifiable.!In!regard! to! Dutton’s! claim! that!skills!
are! acquired! in! apprentice! programs! or! picked! up! by! anyone! who! «has! a! knack»,! the!
evidence! supports! that! in! small*scale! kinship*based! societies,! older! adults! were!
responsible! for! teaching!art! techniques!and! motifs!to! their!young! kin.! Craft! apprentice!
programs!in!Africa!were! initiated! after! the! art!began!to! be! sold! in!a! market! place,! not!
made!for!family!use!(see!Lave,!Wenger![1991]).!An!important!difference!between!these!
two!types!of!learning!is!that!in!an!apprenticeship!program,!the!apprentice!often!goes!on!
to! compete! with! his! mentor/teach er,! whereas! in! traditional! kinship! societies,! children!
not!only!continue!to!practice!the!skills!and!motifs!they!learn,!but!they!go!on!to!teach!the!
same!skills!to!their!own!children!(who!then!teach!them! to! theirs),! and! the! teacher! and!
the!student!do!not!compete!(Coe![2003]).!!
In!regard!to!Dutton’s!claim!that!skill!is!universally!admired,!skill!also!can!be!resented.!
This! resentment,! and! the! social! problems! it! can! cause,! were! pointed! out! in! an!
anonymous! article! published! in! ;"3% </'&0#4% ;&C3'!in! 1895,! which! described! how,! in!
Greek!mythology,!Marsyas!challenged!Apollo!to!a!trial!of!skill!as!a!musician.!Apollo!won!
the!trial,!although!his!«victory!long!hung!in!the!balance»!(653).!Apollo,!however,!was!not!
satisfied! with! this! success;! he! quickly! seized! his! unfortunate! antagonist,! tied! him! to! a!
tree!and!flayed!him! alive.! Giorgio!Vasari,!an!artist!as! well! as! a!biographer,!was! startled!
by! a! climate! of! intense! rivalry! among! Renaissance! artists! (Goffen! [2004]).! Rivalry!
between! the! architects! Bernini! and! Borromini,! Morrissey! (2005)! writes,! was! very!
acrimonious,! involving! struggles,! heartaches,! backroom! dealings,! betrayals,! assaults,!
murder! and! suicide.! Coe! (2003)! argues! that! in! traditional! social! environments,!
constraints! were! placed! on! the! demonstration! of! skill,! to! the! point! it! became!

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competitive,! as! such! competition! causes! resentment,! which! damages! critically!
important!social!relationships.!!
;"3%)3C#&,&,:%>)->3)$&3'%%
While!none!of!Dutton’s!properties!are!truly! discrete!categories,!the!remaining!ones!are!
particularly!so.!The!property!1)&$&0&'C*%for!example,!is!closely!tied!to,!and!used!to!explain%
29&44.!FG>)3''&=3% +,.&=&./#4&$A!is!linked! with!1)3#$&=&$A%#,.%B-=34$A!and! 29&44.! Further,! the!
property! 2$A43!is! closely! linked! to! ()$% ;)#.&$&-,'% #,.% +,'$&$/$&-,'.! Because! these!
properties! are! overlapping,! and! some! are! often!assumed! to! be! opposites! –! traditions!
and!creativity,!for!example!–! they! will!be!discussed! together.! This! discussion!begins!by!
focusing! on! the! property! 2>30&#4% E-0/',! as! it! may! link,! in! an! important! sense,! all! the!
properties,!and! makes!it! clear! that! these!properties!–! and!art! –! only!can! be! evaluated!
and!their!importance!identified!if!we!first!understand!the!distinction!between!traditional!
and!non*traditional.!!
Dutton!([2006]:!371)!distinguishes!two!ways!that!2>30&#4%E-0/'!manifests!itself.!First,!
he! writes! that! «works! of! art! and! artistic! performances! tend! to! be! bracketed! off! from!
ordinary! life,! made! a! separate! and! dramatic! focus! of! experience».! «In! every! known!
culture»,!he!continues,!art!involves!what!Ellen!Dissanayake!calls!«making!special»,!which!
can! include:! «A! gold*curtained! stage,! a! plinth,! spotlights,! ornate! picture! frames,!
illuminated! showcases,! book! jackets! and! typography,! ceremonial! aspects! of! public!
concerns! and! plays,! an! audience’s! expensive! clothes,! the! performer’s! black! tie,! the!
present!of! the! Czar! in! his!royal!box,!even!the!high!price!of!tickets:!these!and!countless!
other!factors!can!contribute!to!a!sense!the! work!of!art,!or! artistic!event,!is!an!object!of!
singular! attention,! to! be! appreciated! as! something! out! of! the! mundane! stream! of!
experience!end!activity».!!
