Parental Involvement in Elite Junior Slalom Canoeing

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine elite youth athletes' views on parental involvement in training, competition, and at home. Eight canoeists were interviewed up to four times and completed written diaries over a 6-week period. Results indicated that parents were generally deemed to have a positive influence through domain specific and cross-domain behaviors. Positive behaviors included parents focusing on their children's holistic development at home, motivational and constructive evaluation at training, and limiting demands on athletes through the provision of practical support, reading and understanding the situation and their child, and supporting the development of growth mindset across all domains.

Full text

RUNNING HEAD: PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
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Parental Involvement in Elite Junior Slalom Canoeing
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Camilla J. Knight1, Guy C. D. Little2, Chris G. Harwood2, & Kate Goodger3
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1Swansea University, 2 Loughborough University, 3 English Institute of Sport
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This is the final accepted manuscript of an article to be published by Taylor & Francis
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in Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. This article was accepted on 19th October
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2015. Taylor & Francis retain the copyright for this article. The final online version
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will be available from http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uasp20#.ViUiRyv3j5s
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Abstract
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The aim of this study was to examine elite youth athletes’ views on parental
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involvement in training, competition, and at home. Eight canoeists were interviewed
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up to four times and completed written diaries over a 6-week period. Results indicated
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that parents were generally deemed to have a positive influence through domain
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specific and cross-domain behaviors. Positive behaviors included parents focusing on
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their children’s holistic development at home, motivational and constructive
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evaluation at training, and limiting demands on athletes through the provision of
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practical support, reading and understanding the situation and their child, and
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supporting the development of growth mindset across all domains.
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Keywords: positive parenting, youth sport, competition, parental involvement, canoe
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slalom
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Parental involvement is a critical ingredient in the achievement of an elite
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status in youth sport (Holt & Knight, 2014). From tangible support in the form of
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transportation or supplying equipment to emotional support at competitions and
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advice regarding schooling, the roles parents fulfil to enable children to participate
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and excel in sport are extensive (Côté, 1999; Wolfenden & Holt, 2005). Some parents
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successfully meet the demand of these roles and positively influence children’s
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sporting development (e.g., in tennis; see Wolfenden & Holt, 2005). However, some
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parents have detrimental influences (e.g., Gould, Lauer, Rolo, Jannes, & Pennisi,
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2006, 2008; Lauer, Gould, Roman, & Pierce, 2010a; 2010b; McMahon & Penney,
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2015). As such, researchers have sought to identify the types of parental involvement
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that result in positive outcomes and increase the potential for children to enjoy sport
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while succeeding at the highest levels (e.g., Knight & Holt, 2014).
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Much of our initial understanding of parental involvement and influence in
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sport has been obtained from studies exploring the development of elite athletes (e.g.,
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Bloom, 1985; Côte, 1999). Combining insights from coaches, parents, and elite adult
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(18 years or older) athletes, these retrospective studies detailed the varied and critical
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role parents played throughout the sporting lives of athletes. For example, parents
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were shown to be important providers of tangible support, which was demonstrated
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through behaviours such as funding children’s involvement and transporting children
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to training and competition. Further, parents were also critical sources of emotional
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support, providing athletes with comfort after losses and giving guidance as required.
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Overall, the findings illustrate the extensive influence parents’ have upon athletes’
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development within sport and home contexts.
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More recent studies have explicitly sought to uncover the positive and
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negative influence of parents on athletes’ development (Gould et al., 2006, 2008;
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Lauer et al., 2010b; Wolfenden & Holt, 2005), and have further highlighted the varied
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roles and influence of parents in sport. For example, Gould and colleagues (Gould et
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al., 2006, 2008; Lauer et al., 2010b) conducted a three-part research project to explore
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the role of parents in tennis players’ lives. Through a survey of 250 junior tennis
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coaches, focus groups with 24 high-level junior coaches, and interviews with nine
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elite adult players, eight parents, and eight coaches it was identified that, although the
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majority of parents had a positive influence on their children’s development,
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numerous negative parental behaviors also existed. Negative behaviors included
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focusing too much on match outcomes rather than player development, interfering
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with training, demanding too much of coaches’ time, and being too involved in their
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child’s tennis. As with the earlier talent development studies, the findings from Gould
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et al.’s work provide a clear indication of the varying domains (e.g., driving home
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from competition, at training sessions) in which parents can exert an influence on
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children’s sporting development.
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The aforementioned studies provide pertinent insights into parental
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involvement and influence in sport. However, apart from certain exceptions (e.g.,
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Wolfenden & Holt, 2005), these initial studies were seeking to examine parental
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influence across the entirety of athletes’ development and thus relied on retrospective
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accounts from adult athletes, parents, and coaches rather than including children. The
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inclusion of children as participants within sport parenting research is important
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because children are actively involved in parent-child interactions, and it is children’s
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interpretations of parental involvement that dictate how issues affect them (Mayall,
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2002). Although retrospective accounts are useful for examining developmental
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experiences, they are influenced by hindsight and reflection. Such accounts might not
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fully encapsulate the thoughts and feelings the athletes’ experienced as a child.
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Recognising the importance of including children within research, more recent
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parenting research (e.g., Knight, Boden, & Holt, 2010; Knight, Neely, & Holt, 2011;
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Omli & Wiese-Bjornstal, 2011) has explicitly sought to gain children’s insights into
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parental involvement in sport. In one such study, Knight et al. (2010) conducted 11
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focus groups with adolescent tennis players exploring their preferences for parental
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involvement at competitions. Knight et al. (2010) reported that athletes preferred
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parents to comment on effort and attitude rather than performance, and provide
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practical advice but to refrain from offering technical and tactical advice. In a follow-
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up study, Knight et al. (2011) conducted interviews with 36 adolescent female team
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sport athletes and identified several preferred parental behaviors in different temporal
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phases (i.e., before, during, and after competition). These findings demonstrate that
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children do have specific views regarding appropriate and inappropriate parental
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involvement at competitions.
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However, such studies of children’s preferences for parental involvement have
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generally relied upon one-off interviews or focus groups, which might have limited
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the amount and/or quality of the data obtained from the children (Knight et al., 2010).
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For example, given the potentially sensitive nature of the topic, children might not
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have felt comfortable disclosing all the details regarding their parents’ involvement in
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a one-off meeting with an unfamiliar researcher. The timing of data collection with
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respect to the proximity of a competition (e.g., a very recent competition experience
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might dominate responses or might be easier to recall than a more distant experience)
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might also have influenced responses. Prolonged engagement with participants and
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the integration of multiple data collection points would be beneficial to overcome
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such limitations.
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Further, studies explicitly examining children’s preferences for parental
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involvement in sport have also focused exclusively upon the competition context
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(e.g., Knight et al., 2010, 2011; Omli & LaVoi, 2011). Due to their public and highly
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emotional environment, competitions provide excellent opportunities to examine
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parental involvement. But, as adult athletes, parents, and coaches have identified,
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parents also influence their children away from competitive situations (e.g., in and
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around training) and beyond the immediate sport context (e.g., at home) (Harwood &
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Knight, 2015). To further our understanding of the ways in which parents’ influence
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children’s sporting performance consideration must also be given to understanding
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children’s thoughts regarding parental involvement across these various domains
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(Holt & Knight, 2014).
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Some preliminary insights from children regarding the cross-domain influence
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of parents can be teased out of recent studies that have combined parents and
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children’s views on parental involvement in sport (e.g., Holt, Tamminen, Black,
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Mandigo & Fox, 2009; Knight & Holt, 2014). For example, Holt and colleagues
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(2009) examined parenting styles and practices in youth soccer through a season-long
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period, which comprised 56 interviews parents and an additional 34 interviews with
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the parents’ female children. Holt and colleagues found that parents who adopted an
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autonomy-supportive parenting style were able to read their child’s mood and engage
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in bidirectional communication, which influenced the timing and type of feedback
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they provided to their child. Children perceived these parenting practices, which
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penetrated all domains of the children’s sporting life, positively and indicated that
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these behaviors enhanced their sport experiences. However, Holt et al.’s (2009) study
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focused primarily upon the parent interviews, with the child interviews being used to
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create family profiles and help to identify similarities and differences between
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families. Consequently, children’s views are unlikely to be fully explored in the
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findings.
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The purpose of this study was to examine elite youth athletes’ views on
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parental involvement in training contexts, competitive contexts, and at home, and to
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identify the influence different types of parental involvement across domains have on
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athletes’ performance. Canoe slalom was chosen as an appropriate sport in which to
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conduct this study because it is a sport which demands high-levels of financial
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investment from parents, along with a substantial time commitment to transport
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children to training and competitions due to the limited numbers of facilities.
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Consequently, canoe slalom requires parents to be committed and involved.
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Additionally, the majority of parenting research to date has been conducted in
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“mainstream” sports, particularly tennis and football. One of the purported reasons for
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many of the negative parental behaviors in sport is parents’ desire for their children to
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become professional athletes, and consequently earn large amounts of money and
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gain recognition (Holt & Knight, 2014). However, canoe slalom is a relatively young
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sport, which is not associated with large financial rewards or recognition for success.
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Thus, we were interested to see if differences would emerge in comparison to tennis
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and football, which are traditionally associated with fame and money. To address the
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purpose in this population, the following research questions were posed: 1) What
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behaviors do parents engage in at home, training, and competition relating to
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canoeing? And, 2) How do parents’ behaviors across different domains influence
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canoeists’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors related to their performance?
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Method
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Methodological Decisions and Philosophical Assumptions
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To address the aims of this study, and ensure sufficient information would be
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gathered regarding the home, training, and competitive contexts, the decision was
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made to engage in data collection over a six-week period as the canoeists underwent a
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series of selection races for the Great Britain (GB) Junior Squad. During this six-week
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period, the squad of canoeists, from which the participants were selected, completed
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numerous training sessions together and travelled to various venues around the United
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Kingdom (UK) to engage in competition with and against each other. Thus, this
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period of time provided a unique opportunity for the research team to engage with all
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the participants on numerous occasions when they were training and competing.
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Specifically, the second author spent a total of 100 hours with the canoeists (at two
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competitions, two training weekends, and a week-long training camp), during which
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time he had ample opportunities to watch the participants’ interactions with their
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parents (and other canoeists’ and canoeists’ parents) and also engage in informal chats
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with the participants. Through such engagement, the second author (who completed
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all the formal data collection) gained a greater understanding of the canoeing context,
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which facilitated the development of rapport with the participants and also aided his
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understanding of the experiences they were describing. A number of researchers have
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used such immersion in the field to gain deeper insights into different sports and
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cultures (Atkinson, 2012).
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By developing such rapport with the participants and an understanding of the
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environment, in addition to observing canoeist-parent interactions, it was hoped that
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the participants would feel more comfortable or able to discuss both their positive and
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negative thoughts about their parents’ involvement. Additionally, such engagement
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with the participants was sought to help the research team gain an in-depth
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understanding of each of the canoeists and their individual realities at the time of data
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collection. This study was approached from the interpretivist paradigm, adopting a
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relativist ontology and subjective or transactional epistemology (Sparkes & Smith,
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2014). That is, the research team believes that there are no fixed realties, rather
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individuals experience different realities based upon their interpretations, which are
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influenced by their past experiences, personality, perceptions, interactions, and the
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social environment (Sparkes & Smith, 2014). Thus, rather than seeking one “truth”
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we were interested in understanding the participants’ experiences as they made sense
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to them at the time of data collect. Additionally, we recognise that our own values
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will influence and have influenced what is understood and thus we have played a role
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in co-creating the findings that are presented.
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Participants
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British elite junior slalom canoeists (N = 8; 7 male, 1 female; M = 15.30 years
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old; SD = 0.98) were purposefully sampled based on their levels and experiences in
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the sport and their presence at national selection camps. These eight athletes were
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selected from the small squad of canoeists located across the UK who were competing
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to represent Great Britain. All participants had competed at national levels for at least
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two years, and five of the canoeists had competed internationally for over a year.
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Procedure
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Following receipt of institutional ethical approval, a member of the research
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team (who was working as a sport psychologist in canoe slalom) contacted a coach
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working for GB canoeing to facilitate the organization of the research project. The
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coach consented to members of the squad participating in the study. The coach
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supplied parents and athletes with letters detailing the study. Interested parents and
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athletes provided contact details to the research team and suitable times for initial
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interviews were arranged. In total, athletes participated in up to four interviews over a
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six-week period and completed a diary three days a week for the six-week period.
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This period included one week before, three weeks during, and two weeks after
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selection races for the GB Junior Squad.
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Initial interviews. Prior to the first interview, all participants returned
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completed informed consent forms from their parents and provided informed assent to
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participate. The interview guide was also piloted before the first interviews. The pilot
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interviews were conducted with one international (male aged 16 years) and three