He!then! maintains!that!it! is!«the!nature!of!art! itself!to!demand!particular! attention.!
Although!some!works!of!artistic!value!–!for!instance,!wallpaper!or!mood*inducing!music!
–!can! be! used!as! background,! all!cultures!know! and! appreciate!special,!«foregrounded!
art»!(&=&:!371).!He!concludes!by!admitting!that!any!«isolate*able!episode,!artistic!or!not,!
that! can! be! said! to! possess! a! recognizable! “theatrical”! element! shares! something! in!
common! with! […]! almost! all! art.! As! examples,! he! mentions! rollercoaster! rides! and!
presidential!inaugurations.!!
Dutton’s! discussion! is! difficult! to! follow.! He! does! not! explain! what! «foregrounded!
art»!is;!he!does!not!make!it!clear!if!or!how!making!special!in!art!might!be!different!from!
adding,! for! example,! developing! a! special! new! gizmo! for! a! vacuum! cleaner;! and! he!

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moves! back! and!forth! between! art! and! ritual!–!while! art! may! be! incorporated! into! a!
ritual,!a!ritual!is!a!separate!behavior,!or!set!of!behaviors,!involving!more!than!just!art.!!
While! Dissanayake! acknowledges! the! problems! with! «making! special»! –! she!
describes! it! as! «shaping! and! embellishing! everyday! ordinary! reality! so! it! becomes!
extraordinary»!(Dissanayake![1988]:!148).!As!Flannery!([1993]:!498)!explains,!it!involves!
«treating! something! different! as! from! everyday».! We! treat! many! things! differently! –!
dogs! and! criminals! –! for! example.! It! seems! difficult! to! isolate! what! «making! special»!
actually!may!involve,!other!than!making!something!more!noticeable.!While!it!is!doubtful!
that! artists! will! say! that! they! want! to! make! so mething! special,! they! generally! are! not!
averse!to!attracting!attention.!The!issue,!thus,!is!how!«making!special»!is!different!from!
making!something!attractive?!«Attract»!comes!from!the!Latin!word!#$$)#0$/',!meaning!
to!draw,!or!to!cause!to!approach!or!adhere!to.!Attract!does!not!imply!that!the!object!or!
event!draws!positive!attention.!The!'&,3%T/#%,-,!of!visual!art!is!that!it!is!noticeable!(Coe!
[2003]).!Once!we! focus! on! the!property!attract,!we! can! ask!what!natural!things!in!our!
world!attract!and!hold!our!attention!(e.g.,!rainbows,!soaring!birds,!certain!sequences!of!
sound),!how! does! art! incorporate!those!properties,!and! does! it!necessarily!follow!that!
when!these!properties!are!used!in!art,!they!somehow!assume!a!uniqueness,!arousing!a!
unique!emotion?!!
An! additional! problem! is! that! the! basis!of! making! special! is! said! to! be! creativity! –!
which,! Dissanayake! argues,! is! a! biological! need! (1998).! While! many! would! agree,!
creativity!is!associated!with!change,!which!is!not! evident!in!the!ethnographic!and!much!
of!the!historical!record.!As!Bernard!Berenson!wrote!([1948]:!155),!a!«lust!for!newness»,!
is!neither!ancient!nor! universal.! We! will!return!to!this!topic;!however,!as!persistence!is!
the!characteristic!seen!in!early!forms!of!art,!and!as!art!objects!and!traditions!can!last!for!
hundreds! and! even! thousands! of! years! –! and! are,! in! the! span! of! a! person’s! life,! seen!
daily!until! they! become! a!commonplace!part!of!the!environment!–!do!we!assume!that!
they!no!longer!are!art?!!
The!remaining! properties! also!involve! making! a! distinction! between! traditional!and!
non*traditional.! B-=34$A% #,.% 1)3#$&=&$A% and! FG>)3''&=3% +,.&=&./#4&$A!both! focus! on!
creativity,! which! according! to! Dutton,! is! «the! locus! of! individuality! or! genius! of! art»!
(Dutton![2006]:!370).!()$%;)#.&$&-,'%#,.%+,'$&$/$&-,'!and!2$A43,!on!the!other! hand,!focus!
on! what! seems! contradictory,! or! perhaps!the! other! side! of! the! coin,! replication! and!
predictability.! In! the! next! section,! we! begin! the! next! section! by,! first,! discussing! the!
remaining!properties,! as! described!by!Dutton,! and! then! review!the!difference! between!
traditional!and!creative!or!non*traditional.!!

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53'0)&>$&-,N%;"3%&''/3%-6%$)#.&$&-,#4%#,.%,-,O$)#.&$&-,#4%
While!Dutton!does! not!spend!much! time! discussing!()$% ;)#.&$&-,'% #,.% +,'$&$/$&-,',! he!
does!write!that!«Art!objects!and!performances,!as!much!in!small*scale!oral!cultures!as!in!
literate!civilizations,!are!created!and! to!a!degree!given! significance!by!their! place!in!the!
history! and! traditions! of! their! art»! (Dutton! [2006]:!372).!This! characteristic,! Dutton,!
explains,! can! be! applied! to! virtually! all! organized! social! activities! –! from! medicine,! to!
politics,!to!science!–!as!they!are!built!on!a!backdrop!of!customs!and!demands,!historical!
and!institutional!traditions.!!
Dutton,!when!discussing!1)&$&0&'C!(which,!curiously,"is!not!a!characteristic!of!art,!but,!
a!hypothetical!response!to!art),!argues!that!wherever!artistic!forms!are!found!they!exist!
alongside!some! kind! of!critical!language! of! judgment!and! appreciation! (Dutton![2006]:!
370).!While!there!is,!he!argues,!«wide!variation!across!and!within!cultures!with!regard!to!
the! complexity! of! criticism»,! he! recognizes! that! anthropologists! have! repeatedly!
commented!«on!its!rudimentary!development!or!what!appears!to!be!near!non*existence!
in!small,!nonliterate!societies![…]»!"
FG>)3''&=3%+,.&=&./#4&$A,!Dutton! ([2006]:! 371)!writes,!seems!to! inevitably! arise.! Even!
in!cultures!that!produce!what!Dutton!calls!«less!personalized!art»!(&M&.K),!which!seems!to!
mean! that! they! maintain! art! traditions! with! significant! fidelity,! «individuality,! as!
opposed!to!competent! execution»! still! can! «be!the! focus! of! attention!and!evaluation»!
(Dutton![2006]:! 317).! «The! claim! that! artistic! individuality! is! a! Western! construct! not!
found!in!non*Western!and!tribal!cultures»,!he!argues»,!has!been!widely!accepted!and!&'%
03)$#&,4A% 6#4'3»! [our! emphasis].! In! support! of! this! claim,! he! points! out! that! in! New!
Guinea,!traditional!carvings! did! not! need!to!be! signed! because! everyone! already! knew!
which! carver! produced! which! work.! He! interprets! this! to! mean! that! «expressive!
personality!is!respected!in!New!Guinea!as!elsewhere»!(Dutton![2006]:371).%
%When! writing! about! B-=34$A% #,.% 1)3#$&=&$A,! Dutton! ([2006]:!370)! claims! that!
«novelty,!creativity,!originality!and!capacity!to!surprise!its!audience»!are!highly!valued!in!
art!and! that! the! «persistent! pursuit! of! creativity»!characterizes!humans!across!cultures!
not!just!in!art,!but!in!a!great!many!areas!of!human!endeavor».!Dutton!(2006)!recognizes!
that! creativity,! objectively,! refers! to! newness,! to! an! identifiable! change! in! materials,!
technique,!motif,!and!theme.!Their!importance,!he!argues,!lies!in!the!#$$3,$&-,O:)#MM&,:%
6/,0$&-,%-6%#)$,!which!he!feels!is!a!major!component!of!its!entertainment!value.!!
The! following! testable! claims! follow! from! his! discussion:! «[…]! novelty,! creativity,!
originality! and! capacity! to!surprise! its! audience»! are! highly! valued! in! art! and! that! the!

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«persistent! pursuit! of! creativity»! characterizes! humans! across! cultures! not!just! in! art,!
but! in! a! great! many! areas! of! human! endeavor»! (Dutton![2006]:! 370).! «The! claim! that!
artistic!individuality!is!a!Western!construct!not!found!in!non*Western!and!tribal!cultures,!
has!been!widely!accepted!and!&'%03)$#&,4A%6#4'3»!(Dutton![2006]:!371;!-/)%3C>"#'&').!He!
goes! on! to! claim! that! «rigidity! or! fluid! adaptability! of! styles! can! vary! as! much! in! non*
Western!and!tribal!cultures!as!in!the!histories!of!literate!civilizations;!for!example,!some!
sacred!objects!and!performances!are!tightly!circumscribed!by!tradition!(as!in!older!styles!
of! Pueblo! pottery),! with! others! open! to! free,! creative,! individualistic! interpretive!
variation»!(Dutton![2006]:!370).!
Wherever!artistic!forms!are!found!they!exist!alongside!some!kind!of!critical!language!
of!judgment!and!appreciation!(Dutton![2006]:!370).!