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national level youth sport participants (one male aged 16 years; two females, aged 14
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years and 16 years) to assess whether questions elicited sufficient depth while also
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allowing the interviewer to practice his use of clarification and elaboration probes.
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Following the pilot interviews, several changes were made to the interview guide
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including the addition of questions to encourage greater reflection on parents’
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influences in participants’ sport experience.
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The final interview guide followed the format used in previous parenting
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research (e.g., Knight et al., 2010). It started with introductory questions then moved
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on to transition questions, followed by main questions, and finished with summary
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questions and recommendations. Introductory questions sought to identify pertinent
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demographic information, such as length of involvement in the sport and what led to
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their involvement. Transition questions focused on the involvement of each
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participant’s parents in his or her sport. Participants were then asked about their
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parents’ involvement in relation to training, competition, and at home. Participants
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were requested to identify the different behaviors their parents engaged in within
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these specific environments and to highlight the positive and negative consequences
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attributed to those behaviors. Finally, participants were asked to give
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recommendations regarding parental behaviors in each setting and summarize their
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general thoughts about their parents’ involvement (see Appendix A for a copy of the
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interview guide). Following introductions and discussion regarding the purpose of the
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study, all initial interviews lasted between 25 and 66 minutes (M = 42 minutes). All
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interviews were conducted in private and away from participants’ parents.
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Diaries and follow-up interviews. At the end of the initial interview,
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participants were provided with either paper diaries or a website address to access an
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online diary (depending on their preference) to complete over the six-week data-
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collection period (see Appendix B for an example of the diary questions). To ensure
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confidentiality, and to encourage participants to honestly disclose parental behaviors,
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if participants requested paper diaries they were given a separate diary (as an A5
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booklet) for each day with an accompanying envelope. Participants were asked to
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complete their diary entries in private and then seal them in the accompanying
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envelope immediately after completion. The participants then handed the sealed
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envelopes to the interviewer at scheduled meeting times.
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Participants were asked to use the diaries to record specific types of parental
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behaviors they experienced along with the effect these behaviors had on their
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thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Diaries were used to help guide the content of
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follow-up interviews, provide participants with opportunities to verbalize ongoing
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experiences, and to allow the research team to clarify any points that were unclear.
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After reviewing the diaries from each participant, follow-up interviews were
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conducted. These interviews sought to further explore the content of the diaries
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(which was often brief and limited in detail) and provide further opportunities for the
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participants to share their experience. A semi-structured interview guide was used to
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elicit the specific types of parental involvement in different contexts. These follow-up
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interviews varied in length from 12 to 45 minutes (depending on the extent to which
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participants wanted to elaborate on their diary entries).
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Data Analysis
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Initial data analysis occurred throughout the process of data collection to
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ensure the interviewer remained immersed in the data and was able to ensure
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sufficient data was collected from the participants. Immediately following each
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interview, the audio files were transcribed verbatim and checked for accuracy. These
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transcripts were then reviewed by the interviewer, who highlighted meaningful
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segments of data, identified areas for further exploration, and created memos
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identifying themes that appeared to be present. Following data collection, the data
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(from diaries and interviews) from each participant were analysed by the first author
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following the steps proposed by Miles and Huberman (1992).
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First the data set from each participant was coded, which occurred in three
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stages. Firstly, descriptive coding was conducted on each interview transcript and
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diary entry for one participant. During descriptive coding, raw data units that
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represented types of parental involvement the canoeist encountered and the influences
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of different behaviors were identified. For example, codes such as shouting
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encouragement, talking during run, giving congratulations after run, forgetting
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equipment, carrying boat were identified, along with consequences such as irritating,
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frustrating, happy, distracting, encouraging. The next step of coding, interpretive
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coding, involved the grouping of similar codes to allow for more abstract categories
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to be produced. For example, descriptive codes such as congratulations after a run,
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talking during run, and encouragement during a run were grouped together under the
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category of type and timing of feedback. Finally, pattern codes were identified to
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highlight the relationships between interpretive codes, with codes such as type and
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timing of feedback being grouped with reacting to child’s emotions to create the code
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read and react to situations. Further, during pattern coding, the types of involvement
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and the consequences of involvement were linked to ensure that these were
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understood together.
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Following coding, a data matrix for each participant was created based on the
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coded interview transcripts and diary entries. The initial matrix simply identified the
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pattern codes and associated descriptive and interpretive codes as described by the
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canoeists. This matrix was then expanded to provide an opportunity to examine the
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codes across contexts. In this instance the matrix comprised a number of columns
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labelled with different domains (e.g., home, competition, and training). The pattern
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codes were then allocated within these different domains to provide a visual display
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of which behaviors were domain-specific and which behaviors occurred across
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domains.
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The coding process and development of initial matrices was then repeated for
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each canoeist. Once individual matrices had been created for all the participants, these
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were compared and an overall matrix containing details of all the types of
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involvement and the consequences of involvement was created and the domains in
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which they occurred. These data were then transferred onto a time-ordered matrix to
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identify any temporal considerations in the data (e.g., was there a change in type of
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involvement over the six weeks?). Finally, the matrices were shared with the rest of
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the research team, who reviewed them and compared them to the interview transcripts
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and diary responses.
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Methodological Rigor
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Steps taken to ensure the methodological rigor of this study were guided by
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Tracey’s (2010) review of criteria underpinning “excellent qualitative work” (p.837).
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Specific criteria guiding this work included: rich rigor, achieved through the selection
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of an appropriate sample and multiple data collection techniques to gain meaningful
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data; credibility, demonstrated through continued engagement with the participants to
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gain their reflections on the developing finding and the integration of rich participant
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quotes and description; sincerity through the presentation of detailed information
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pertaining to each stage of method and the interviewer’s continual engagement in
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self-reflection through journaling; and meaningful coherence through the use of
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appropriate data collection methods to address the purpose of the study and
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integration with previous literature. For example, the interviewer spent considerable
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time in the canoeing environment to build rapport with the participants and to develop
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understanding of the canoeing culture. This immersion in the research environment,
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along with multiple contacts with participants in and around interviews, helped the
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interviewer in understanding the meaning of participants’ words and phrases and to
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situate them in the context of parent-child interactions that occurred during the
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international squad selection phase. This prolonged engagement ensured that the data
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collected appropriately addressed the research aims, as well as provided detailed and
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abundant data.
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Results
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Through the analyses of the data, it became apparent that participants desired
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or required certain types of parental involvement in each of the three different
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contexts. However, the canoeists also discussed types of involvement that they
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perceived to be positive across all the domains, and cross-domain involvement
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seemed to have the greatest influence on athletes’ performances. In the following
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sections, types of parental involvement that influenced performance are presented
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under context headings; starting with the types of involvement that are desired across
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all contexts, the results then progress to types of involvement desired in two specific
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contexts, before ending with behaviours desired in only one context. A visual
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representation of the findings is presented in Figure 1.
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When discussing their parents’ involvement, participants were frequently
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asked to highlight behaviors that resulted in positive and negative performance
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consequences. However, through the analysis process, it became apparent that there
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were certain types of involvement that were desired from the canoeists and were
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perceived to have a positive consequence on their performances. When these types of
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involvement were not adhered to or present, this was then deemed by the canoeists to
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have a negative consequence on their performance. Thus, rather than there being a
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clear distinction between positive behaviors and negative behaviors that parents
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displayed, it was the fulfilment or not desired involvement that appeared important.
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Thus, in the following sections, the types of involvement that were desired by the
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canoeists and perceived to have a positive influence on performance are presented.
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Examples of negative consequences arising when parents do not fulfil this type of
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involvement are provided within each of the categories.
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Home-Training-Competition Involvement
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When discussing parental involvement, there were five types of involvement
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that were desired by canoeists across all three domains. These types of involvement
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appeared to transcend context, instead relating to the overall involvement and support
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parents provided to their children, which was perceived to influence their
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performances.
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Allow athletes to focus on canoeing by providing practical support. When
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discussing the involvement of their parents across all three domains, participants
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continually returned to the importance of parents providing practical and logistical
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support to help the canoeists. Such support ranged from general parenting behaviour
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(e.g., cooking meals, washing clothes) to more sport-specific behaviors. Participant 3
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said, “I see my mum and dad generally there for support rather than performance
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enhancing . . . driving me to places.” Writing in his diary, Participant 1 explained:
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At a competition, mum printed out a start list so I knew when my run was. It
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was reassuring because when I forget my run time I have to run round trying
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to find out when it is and potentially miss it. However, with the start list I
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always knew when my run was.
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When considering the influence of such practical support on their
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performance, canoeists indicated that it was beneficial because it enabled them to
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focus their attention on training and competitive performances rather than other more
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menial tasks. For example, Participant 5 said about his mum providing him food for
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race day, “It’s really helpful and stuff, ‘cause then I don't have to . . . focus on err, like
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bothering about my food”.
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Read and understand the situation and the athletes’ response. Participants
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spent considerable time describing the different reactions they wanted and received
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from their parents in various situations (e.g., whether they had won, raced well, or
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raced poorly). For example, reflecting on a good run Participant 4 wrote in his diary,
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“My dad congratulated us on our first run, he said it was good and showed [us] how
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close we were to first place. This made me feel happy, it made me feel quite positive
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about my run.” In contrast, after a poor performance participants might desire
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different responses. As participant 8 explained:
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If it’s [the performance] been good, like [they should] try to talk about it quite
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a bit like [say], “You’ve done really well” and like, be proud. But, if it’s been
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quite bad, then still try and talk a bit positive, but like erm…like just (pause)
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err understand how the athlete’s feeling. Like, if they’re not very happy, then .
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. . agree; like [say], “Oh, that weren’t that good.” But then, be positive and
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say, “Ah, there’s always next time.”
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On examining these different explanations, it seemed that parents were deemed
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to have a positive influence on performance when they understood different situations
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and outcomes that arise in canoeing and tailor their comments and support to the
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athlete. For example, Participant 2 thought that his father was perceptive to his needs
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for space on race day, which he found helpful. He commented, “Sometimes I’m
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focused on the day, and sometimes I’m not. If I am, then he’ll [dad] pick [up] on that
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and give me space . . . so I can focus.” By appropriately gauging athletes’ emotions,
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parents helped to increase participants’ perceptions of competence and motivation for
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canoeing. Participant 3 said:
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Just seeing them recognise when you feel good about something that you’ve
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done, seeing that they think its good as well, just kinda gives you a bit of
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reassurance. … I suppose it almost feels . . . good that you are impressing
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people in a way.
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Developing a growth mindset through a task-involving climate. In addition
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to their desires for parents to react to their emotions, participants noted how parents
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helped them focus on opportunities to develop their skills. Participant 6 explained:
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Well, usually my dad will come down and talk to me, and like tell me it was
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a good run, and I may have done this wrong, but I may have done this really
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well. And, I can easily do what I did wrong a lot better. So, the time [race
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outcome] might not mean so much.
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By emphasising skill development, it seemed that parents helped the canoeists master
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their own performances while de-emphasizing comparisons with other competitors.
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For example Participant 6 said, “One thing he’s [dad] always said to me is, ‘Don’t
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worry about the outcome . . . what other people are doing.’ Which just helps … which
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helps quite a lot.” He reiterated this point in his diary, writing, “[Dad] woke me up for
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training and again talked to me about making sure I was thinking just about my
407
paddling [not comparing to others]. It is good to know he cares about my training
408
even when he is ill.”
409
Canoeists discussed the positive influences such suggestions had on their
410
motivation, pre-race anxiety, perceptions of pressure, and confidence. For example,
411
Participant 7 outlined the pressure-reducing effects of her father’s comments:
412
I’ll be getting changed and he’ll [father] start saying, “You don’t need to be
413
thinking about all the other people because it doesn’t matter what they’re
414
doing because as long as you paddle your best . . . I don’t really care, and
415
you’ll beat them anyway” and all this so … it changes every time, but that’s
416
the kind of basis of it. And, it takes away the pressure.
417
By consistently receiving the same message from her father that emphasized a task-
418
involving environment, Participant 7 felt under less pressure to perform.
419
Value canoeing and understand the importance to canoeist. Whether
420
discussing the home, training, or competitive environment, participants placed great
421
value on their parents’ presence and interest in their canoeing. Participant 3 wrote:
422
At the course, Paddle training. My mum asked how we got on in the session,
423
positive. It happened when I got back to the cottage we were staying in. My
424
mum, my dad, my brother and myself [were present]…err how it made me
425
feel. It’s good, it’s nice that she takes an interest in how I do and how I feel
426
that I do.
427
Participant 8 similarly liked the interest his father took in his canoeing, he said:
428

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
If there’s a race on, and there is something else that they’re [the family are]
429
doing, he’ll [father] come to watch me. Like, he always comes to watch me if
430
I’m doing something like canoeing . . . he’s given me priority. It’s quite cool
431
that like he puts me before other things.
432
Whether through their attendance or comments, demonstrating an interest in
433
their canoeing and understanding how important it was to canoeists appeared central
434
to increasing athletes’ motivation and feelings of support. Participant 4 explained in
435
his diary, “Positive. My dad said that if I don’t warm up properly [at training] I will
436
hurt myself. He has my best interest in mind. This happened after training. I felt
437
supported; it showed he cares.” However, one caveat to parents’ interest was ensuring
438
conversation was not overly focused on canoeing at home (see later section).
439
Willingness to adapt involvement. The final type of involvement
440
participants’ discussed across all three domains was that parents were flexible and
441
able to adapt their involvement based on communication with athletes, coaches, or
442
sport psychologists. Although athletes generally perceived their parents’ current
443
involvement to be positive, several canoeists shared insights into how they or other
444
members of their support team had worked to shape their parents’ involvement. For
445
example, when discussing his mother’s post-race comments, Participant 5
446
commented, “All she would say is, ‘You need to get on. Just like put it behind [you,
447
and]. . . get on with your next run.’” When asked if these comments were ok, he
448
continued to explain:
449
Yeah . . . it’s good. I don’t like her bothering about it because she’s not my
450
coach at the end of the day. Like, it’s really annoying when your parents start
451
trying to coach. . . . It happened last year a bit with my dad, but we sat him
452
down, and we had a chat, and said like, “Right, you’re not gonna coach me,
453