Art! objects! and! performances,! as! much! in! small*scale! oral! cultures! as! in! literate!
civilizations,!are! created! and! to!a!degree!given!significance!by!their!place!in! the! history!
and!traditions!of!their!art»!(Dutton![2006]:!371).!
5&'0/''&-,N%;"3%+''/3%-6%;)#.&$&-,#4%#,.%B-,O;)#.&$&-,#4%
1)3#$&=&$A%#,.%+,.&=&./#4&'C.!Many,!perhaps!most,!current!art!scholars!would!agree!that!
creativity!is!a!necessary!element!of!art!(Joyce![1975])!and!is!a!human!need!that!is!valued!
across! cultures! (Dissanayake! [1992]:! 82).! A! problem! here! is! that! creativity! implies!
change! and! early! anthropologists! were! in! agreement! that! the! societies! they! studied!
were! characterized! by! persistence,! not!change.! In! both! art! history! and! anthropology!
there! is! clear! evidence! supporting! that! in! traditional! societies,! creativity! while! not!
stifled,! was! significantly! limited.! M.! G.! Houston! ([1920]:! 2)! described! traditional! art,!
writing,!«we!are!confronted!with!an!extraordinary!conservation!or!persistence!of!style,!
not!only!through!the!centuries,!but!through!millenniums!['&0]».!A!focus!of!studies!done!
by!Boas!([1955]:!144,!169)!was!what!he!referred!to!as!«fixed!type»!or!«fixity»!of!design!
and!form.!Gombrich!([1972]:!119),!an!art!historian,!argued!that!«our!modern!notion!that!
an! artist! must! be! “original”,! was! by! no! means! shared! b y! most! people! in! the! past.! An!
Egyptian,!a!Chinese,!or! a! Byzantine!master!would! have! been! greatly!puzzled!by! such! a!
demand.! Nor! would! a! medieval! artist! of! Western! Europe! have! understood! why! he!
should!invent! new! ways!of!planning! a! church,!a! designing! a!chalice,!or! of! representing!
the!sacred!story!when!the!old!ones!served!the!purpose!so!well».!!
In!his! book! (3'$"3$&0'%#,.% Q&'$-)A*%Bernard! Berenson! ([1948]:! 155)! wrote!that!«The!
lust!for!otherness,!for!newness,%C#A%seem!to!be!the!most!natural!and!matter*of*course!
thing!in!the!world;!however,!«prehistoric!races!are!credited!with!having!had!so!little!of!it!

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that! a! change! in! artifacts! is! assumed! to! be! a!change! in! populations,! one! following!
another.!The!same!holds!for!the!peoples!of!relatively!recent!or!quite!recent!date!like!the!
Peruvians! and! the! Mayas! and! Aztecs! as! well! as! the! African! and! Oceanic! tribes.! Even!
people!so!civilized!as!the!Egyptians!changed!so!little!in!three!thousand!years!that!it!takes!
training!to!distinguish!a!Saitic!sculpture!from!one!of!the!early!dynasties.!In!Mesopotamia!
also!change!was! slow.! But! for!Alexander’s!conquest,! there! might!have! been!almost! no!
newness!in!India,!and!but!for!the!Buddhist!missionaries!as!little!in!China.!Why!was!there!
so!little!craving!for!novelty!everywhere!on!earth?».!
The!persistence!of! techniques,! motifs,!etc.!is! holistically! related! to! the! role! that! art!
played!in!everyday!life,!in!rituals,!in!religion!and!in!social!rules.!Art,!stories!in!particular,!
was! used! to! teach! the! social! rules! that! specified! such! things! as! who! could! use! what!
designs;! who! could! perform! what! dances! and! when;! who! could! tell! stories,! and! to!
whom;! who! could! sing! song,! what! songs,! and! when;! and! who! should! teach! and! who!
should!learn.!!
Change! and! creativity! began! to! appear! when! there! was! contact! between! different!
people! with! different! ancestors.! Bunzel,! who! studied! potters! and! basket! weavers! in!
Pueblo!villages,!whose!work!was!now!being!purchased!by!tourists!and!collectors,!found!
that!the!potters!and!basket!weavers!began!to!place!only!a!small!degree!of!emphasis!on!
originality! and! individualism! ([1928]:! 62*68)! and! that! major! or! radical! innovation! was!
rare.! In! Africa,! Bascom! (1969)! observed! th at! radical! innovations! were! unusual.!In! the!
Sepik,!changes!in!art!began!to!occur!when!education!was!introduced!and!the!carver’s!art!
began!to!be!taught!in!school!because,!Guiart!([1969]:!89)!explained,!«interested!parties!