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
like, at all. And, stay out of the way of coaching me. Don’t be near me; don’t
454
give me any input.” And he has done (pause) [The] same with my mum.
455
Other changes that canoeists requested related to specific types of involvement at
456
competitions, such as their practical support or cheering during runs. For example,
457
Participant 1 asked his mother for larger lunches on race days because he was always
458
hungry. He said:
459
I have talked to my mum a bit about [having a bigger lunch]. . . . We’ve
460
organised what we’re going to do differently about it. . . . I think it’s good, like,
461
that I can take an issue like that to my parents, and they’ll listen, and try and do
462
something about it.
463
Although participants’ reasons for requesting changes differed, it seemed that by
464
parents simply being open to and changing their involvement resulted in positive
465
changes in canoeists’ motivation, perceived competence, concentration, and anxiety
466
levels. For example, Participant 5 explained that when competing he could hear his
467
Dad’s voice throughout the race and found it difficult to concentrate on technically
468
challenging sections. He told his Dad “to pipe down a bit and just [shout] like on the
469
open bits,” so he was not distracted. On hearing his Dad shout at preferred times, He
470
said, “it just made me go for it a bit more.”
471
Training-Competition Involvement
472
In addition to the five types of involvement participants liked across all three
473
domains, canoeists highlighted a further three types of involvement that they
474
perceived to have a positive influence in the training and competition environment.
475
Match encouragement to canoeists’ needs. Participants emphasized the
476
encouragement their parents provided before, during, and after training and
477
competition. For example, Participant 1 wrote in his diary, “Positive. Mum told me I
478

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
was looking sharper as the week went on. In flat when I was packing my kit. It gave
479
me confidence because selection is approaching and it is nice knowing I am
480
improving going in to the race.” Canoeists perceived such support to positively
481
influence their motivation, confidence, and perceived competence.
482
However, these benefits were only realised when the encouragement provided
483
matched the participants’ needs. For example, before runs in training or competition,
484
some athletes highlighted the importance of parents providing simple consistent
485
motivational comments. Participant 1 said, “Sometimes before a race or something,
486
dad’ll say these little phrases that he has, and they sort of get me into gear.” Such
487
encouragement was deemed to help motivate and enhance his focus. However, other
488
canoeists described a preference for silence and space before runs, as Participant 3
489
said, “[parents should] just give someone else space when they need it.” Similarly,
490
during a run some canoeists perceived that any encouragement was satisfactory
491
because they could block out the noise. For others, however, the timing of
492
encouragement in relation to the difficulty of race sections largely dictated whether
493
encouragement had beneficial or detrimental effect on performance. Participant 5
494
explained:
495
Well . . . its just like, “Oh, mum’s shouting at me!” And then I end up losing it
496
. . . just lose a bit of focus. And, I end up clipping a gate or something like
497
that, and getting a . . . two-second penalty or something like that. Just things
498
like that. On the sprint, err it just kinda urges you on if you know . . . other
499
people want you to win as well. And, it just really gives you that push.
500
Trust athletes to prepare. Although participants placed great value on the
501
practical support they received from their parents across different domains, canoeists
502
also wanted parents to trust them to be prepared for both training and competition. For
503

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
example, when explaining why his father’s involvement was positive, Participant 6
504
commented:
505
My dad doesn’t make me do anything. I just say, “I’m gonna do this, this, and
506
this.” And he’ll say, “Oh. Ok, that’s fine.” . . . As long as I’ve worked it out
507
with my coach, he doesn’t take much notice. He’ll just make sure I know what
508
I’m doing and that’s it.
509
By having parents place their trust in their athletes, canoeists felt that they were able
510
to focus more successfully upon their performances.
511
In contrast, if athletes were not trusted to prepare and parents were nagging
512
them or directing their preparation, athletes often appeared frustrated. Participant 2
513
said, “It happened earlier ‘cause he [dad] was like, ‘Bring your kit down with you.’
514
But, I didn’t wanna because I wanted it to dry. . . . So, he was just trying to force me
515
to move my kit. . . . It was a bit annoying.” He continued, “I just want to do my own
516
thing rather that do what my dad wants me to do . . . I guess a little more sort of trust
517
would be nice.” Similarly, Participant 4 wrote in his diary:
518
Negative. My dad persisted in nagging me to get ready and go to training. He
519
kept on repeating that I was going to be late, even though I had lots of time. [It
520
made me feel] Annoyed, angry, fed up. Let me get on with my own thing.
521
Understand canoeing is a social activity. The final consideration for parental
522
involvement across training and competitive environments was providing athletes
523
with opportunities to socialize with other canoeists. This desire was apparent when
524
Participant 4 shared the following example of positive involvement from his father:
525
My dad was good yesterday . . . normally when they come they try to push me
526
to get home sooner rather than later. But after our run yesterday we were
527
hanging around and soaking it up . . . with [name of another athlete]. So, we
528

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
were just talking and having a good time. He [dad] wasn’t pushing to try and
529
get home or anything.
530
Throughout the interviews it became apparent that, although the participants were
531
very focused in training and competitions, they also saw canoeing as a social activity
532
and having opportunities to relax increased enjoyment and helped them relax. For
533
example, throughout his interviews Participant 3 frequently returned to this issue,
534
explaining that he became frustrated when, “my dad wants to drive home and watch
535
the soccer and just . . . trying to like rush me when I’m getting changed,” but that he
536
appreciated when his dad let him, “talk to people afterwards . . . I don’t really get the
537
chance to talk to them before or during. So, it’s like, I want to talk to a couple of
538
people.”
539
Home-Competition Involvement
540
Participants described two types of involvement that was desired in both the
541
home and competition environments. These types of involvement, managing own
542
anxiety and encouraging positive perspective taking, are discussed in the following
543
sections.
544
Managing own anxiety. The canoeists explained that, at home, prior to
545
competitions, and on arrival and throughout attendance at competitions, parents’
546
managing their own anxiety and creating a relaxed environment was particularly
547
important. For example, Participant 1 described the helpful interactions he and his
548
parents had at home during the trials period:
549
It’s been quite relaxed . . . quite chilled out I suppose. Just like as long as I’m
550
in [back home] at the right times and stuff. . . . Basically chilled out really. So,
551
I can relax, lay back, and not have to think too much about the race at the
552

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
weekend. So, I’m not building up the nerves and everything. So, (pause) it’s
553
been good.
554
By remaining calm and minimizing their own anxiety throughout the period, it
555
seemed that parents were able to help their children remain relaxed, which was
556
thought to help performance.
557
In contrast, canoeists explained that if parents were unable to maintain their
558
anxiety at home or around the competition, their anxiety could be transferred to them.
559
Participant 4 explained:
560
We’ll drive there, and he gets quite stressed out in the morning ‘cause I’m not
561
very good at getting up like most teenagers. So, he gets pretty stressed out . . .
562
especially at competition[s]. . . . He’s goin’ [saying] “You’re gonna be late!
563
You’re gonna be late!” He just sort of winds you [me] up a bit, but (pause)
564
[Interviewer: So, what are you thinking or feeling?]. It’s just like “We’re not
565
actually going to be late, so why are you messing like this? Just shut up!” I
566
just try to blank it out because I need to do all this stuff before I go [leave the
567
house], like prepare my kit, prepare myself.
568
Encouraging positive perspective taking. Participants shared several
569
examples of the positive influences parents could have at home by helping them put
570
poor performances in perspective. This was particularly important for Participant 4,
571
who said the best involvement from his parents after competitions was that:
572
They’d be pretty sympathetic I guess erm . . . if you’ve had a bad run,
573
normally they might just be sort of, “Ah well, it’s only so and so . . . It’s only
574
one day.” “It’s only one race; it doesn’t really matter.” “Better luck next time”
575
and then do something else.
576

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
However, if such comments were not appropriately timed, parents did frustrate or
577
disappoint athletes. For example, when talking about his parents giving
578
encouragement straight after a race, Participant 4 said:
579
If I’ve got off the water and we’ve had a bad run, a really bad run and I’m
580
steaming [angry], you get off the water and you dread just going to them
581
[parents], because whatever I’ll say, they’ll be like ‘Ahh, that was alright wasn’t
582
it? That was good.’ And, I was like, ‘It wasn’t really, that was crap!’ . . . So,
583
like, the positive bit annoys me.
584
Participant 4 continued, “Really what you want is a fight at the end of your [bad] run,
585
because you just feel annoyed. And then, they’re [parents] more the opposite. So, I
586
guess you’re thinking ‘just shut up and leave me alone.”
587
When parents appropriately timed their comments, their assurances had
588
numerous benefits, such as reaffirming athletes’ perceptions of competence and
589
protecting their confidence. As Participant 1 explained:
590
I think overall it’s just been reassurance I think. They did also tell me that I
591
did some of the moves quite well . . . just messing up on other bits. And, I
592
think they also like saying, “You know, it doesn’t matter about the percentage.
593
There’s plenty more races at [name of venue] to achieve that.”
594
For Participant 8, such perspective helped him to move on from his losses and look
595
towards his next run (race):
596
If it was a really good run . . . and like they’ll come down to the finish and,
597
like, congratulate me and that, and say, “That was a good run.” If not [it did
598
not go well], then they’ll just stand about as I’m coming up, and I’ll just shake
599
my head or something, and they’ll be like, “Oh well, its not exactly important”
600

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
something like that. “You’ve got another run.” . . . So . . . I’d take that in from
601
them and just take a bit of advice . . . it encourages me to forget about it really.
602
Training
603
In addition to cross-domain influences, participants highlighted one specific
604
type of involvement in training and another in the home environment that influenced
605
their performance. Within training, canoeists placed a specific influence upon the
606
provision of motivation and constructive evaluation.
607
Providing motivational and constructive feedback. The participants’ shared
608
many stories detailing their parents’ active involvement in training. For example, it
609
was common for parents to attend training, provide verbal support, and offer some
610
feedback or evaluation after athletes had completed runs or sessions. When describing
611
the feedback they received, canoeists discussed the important role motivational but
612
constructive feedback played in enhancing self-confidence and perceived competence.
613
This input stood out for Participant 5 who noted the following as positive involvement
614
from his mum:
615
She said, like, as the week was going on, every session I was looking just that
616
bit more sharper out of every gate; just speeding up faster every time. So, it’s
617
good. ‘Cause coming up to the important selection race you want to know that
618
you’re not getting slower at some rate, and it even helps to know that possibly
619
you’re getting just that bit faster.
620
Participant 1 shared similar experiences, explaining that she felt more confident
621
when:
622
The other day I had a poor session and mum goes like, “Well, it wasn’t that
623
good, but you’ve got to remember that you’ve done a load of other good
624
sessions, and you’re bound to have a bad session in the week.” So, I think that
625

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
also made me feel better about doing the bad session, and it didn’t let it get to
626
me before selection.
627
Home
628
Finally, there was one type of involvement, attending to their holistic
629
development, that was only discussed in relation to the home context.
630
Attending to holistic development. Participants indicated that they preferred
631
their parents’ involvement when the focus at home was not solely on canoeing.
632
Participant 7 shared, “I think, because I spend quite a lot of my time doing canoeing,
633
it’s almost good to have something else that you can think about. Say, for just an hour
634
a day, not [to] think about canoeing.” Participant 3 further explained, “We’d just talk
635
about how someone’s day went, like current events, anything really umm (pause),
636
what’s happened on telly. Just random things; anything and everything.” When asked
637
if this involvement was positive, he responded, “Yeah. Going from the racing
638
atmosphere, and post-racing atmosphere, to sort of just like normal life, I guess is
639
quite nice to have.” Such an approach appeared to ensure that participants could relax
640
at home and canoeing was not all consuming. Athletes particularly appreciated such
641
an approach when canoeing was not going well, as Participant 1 commented, “I think
642
it’s helpful when your parents – say your having a bad time [canoeing] then your
643
parents take your mind off it, and help you think about something else.”
644
In addition to helping to take participants’ minds off canoeing, by focusing on
645
the participants’ upcoming exams and revision (which immediately followed the
646
selection period), parents were also inadvertently (or perhaps intentionally) reducing
647
the pressure the canoeists associated with their sport. For example, when talking
648
about parental pressure accompanying his upcoming selection race, Participant 5 said:
649