[began]! flying! into! Anggoram! every! week! and! with! every! crocodile*skin! buyer! having!
become! a! deal! in! primitive! art».! Creativity! reached! its! zenith! during! the! 20th!century,!
when! avant*garde! and! modern! art! began! to! be! built! on! the! destruction! of! the!
techniques! and! themes! of! traditiona l!v isual! art.! Men!like!Edward! Stiegliz!and! Clement!
Greenberg!dismissed!traditional!art,! even! paintings!that!previously!had!been! regarded!
as!great!works.!Soon,!the! younger!generations!of!20th!century! artists,!Seligman!([1952]:!
57)!explained,!rejected!all!the!work!of!the!prior!generations.!
1)&$&0&'C.!Although!criticism!is! not! a! property!of! art,! the! cross*cultural!record! provides!
some! support! for! Dutton’s! claim.!While! the! Kalabari,! as! one!example,! do! not! place!a!
strong!emphasis!on!criticism,!among!the!Fang,!Fernandez!(1966)!writes,!there!is!a!«lively!
spirit!of! criticism»!in!evaluating!the!work!of!carvers.!A!carver! who!wanted!to!avoid! this!
criticism,!would!«retreat!«to!the!solitude!of!the!banana!plantation!behind!the!village![…]!

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[although! he]! cannot! expect! to! escape! his! critics! when! the! statue! is! completed»!
(Fernandez![1966]:!54).!The! fact! that! a! carving! is! criticized,!however,!does!not!seem!to!
affect!the!value!of!the!carving;!«it!is!a!curious!fact»,!he!wrote,!that!I!never!found!a!case!
in!which! a!statue! was!refused.! The! view! seems!to! prevail! that! any!statue!can! serve! its!
function!atop!the!reliquary!whether!it!is!aesthetically!satisfying! or!not»! (p.! 55).! Despite!
this!presumed! «enthusiasm»! for! art!criticism,! the! Fang! never! criticized! sacred! objects,!
which!were!not!subject!to!criticism!or!«aesthetic!judgment»!(p.!55*56).!Similarly,!among!
the!Lega,! all! sacred! objects,! were! consistently!evaluated! as!good.! As!Biebuyck! ([1969]:!
17)! explained:! U#44% pieces! commissioned! by! the! members! of! the! MP#C&!association! –!
who! have! the! exclusive! control! over! the! art! work!–!are! :--..! That! means! they! fulfill!
their!purposes!and!functions.!Criticism!of!the!physical!appearances!of!such!objects!is!not!
tolerated;!or!rather,!such!criticism!is!inconceivable!from!their!point!of!view».!
This! supports! Layton! ([1991]:! 11)! claim! that! «aesthetic! values! are! not! universally!
expressed![…]!but!are!rather!specific!to!certain!aspects!of!culture».!
In!regard!to!the!format!and!language!style!of!art!criticism,!Congdon!(1989)!points!out!
that!each!culture!group!may!have!different!criticism!formats!and!language!styles.!Bunzel!
([1928]:!570)!notes! that! in!evaluating!pottery!vessels,!Hopi!potters!always!spoke!of! the!
importance!of!line,! the! Zuni! potters!of!the!number! and! distribution!of!designs,!and! the!
San!Ildefonso!potters! of! the! surface!texture!and! the! luster.!In!Polynesia!the! value! of!a!
drum! was! determined! by! its! shape! and! the! quality! of! the! wood! (Guiart! [1963]:! 112).!
Biebuyck!([1969]:! 14)! claimed! that! among! the! Lega! of! the! Congo,! critical!attention!was!
focused,! «first! on! the! size,! material,! and! gloss! of! a!piece,! and! only!then! on! its!general!
form! and! design».! He! concluded! that! «it! is! very! likely! that! for! these! features! of! the!
artwork! on! which! the! main! aesthetic! and! function! status! rests,! the! rules! are! more!
stringent! than! for! other,! secondary! qualities.! Allowances! are! made! for! the! position! of!
the!artist!–!is!the!artist!just!an!apprentice,!is!this!a!first!completed!work!of!art?».!
Further! indicating! that! skill! is! not! always! evaluated,! or! that! the! criticism! was!
tempered,! a! crudely! made! object! could! be! referred! to! as! art.! Lack! of! criticism! and!
tempered!evaluation! are! characteristic! of!traditional!people.!The!important! point!here,!
as!discussed!before,!is!that!humans!are!a!highly!social!species;!social!relationships!are!of!
critical! importance! and,! throughout! evolutionary! history! contributed! to! our! ancestors’!
ability! to! survive;! thrive;! and! produce,! nurture! and! protect! families.! Despite! their!
importance,!conflict!is!difficult!for!us!to!avoid!(McCullough,!Tabak![2010]).!Yet,!given!the!
complex!nature!of!human!social!ties!in!ethnic!groups,!even! simple! conflicts!could!have!
serious,! far*reaching,! and! multigenerational! effects.! As! criticism! is! often! a! cause! of!

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conflict,!social!rules!limited!the!opportunities!and!tempered!the!degree!of!criticism!that!
was!socially!acceptable!(Coe![2003]).!!
;"3%+''/3%-6%;)#.&$&-,#4%#,.%1)3#$&=3VB-,O;)#.&$&-,#4K!The!use!of!the!terms!«traditional»!
and! «traditional! society»! implies! that! in! the! midst! of! the! seeming! chaos! of! cultural!
diversity! in! the! world,! there! exists! a! recognizable! dichotomy! between! traditional! and!
nontraditional! societies.! Although! this! dichotomy! is! actually! a! continuum,! traditional!
societies! are! those! in! which! cultural! behaviors! have! been! copied! from! ancestors! for!
many! generations;! traditional! behaviors,! to!quote! Osaghae! ([2010]:! 204),! are! «the!
legacy! of! the! past».! These! copied! behaviors! included! not! only! the! art,! which! shows!
astonishing! persistence,! but! rituals! that! are! recognized! as! being! stereotyped! and!
repeated!from!one!generation!to!the! next,!as!well!as!the!everyday!behaviors!related!to!
subsistence,! and! most! importantly,! social! interaction.! These! traditions! provided! a!
blueprint!that! gave! individuals!a! model! for! how! to! live! life!and! who!should! teach!and!
who!should!learn!song,!dance,!art!movements,!sounds,!motifs!and!techniques;!how!and!
when!to!make!or!perform!specific!kinds! of! art,! and! the! tempering!of! art’s! competitive!
elements.!Traditions!encouraged!the!replication!of!ancestral!songs,! dances,! and! plastic!
art.!!
In!tribes!and!subcategories!of!tribes!–!clans,!subsections,!phratries,!moieties!–! rights!
to!particular!techniques!and!design!motifs!are!inherited,!passed!from!one!generation!to!
the! next! in! a! line! descending! from! a! particular! ancestor.! Morphy! ([1991]:! 60*63)!
describes!how!subgroup!affiliation!is!the!way!a!man!«obtains!rights!to!produce!his!clan’s!
paintings».!Among!the!Gadjari,!Meggitt!([1965]:!228)!writes!that!«The!usual!patrimoiety!
rules!determine!the!manufacture!of!Gadjari!headdresses!and!temporary!ritual!objects».!
Style,!in!the!case!of!traditional!societies,!refers!to!designs!and!techniques!inherited!from!
a!common!ancestor! and! shared! by!individuals!who!are! co*descendants.! Whether! done!
intentionally! or! not,! individuals!are! using!visual! art!to! communicate! their!ancestry! and!
their!relationship!to!others!with!whom!they!share!that!ancestor.!
Ancestral!images!–! whether! depicting! ancestors!or! copying! their! art! –! guided! what!
was! produced.! Stuart! (1988)! explains! that! in! Central! America,! «ancestor! imagery»,!
Stuart! argues,! was! the! force! «behind! the! vast! majority!of! ancient! Maya! public! art»!
([1988]:! 221).! In! the! Northwest! Coast,! every! object! of! ritual! importance! (e.g.,!canoes,!
boxes,! bowls,! houses,! poles,! chairs,! clothing,! spoons,! bracelets),! Walens! writes,! «are!
decorated!with!images!of!the!clans!mythic!ancestors,!with!depictions!of!incidents!in!the!

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clan’s!history![…].!In!some!tribes,!even!people’s!bodies!were!tattooed!with!images!of!the!
clan’s!ancestral!spirit!being»!([1993]:!89).!! !
The! words! conservative,! traditional,! ethnographic,! and! fixed! style,! when! used! to!
refer!to!art,!do!not!imply!that!the! dance,! song,! stories,! or! plastic! arts! will! be! simple!or!
plain.!The!visual!arts!of!China!and!Egypt,!along!with!those!produced!in!many!parts!of!the!
world,!were! traditional;!most!would!agree!that! they! are! attractive!(some!might! prefer!
the!words! aesthetically! pleasing).!This!arts,! however,!were!not! creative!in!the! sense! of!
constantly!changing!or!being!highly!innovative.!According!to!Hauser!([1959]:!29),!«some!
of!the!most!magnificent!works!of!art!originated![…]!in!the!Ancient!Orient!under!the!most!
dire! pressure! imaginable! [this! proves]! that! there! is! no! direct! relationship! between!
personal!freedom!of!the!artists!and!the!aesthetic!quality!of!his!works».!!