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
I don’t think they’ve really said anything, because I’ve had quite a lot of
650
exams over the last few weeks so. So, basically, I’ve been basically focusing
651
on the exams, and they’ve just been telling me, “Ah, revise”, “go do some
652
revision,” “stop playing on your XboxTM” (laugh). That’s all that’s said all
653
week (laugh).
654
Discussion
655
The purposes of this study were to examine eight elite youth canoeists’ views
656
on parental involvement across home, training, and competitive contexts and to
657
identify how different types of involvement influenced athletes’ performances. The
658
participants discussed a various types of parental involvement that were displayed
659
across all three domains. Athletes indicated that these different types of involvement
660
were beneficial because they helped to enhance their confidence, motivation, and
661
perceptions of competence; reduce feelings of anxiety or pressure; and facilitate
662
required focus. Overall, the findings of this study shed light on the extensive influence
663
parents had on lives of the eight canoeists beyond the competitive context and
664
provides evidence that parents, when involved appropriately, can positively influence
665
youth athletes’ sporting experiences.
666
Given the emphasis on positive parental involvement in this study of eight
667
high-level canoeists, it is appropriate to compare these findings to Harwood and
668
Knight’s (2015) position paper on sport parenting expertise. Of particular interest is
669
the extent to which the positive types of parental involvement identified in canoe
670
slalom align with the six postulates Harwood and Knight presented based on studies
671
conducted almost exclusively in soccer and tennis. In general, there are many
672
similarities between the findings of this study and Harwood and Knight’s postulates.
673
For example, consistent with postulate one, which is supported by substantial research
674

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
(e.g., Gould et al., 2006, 2008; Knight et al., 2010, 2011; Wolfenden & Holt, 2005),
675
the parents in this study were appraised positively by their children because they
676
provided appropriate types of social support. Specifically, for the athletes in this
677
study, parents demonstrated suitable support by taking an interest in canoeing;
678
providing practical support at home, training, and competition; and also by giving
679
motivational and constructive evaluations during training. In line with Keegan, Spray,
680
Harwood, and Lavallee’s (2010) findings, by providing such support, parents
681
positively influence their children’s motivation, while also increasing perceptions of
682
competence, confidence, and reducing anxiety.
683
Additionally, reinforcing the sentiments of tennis players (Knight et al., 2010;
684
Knight & Holt, 2014) and other youth team athletes (Knight et al., 2011; Omli &
685
Weise-Bjornstal, 2011), the participants discussed their positive view of cheering and
686
encouragement during training and competition, when it was appropriately timed.
687
Thus, rather than implementing wide sweeping bans on parent communication (which
688
are increasingly commonplace in youth sport), it would appear that positive outcomes
689
may arise if coaches, practitioners, and organizers work with parents to ensure they
690
understand the importance of appropriate timing and phrasing of comments during
691
competitions. After all, if these athletes succeed on the international stage, they will
692
likely compete in noisy and distracting environments and having opportunities to
693
develop strategies to cope with such conditions early in their careers might help
694
developing-athletes enhance their future performances.
695
Though there may be some benefit for athletes from learning to compete in
696
noisy environments, it is well known that “inappropriate” parental comments can
697
have hugely detrimental influences on youth athletes, particularly leading to
698
perceptions of pressure and pre-competitive anxiety (e.g., Bois, Lalanne, & Delforge,
699

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
2009; Leff & Hoyle, 1997). Interestingly, in the current study, the main criticism of
700
parents’ comments was that they were distracting rather than pressuring. Thus, it
701
appears that, at least for these athletes, the timing of comments rather than content
702
was most important. Thus, addressing and reducing poorly timed or delivered
703
comments should be a focus of interventions, but as is apparent in the current study,
704
individual athletes’ specific preferences and perceptions of parental encouragement
705
differ. Specifically, it appeared that the athlete’s own perception of his or her
706
performance and the timing of the encouragement (in relation to a performance)
707
influenced what encouragement they wanted from their parents. This finding provides
708
further support for the importance of parents talking with their children to identify
709
their specific wants and needs (Knight & Holt, 2014) and to communicate with them
710
to assess perceptions of feedback and encouragement (Harwood & Knight, 2015).
711
Although canoeists spent time discussing the encouragement their parents’
712
provided, they appeared to place greater emphasis on their parents’ provision of
713
practical and information support than emotional support. Researchers have
714
previously identified the central and important role that parents have in providing
715
youth athletes with emotional support, particularly in the form of comfort and
716
commiseration if they have performed poorly (e.g., Knight et al., 2010, 2011; Lauer et
717
al., 2010b; Wolfenden & Holt, 2005). However, in the current study, rather than
718
emphasizing the need for parents to provide comfort after a poor performance,
719
participants spoke highly of their parents’ ability to help them to contextualize and
720
interpret their performances in a developmental or incremental manner. Specifically,
721
by creating a task-involving climate and de-emphasising ego-involvement, parents
722
encouraged their child to adopt a growth mindset (Dweck, 2008). Researchers have
723
documented the benefits of both developing a growth mindset and adopting task-goals
724

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
(through the support of a task-involving climate) across a variety of achievement
725
domains (e.g. Dweck, 2008; Keegan et al., 2010), including the sport context
726
(Keegan, Harwood, Spray, & Lavallee, 2009; O’Rourke, Smith, Smoll, & Cumming,
727
2012, 2014).
728
In this study, canoeists reported numerous psychological benefits to parents’
729
effort-based, self-referent, and improvement-oriented evaluations and comments
730
across the training, competition, and home contexts. Parents, acting as interpreters of
731
their children’s sport performances (through their words and actions; Fredricks &
732
Eccles, 2004), seemed to increase participants’ confidence, reduce canoeists’ pre-race
733
anxieties and perceptions of pressure, and help facilitate and maintain athletes’ task-
734
focused motivation. These findings, in combination with previous studies of parental
735
involvement indicate that parents can have pervasive, positive influences on
736
children’s sport performances and wellbeing, particularly when they shape athletes’
737
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors through appropriate motivational climates and social
738
support (Keegan et al., 2010; 2011; O’Rourke et al., 2012, 2014).
739
In the current study, the influence of parental involvement on children’s sport
740
experiences also appeared to be largely dictated by the extent to which it fulfilled
741
canoeists’ basic psychological needs (i.e., competence, autonomy, and relatedness) as
742
conceptualized in self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000). For example,
743
parents facilitated athletes’ competence through encouragement and appropriately
744
timed feedback, autonomy by giving children time and space at competitions and
745
trusting them to prepare, and relatedness by allowing social time with peers after
746
races and training sessions. Athletes seemed to value parents helping them meet these
747
needs because they reported numerous positive outcomes in response. Thus,
748
encouraging such involvement from parents appears important. However, the
749

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
suggestion of encouraging parental involvement likely runs counter to the desires of
750
some coaches and organizations (cf. Holt & Knight, 2014) who prefer parents to have
751
minimal involvement in their children’s sport careers. However, this research is
752
evidence of the central and positive influence parents can have when they are actively
753
and appropriately involved in their children’s sport lives.
754
Parenting style was not explicitly examined within this study. Nevertheless,
755
when considering the current findings, it appears that many of the behaviors the
756
canoeists enjoy would align with an autonomy-supportive parenting style. This
757
parenting style has received some support within the sport parenting literature (Holt et
758
al., 2009; Sapieja, Dunn, & Holt, 2011) and was recommended by Harwood and
759
Knight (2015) as a key component of sport parenting expertise. In this study,
760
canoeists reported that parents who relinquished their control over their children in
761
competitions and training by changing their involvement to align with their children’s
762
needs, trusting children to prepare, and, to a lesser extent, providing opportunity for
763
athletes to socialize were thought to have a positive influence on performance. Such
764
behaviors appear to fit with an autonomy-supportive parenting style, in which parents
765
empower their children to make decisions, solve problems, and do not force them into
766
actions (Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Holt et al., 2009). By engaging in such behaviors,
767
parents limited the extent to which they would frustrate or distract the athletes and
768
helped to maintain athletes’ motivation, enjoyment, and focus.
769
The most apparent manner in which parents could have a detrimental
770
influence upon the canoeists’ performances was when they were unable to manage
771
their own anxiety. Such anxieties generally seemed to stem from parents feeling
772
rushed or from worrying that their children would not arrive at the competition on
773
time. Thus, while the parents appeared able to relinquish some control over their
774

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
children, they also found themselves succumbing to some of the competition and
775
organizational stressors (e.g., travel, planning, and logistics) that have previously been
776
reported within the sport parenting literature (Harwood & Knight, 2009a; 2009b).
777
Such findings may explain why parents asserted control over canoeists to organize
778
them (e.g., nagging at home before training) and why parents seemed strict on time
779
prior to and following competitions (e.g., to minimise or cope with parental stressors).
780
This finding reinforces the need for parents to develop strategies to manage such
781
stressors to be able to best support their children in sport (Postulate 5, Harwood &
782
Knight, 2015).
783
Applied Implications
784
The findings of this study provide valuable information for sport
785
psychologists, coaches, and canoe associations in terms of facilitating positive
786
parental involvement within elite canoeing. At an organisational level, the results provide an
787
impetus for offering educational material to parents who are transitioning with their child into more specialized
788
stages of commitment to the sport (Côté, 1999). The direct insights and voices of children present parents with
789
empowering and informative parameters within which to support their child-athlete in various contextual roles.
790
Sport psychologists working at a more local level with athletes and parents could use illustrations of optimal
791
support, communication, and home-based behavior to help parents appreciate their holistic roles in assisting their
792
child-athlete’s personal, performance, and social needs. In the absence of, or in conjunction with, sport
793
psychologists, coaches can also apply our findings in order to facilitate their relationships with parents, and help
794
parents to understand how they can effectively navigate and contribute to the elite canoeing environment as a
795
valued stakeholder.
796
Limitations and Future Directions
797
The results from the current study support many previous findings in soccer
798
and tennis. Thus, as the body of evidence regarding parenting in sport grows it is
799
increasingly apparent that although there are many idiosyncrasies in different sports,
800
there are also many similarities. Nevertheless, the results of this study must be
801
considered within both British and canoeing cultures, and researchers intending to
802

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
apply these findings to develop parental support programs in other sports and cultures
803
should bear this in mind. Although this study has expanded the types of sport in
804
which parental research has been conducted, the recommendation voiced by Gould et
805
al. (2008) that there is a need to study parenting across more sports and cultures is still
806
applicable.
807
The current research traced the experiences of elite junior slalom canoeists
808
over six weeks using diaries and a multiple-interview protocol, which helped to
809
ensure an in-depth understanding of parental involvement in this sport. However, the
810
engagement of each of the participants varied across the six weeks, particularly with
811
regards to the detail provided in diary entries. Thus, it is possible that participants did
812
not disclose all pertinent information regarding to parental involvement. Further, it is
813
possible that the canoeists did not feel that they could reveal details that might portray
814
their parents in a negative light or they might have thought they had to provide
815
specific answers, which may have resulted in the general positive tone of the
816
responses. Extending the time spent with the participants to further facilitate the
817
interviewer-participant relationship might be useful for future research to overcome
818
this issue. Additionally, providing a completely anonymous means through which
819
participants can share negative experiences (e.g., online with no identifying details)
820
might also provide a more detailed understanding of negative experiences with
821
parents.
822
Gaining an understanding of specific parental involvements across several
823
contexts and during a highly pressurized time period could be valuable for coaches
824
and sport psychologists who work within youth canoe slalom. Nevertheless, the
825
specific focus on children’s views in this study came at a cost of not understanding
826
parents’ beliefs and values, which shape their behaviors towards their children as well
827

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
as the intra-family dynamics that provide meaning to parental behaviors and parent-
828
child interactions. Future research should seek to triangulate coaches’ and athletes’
829
views of positive and negative behaviors with parents’ experiences of youth sport
830
stressors to highlight areas in need of change at the individual (parenting behaviors,
831
child’s behaviors), group (training group practices), and organizational levels to
832
improve youth sport participants’ sport experiences.
833
Conclusion
834
Eight elite slalom canoeists offered their views on parental involvement in
835
their sport participation and the influence such involvement had on their performance.
836
Canoeists identified context-specific and cross-context behaviors and associated
837
influences that occurred in and around training, competition, and at home. Parents
838
were reported to influence participants’ perception of competence, confidence,
839
anxiety, focus, and motivation, as well as being perceived to directly help (or hinder)
840
performance. The results can aid the development of sport-specific parent education
841
programmes for canoe slalom and offer insight for parents, sport psychologists, and
842
coaches into factors that positively aid athletes’ performance. The results indicate the
843
need for youth sport parent researchers to extend their research efforts to consider the
844
broader influences parents have in sport, beyond competition settings.
845

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
References
846
Atkinson, M. (2012). The empirical strikes back: Doing realist ethnography. In
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K.Young & M. Atkinson (Eds.), Qualitative Research on Sport and Physical
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of Sports Sciences, 27, 995–1005. doi:10.1080/02640410903062001.
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Côté, J. (1999). The influence of the family in the development of talent in sport. The
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Dweck, C. (2008). Mindset: The new psychology of success. London, UK: Random
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Gould, D., Lauer, L., Rolo, C., Jannes, C., & Pennisi, N. (2008). The role of parents in
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Grolnick, W.S., & Ryan, R.N. (1989). Parent styles associated with children’s self-
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Harwood, C., & Knight, C. (2009a). Stress in youth sport: A developmental
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Harwood, C., & Knight, C. (2009b). Understanding parental stressors: An investigation
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Harwood, C. G., & Knight, C. J. (2015). Parenting in youth sport: A position paper on
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parenting expertise. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 16, 1, 24–35. doi:10.1016/
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Holt, N. L., & Knight, C. J. (2014). Parenting in youth sport: From research to
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practice. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
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Holt, N. L., Tamminen, K. A., Black, D. E., Mandigo, J. L., & Fox, K. R. (2009).
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Youth sport parenting styles and practices. Journal of Sport & Exercise
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Psychology, 31, 37–59.
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Keegan, R. J., Harwood, C. G., Spray, C. M., & Lavallee, D. E. (2009). A qualitative
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of sport and exercise, 10, 361–372. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.12.003
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Keegan, R. J., Spray, C. M., Harwood, C. G., & Lavallee, D. E. (2010). The
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motivation in specializing sport participants. Journal of Applied Sport
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Psychology, 22, 87–104. doi:10.1080/10413200903421267
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Knight, C. J., Boden, C. M., & Holt, N. L. (2010). Youth tennis players’ preferences
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895
377–391. doi:10.1080/10413200.2010.495324.
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Knight, C. J., Neely, K. C., & Holt, N. L. (2011). Parental behaviors in team sports:
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how do female athletes want parents to behave? Journal of Applied Sport
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Psychology, 23, 76–92. doi:10.1080/10413200.2010.525589
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Lauer, L., Gould, D., Roman, N., & Pierce, M. (2010a). Parental behaviors that affect
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junior tennis player development. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 487–
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496. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.06.008
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Lauer, L., Gould, D., Roman, N., & Pierce, M. (2010b). How parents influence junior
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tennis players’ development: qualitative narratives. Journal of Clinical Sport
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Psychology, 4, 69–92.
905
Mayall, B. (2002). Towards a sociology for childhood: Thinking from children’s lives.
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Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press.
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McMahon, J. A. & Penney, D. (2015). Sporting parents on the pool deck: living out a
908
sporting culture? Qualitative research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 7, 153-169.
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Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. London: Sage.
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O’Rourke, D. J., Smith, R., Smoll, F., & Cumming, S. P. (2012). Parent-initiated
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motivational climate, self-esteem, and autonomous motivation in young athletes:
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Testing propositions from achievement goal and self-determination theories.
913
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914
O’Rourke, D. J., Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., & Cumming, S. P. (2014). Relations of
915
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916
performance anxiety, and autonomous motivation: Who is more influential?
917