When!reviewing!the!art!produced!by!a!traditional!people,!Hauser!([1959]:!74)!writes!
that!one! cannot!find! «an! individual! style!or!personal!ideals!or! ambitions!–!at!any! rate,!
there!is!no!sign!whatsoever!that!the!artist!cherished!any!feelings!of!this!sort.!Soliloquies!
such!as! the! poems!of! Archilochus! or!Sappho! […]!the! claim!to! be! distinguished! from!all!
other!artists!which!is!advanced!by!Aristonothos,!attempts!to!say!something!already!said!
in!a!different,!though!not!necessarily!better!fashion!–!all!this!is!quite!new!and!heralds!a!
development!which!now!proceeds!without!a!setback!(apart!from!the!early!Middle!Ages)!
to!the!present!day».!!
Firth! ([1925]:! 283),! an! anthropologist! writing! about! Maori! artists,! claimed! that!
«innovations!were!not!permitted;!innovations!were!seen!as!mistakes,!which!were!#&$/#!
(evil!omens)».!! !!
I! am! not! arguing! here! that! there! was! never! any! change! or! variation! in! art.! The!
rainbow! serpent! design! was! used! in! Australia! for! 6,000! years;! however,! not! every!
serpent! looked! exactly! the! same.! Traditional! art,! while! maintaining! strong! historical!
links,! is! not! stagnant.! When! new! elements! are! introduced,!it! often! is!claimed! that!the!
new!way!of!doing!art!was!given!to!them!by!the!ancestors!in!a!dream.!The!changes!were!
not! idiosyncratic.! As! Biebuyck! ([1969]:! 12)! recognized,! when! changes! occur,! the! new!
items! are! explained! by! drawing! from! «their! patrimony! of! traditional! interpretive!
proverbs».!!
When!creativity!came!to!be!equated!with!intelligence!and!freedom!and!highly!valued!
in! Western! societies,! anth ropologists! began! to! regard! traditions! –! this! pers istence,! or!
lack!of!change!–!as!a!negative!and!started!to!use!words!like!prelogical,!primitive,!simple!
to!describe! the!non*creative!people!they!studied!and!terms!like!simple!and!primitive!to!
describe!their!art.!The!value!that!they!placed!on!creativity!influenced!what!they!saw!and!

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how!they!interpreted!it! (see!discussion!in! Biebuyck![1969]).!Later! anthropologists,!who!
practiced!during!a!more!politically!correct!era,!did!not!wish!to!be!seen!as!critical!of!other!
cultural!practices.!They!began!to!search!feverishly!for!evidence!of!creativity,!despite!the!
fact!that!amazing!persistence!they!were!observing!was!begging!for!explanation.!!
2/CC#)A%#,.%5&'0/''&-,%
When!Dutton’s!properties!are!reviewed,!many!of!them,!unfortunately,!are!not!useful.!
!
Table!1:!!
Property!
Not!clearly!
stated!
Not!
identifiable!
Refers!to!
function!
Useful!scientifically?!
Direct!Pleasure!
X!
X!
X!
Non*testable!
Emotional!
Saturation!
X!
X!
X!
Non*testable!
Intellectual!
Challenge!
X!
X!
X!
Non*testable!
Imaginative!
Experience!
X!
X!
X!
Poorly! conceptualized;!
non!testable!
Expressive!
Individuality!
X!
X,! difficult! at!
times! to!
identify!
!
Limited! explanatory!
ability! –! relevant! to!
more! contemporary!
forms!of!art!
Skill! or!
virtuosity!
X!
!
!
May! have! a! limited!
explanatory! ability,! to!
the! extent! it! implies!
competition!
Criticism!
X!
!
Refers! to!
the!
response!
Not! a! property! of! art,!
but! an! hypothetical!
response!pattern.!!
Representation!
!
X,! referent! not!
always!
identifiable!!
!
Not! always! true! of! art,!
as!some!forms! seem! to!
represent! nothing.! This!
focus! gets! us! into!
murky! area! of!
symbolism.!
Special!Focus!
X!
X!
!
Vague,! «special»! is! not!
defined!

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Art! Traditions!
&!Institutions!
X,!incomplete!
!
!
May!be!relevant!in!that!
most!forms!of!art!draw,!
to! some! degree,! on!
traditions;! however,!
not! all! art! is! associated!
with! institutions! or! art!
spaces.!
Style!
!
!
!
Same!as!above!
Novelty! and!
Creativity!
X!
Identifiable! as!
change!
!
Limited! explanatory!
ability! –! relevant! to!
more! contemporary!
forms!of!art!
!