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918
doi:10.1080/10413200.2014.907838
919
Omli, J., & Wiese-Bjornstal, D. M. (2011). Kids Speak: Preferred parental behaviour at
920
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921
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922
Sapieja, K. M., Dunn, J. G. H., & Holt, N. L. (2011). Perfectionism and perceptions of
923
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924
33, 20–39.
925
Sparkes, A. C., & Smith, B. (2014). Qualitative research methods in sport, exercise
926
and health: From process to product. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
927
Tracey, S. J. (2010). Qualitative quality: Eight “big-tent” criteria for excellent
928
qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 16, 837–851. doi:10.1177
929
/1077800410383121
930
Wolfenden, L. E., & Holt, N. L. (2005). Tennis development in elite junior tennis:
931
Perceptions of players, parents and coaches. Journal of Applied Sport
932
Psychology, 17, 108–126. doi:10.1080/10413200590932416
933

934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
HOME
TRAINING
COMPETITION
Attending to holistic development
Allow athletes to focus on
canoeing by providing practical
support
Read and understand the situation
and the athletes’ response
Developing a growth mindset
through a task-involving climate
Value canoeing and understand the
importance to canoeist
Willingness to adapt involvement
Match encouragement to
canoeists’ needs
Trusting athletes to prepare
Understand canoeing is a
social activity
Providing
motivational and
constructive
evaluation
Managing their own
anxiety
Encouraging positive
perspective taking
Figure 1. Positive parental involvement across domains

Appendix A: Interview guide
943
Section A: Introduction to the study (Modelled on Fletcher and Hanton, 2003)
944
Hi, I’m [name of interviewer] from [name of university]. Thank you for agreeing to take part in this
945
study on paddler’s perceptions of their parent’s involvement in their slalom canoeing. The purpose
946
of this study is to gain an understanding of how you view your parents in relation to your slalom
947
canoeing and in particular what they do or say that you find helpful and unhelpful. I want to
948
understand this so that I can use this information to understand behaviours that might help sports
949
people in the future, help educate parents about behaviours that might not be helpful and to help
950
correct them and also letting them know what they are doing right.
951
952
Your information you give me in this study will be used in three ways. Firstly it forms the basis of
953
my research project for my [name of degree at University]. Secondly the results of this study will
954
aim to be published in a scientific journal to allow others in the sporting community to benefit from
955
them (such as sport psychologists). Thirdly, the information gathered from my project will be used
956
to the development of parental education workshops for sports organisations.
957
958
Given that the information you provide from this study will be used for these purposes, I want to remind
959
you that the information you provide me here will be completely confidential. That is, I will not share it
960
with your parents, your coach or discuss the information that you have given me with anyone else apart
961
from my supervisors. Even then your identity will be protected and your responses will remain
962
anonymous, that is your name will not appear in any of the results or quotes that I may use. I will discuss
963
quotes and results with my supervisor, but even to them I will refer to with a pseudonym rather than your
964
name, so they, and others won’t know it is you that has said a specific quote.
965
966
However, confidentiality will be broken if you disclose something that I consider puts you at
967
immediate risk or someone else at immediate risk, like say you threatened to kill someone or
968
something like that then I would have to disclose that to [Coach 1; Head coach].
969
I just want to remind you of the rights that you have and that are indicated on the consent form.
970
You are a volunteer in this study and that means that you are allowed to stop the interview at any
971
point or refuse to answer questions that you do not want to. If you do not want to answer a question
972
please say “no comment”. Also, as I want to understand your views about your parents and learn
973
from your experience and expertise, I am not looking for particular answers – there is no right or
974
wrong answers, to the questions, so I hope you can answer them honestly and openly rather than
975
saying what you think I want to hear. Feel free to ask me any questions if you have them as we go,
976
and if you do not understand a question please say and hopefully I can phrase it in a better way.
977
978
I’m going to ask you some questions about your parents involvement in your canoeing and what
979
you think are the positive/helpful, negative/unhelpful behaviours that occur in and around training,
980
competition and at home. Firstly I am going to ask about how you got started in canoeing.
981
982
Do you have any questions at this point? If not we can get started.
983
984

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
Section B: Introductory questions
985
 When did you start getting involved in canoeing?
986
 How did you get involved in canoeing?
987
Probe: Who got you involved?
988
 Was there anything in your family background that might have influenced you becoming involved
989
in canoeing?
990
991
Section C: Introduction to parental involvement
992
 How are your parents involved in your canoeing (what sort of things do they do?)
993
 What would you say your parents’ roles are in your canoeing?
994
 Do your parents have different roles in your canoeing involvement? (i.e. do your parents do
995
different things towards your canoeing)?
996
Probe: If they do, what things do they do differently?
997
 Do you have any other people that help you out in your canoeing? What do they do?
998
999
Section D: Training
1000
 Is there anything that your parents do or say that you find positive/helpful or negative/unhelpful
1001
on the way to or before training?
1002
 Is there anything that your parents do or say that you find positive/helpful or negative/unhelpful
1003
during training?
1004
 Is there anything that your parents do or say that you find positive/helpful or negative/unhelpful
1005
on the way back from or after training?
1006
1007
Section E: Competition
1008
 What are your parents like on competition day?
1009
 Is there anything that your parents do or say that you find positive/helpful or negative/unhelpful
1010
on the way to or before competition?
1011
 Is there anything that your parents do or say that you find positive/helpful or negative/unhelpful
1012
at competition
1013
 Is there anything that your parents do or say that you find positive/helpful or negative/unhelpful
1014
on the way back from or after competition?
1015
1016
Section F: Home
1017
 Is there anything that your parents do or say that you find positive/helpful or negative/unhelpful
1018
at home?
1019
Selected probes and follow up questions for sections D, E, and F:
1020
Can you give me an example?
1021
Can you describe that a bit more for me?
1022
How does that make you feel?
1023
What do you think about that? What did you do after that?
1024
What happened after that?
1025
1026
Section G: General Perceptions and recommendations
1027
 Do you think your parents have a similar or different involvement in your canoeing compared
1028
to other canoeists’ parents involvement in their child’s canoeing?
1029
Probe: What do you think is different or similar about what the do or say?
1030
 What would you like your parents to do more of or less of with respect to your canoeing? What
1031
would you like your parents to do differently in the future if anything?
1032
 How would you say canoeist’s parents can best support their child?
1033

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE
Diary of parental involvement in slalom canoeing
Please note the format of the diary has been changed for publication. Below is a list of questions but the space provided for participants
to respond has been removed. The diaries participants received were double-sided booklets, which were placed into an individual sealed
envelope each day after completion.
1. What is today's date?
2. What is your email address?
3. What were you doing today? (Tick next to one or more)
Competing Practicing Not paddling
4. What have you done today? (You can select more than one) I have been...
At school At home At the gym At the course (paddle training) At a competition Other (please specify)
Describe anything that your parents have done or said to you today relating to your canoeing that you consider positive or negative (by
this I mean what you might find helpful or unhelpful towards your canoeing). If you have more than one thing you want to write please
leave a gap between your entries for each of the questions. Please indicate whether you think the behaviour is positive or negative by
writing P- or N- before you write under the 'what happened' question.
5. What happened? (who said/did what?)
6. Where did this happen?
7. Who was present?
8. How did it make you feel?/ What did you think?/What did you do?
9. Would you have preferred something else to happen? (Yes or NO - Please give a reason for your answer) and what would you have
preferred to happen?
Thank you for completing the diary today.

PARENTING IN SLALOM CANOE