In! 2010,! Heywood,! Garcia! and! Wilson! argued! that! if! we! wish! to! understand!
something!like! the! arts,! we! need! to! do!more! than!merely! apply!the! scientific! method,!
we!need! to! pay! attention!to!what! role!culture!as!a! «vital,!shaping!force»!might!play!in!
influencing!behavior.!In!this!paper,!I! have! attempted!to!integrate!science!and!culture!in!
order!to!identify!scientifically!testable!properties!of!art.!I!have!argued!that!if!we!wish!to!
understand! art,! we! cannot! focus! solely! on! its! contemporary! forms,! we! need! to!
understand!art!as!it!was!produced!throughout!most!of!human!history!and!prehistory.!If!
the! reader! wishes! to! dismiss! the! art! produced! during! that! period,! it! is! his/her!
responsibility! to! explain,! without! reference! to! nontestable! emotions! and/or! intellect,!
why!that!art!is!distinct.!This!does!not!mean!that!contemporary!forms!of!art!are!not!art.!It!
merely!means!that!the!patterns!of!production!and!usage!differ!significantly.!
Further,! if! we! accept! that! only! humans! make! art,! then! we! must! ask! why! humans!
regularly! seem! to! find! natural! objects!(e.g.,! animal! «art»,! sunsets,! colored! stones)! and!
events,!bird!song!and!dance,!for!example,!to!be!attractive,!in!that!they!attract!and!hold!
our! attention.! What! is! it! about! animal! «art»,! sunsets,! and! colored! stones,! song,! and!
performance!that! makes! it!seem!appropriate!to!refer!to! them,! as! is!widely!done,!using!
the! term! «art?»! If!we! assume! that! there! is! some! logic! to! this!metaphorical!extension,!
perhaps!understanding!these!attractions!can!help!identify!the!literal!meaning!of!art.!
To! address! the! question! of! what! art’s! identifiable! properties! might! be,! I! turn! to!
Darwin!([1871]:! 59)! who! explained! that! language! is! an! art,! «in! the! sense! of! its! having!
been! elaborately! and! methodically! formed».! Art,! in! other! words,! is! an! activity! that!
requires,!or!can! be! improved!by! practice.! Rather! than! focusing! on! skill!as!a!competitive!
factor,!a!focus!on!control! of! technique!places!the!emphasis! on! such!things!as!what!the!
technique!is,!how! control! is! identified,!how!it!is!learned,! from! whom!it!is!learned,! who!

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uses!it,!how!and!if!it!persists,!the!social!response!to!mastery!of!control,!and!whether!or!
not!the!control!or!the!technique!change!or!persist!over!time.!Control!of!technique!also!
offers! us! a! place! to! begin! to! identify! stages! of! control,! moving! from! poor! control! to!
greater! control! and! how! long! it! might! take! to! reach! master! and! the! steps! that! are!
involved.!!
Another!important!art!property!is!pattern,!which!Bateson!([1972]:!131)!described!as!
"any! aggregate! of! events! or! objects! [that]! can! be! divided! in! any! way! by! a! slash! m ark,!
such!that! an! observer!perceiving! only! what!is! on! one!side! of! the!slash! mark! can! guess!
with!better!than!random!success,!what!is!on!the!other!side!of!the!slash!mark".!We!refer!
to!aggregates!as!patterns!when!that!aggregate’s!extension!can!be!predicted!with!greater!
than!chance!success.!Pattern’s! importance! may!be!lie!outside!of!art,!found!in!the!many!
advantages!it!offers!humans!in!identifying!and!re*identifying!objects,!and!thus!in!making!
choices!(Hilbert![1987]).!
!Patterns! of! sound,! movement,! color,! line,! pattern,! and/or! form! have! no! function!
other!than! attracting!attention,!perhaps,!as!we!might!ascertain!someday,! by! provoking!
emotions.!They!do!not,! for! example,! keep! bodies! healthy!(that! may!be!a!side!effect!of!
dance),!make!people!«happy»!(listening!to!stories,!singing!songs),!add!structural!support!
to! a! wall! or! pottery! vessel,! act! as! a! preservative,! su ch! as! in! tanning! pelts,! or! prevent!
dental!caries!(in!the!case!of!tooth!straining).!
Humans! have! evolved! the!ability! to! respond! to! patterns! of! movement,!sound,! and!
color,! line,! pattern,! and/or! form.! For! thousands! of! years,! and! often! at! the!
encouragement! of! others,! artists! have! exploited! this! tendency! in! order! to! influence!
social!behavior.!While!art!may!be!much!more!than!pattern!and!control!of!technique!that!
are!used! to!attract!attention,!these! two! properties!provide!a!start!for! future!discussion!
(Coe![2003]).!
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