Ascendancy of ultrasonic reactor for micro biodiesel production

Abstract

Biodiesel is a form of biofuel; diesel fuel manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled greases. Biodiesel is produced through a process called transesterification which involves taking naturally occurring carbon chain molecules, known as triglycerides, found in such feed stocks as seed oils and animal fats, and converting them into methyl esters, which is the chemical term for biodiesel. The conventional transesterification of the triglycerides to fatty methyl esters and glycerin is slow and not complete. During the conversion process not all fatty acid chains are turned into alkyl esters (biodiesel) reducing biodiesel quality and yield, significantly. In considering a new biodiesel facility or an upgrade of existing biodiesel plant, it is imperative that ultrasonic mixing technology be considered; it is efficient and ideal for micro scale biodiesel processing. This paper infers the efficiency of Ultrasonics for the ultrasonication of liquids and gleans that Ultrasonic cavitational mixing is the most advanced means to form fine-size emulsions at micro processing scale. The paper construes the innovative ascendancy of ‘Ultrasonic Reactor’ for micro scale production of biodiesel and demonstrates that there is a direct link between methanol droplet size, biodiesel yield, and conversion speed which makes ultrasonic reactors the most productive technology in the biodiesel industry. The paper concludes that biofuels are sustainable alternative to fossil fuels and biodiesel is a green energy source for agriculture, transport and power generation at micro level use in rural communities.

Full text

77:5 (2015) 155–161 | www.jurnalteknologi.utm.my | eISSN 2180–3722 |
Jurnal
Teknologi
Full Paper
ASCENDANCY OF ULTRASONIC REACTOR
FOR MICRO BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
C. S. Abdullah*, N. Baluch, S. Mohtar
School of Technology Management and Logistics, College of Business,
Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia
Article history
Received
02 June 2015
Received in revised form
09 June 2015
Accepted
1 September 2015
*Corresponding author
sobry@uum.edu.my
Graphical abstract
Abstract
Biodiesel is a form of biofuel; diesel fuel manufactured from vegetable oils,
animal fats, or recycled greases. Biodiesel is produced through a process
called transesterification which involves taking naturally occurring carbon
chain molecules, known as triglycerides, found in such feed stocks as seed
oils and animal fats, and converting them into methyl esters, which is the
chemical term for biodiesel. The conventional transesterification of the
triglycerides to fatty methyl esters and glycerin is slow and not complete.
During the conversion process not all fatty acid chains are turned into
alkyl esters (biodiesel) reducing biodiesel quality and yield, significantly. In
considering a new biodiesel facility or an upgrade of existing biodiesel
plant, it is imperative that ultrasonic mixing technology be considered; it is
efficient and ideal for micro scale biodiesel processing. This paper infers
the efficiency of Ultrasonics for the ultrasonication of liquids and gleans
that Ultrasonic cavitational mixing is the most advanced means to form
fine-size emulsions at micro processing scale. The paper construes the
innovative ascendancy of ‘Ultrasonic Reactor’ for micro scale production
of biodiesel and demonstrates that there is a direct link between
methanol droplet size, biodiesel yield, and conversion speed which makes
ultrasonic reactors the most productive technology in the biodiesel
industry. The paper concludes that biofuels are sustainable alternative to
fossil fuels and biodiesel is a green energy source for agriculture, transport
and power generation at micro level use in rural communities.
Keywords: Biodiesel, biofuels, green energy, transesterification, ultrasonics,
ultrasonic reactor
© 2015 Penerbit UTM Press. All rights reserved
1.0 INTRODUCTION
When the world oil prices briefly shot up to nearly $
150 per barrel in the summer of 2008, the global
economy shuddered and swooned. Thus began the
worst recession since 1930. Of course other factors
contributed to the crash; most notably, a bursting
housing bubble in the United States and an
unsustainable build-up of debt in nearly all the
world’s industrial economies. But it is clear both that
high oil prices added to financial instability, and the
oil price spike of 2008 provided a sudden gust that
helped bring down the house of cards. Evidence that
climate change is real and caused by human
activity has become irrefutable, and serious climate
impacts (such as the melting of Arctic ice cap) have
begun appearing sooner, and with greater severity,
than had been forecast.
Climate change is not just an environmental issue;
it touches every part of our lives: peace, security,

156 C. S. Abdullah, N. Baluch & S. Mohtar/Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 77:5 (2015) 155-161
human rights, poverty, hunger, health, mass
migration and economics. It is a global issue and it
calls for global action. To be able to discuss energy
as a separate matter is an intellectual illusion. The
CO2 emissions are not the only problem of fossil
energy. The radioactive contamination is not the only
problem of atomic power. Many other dangers are
caused by using atomic and fossil energies: from
polluted cities to the erosion of rural areas; from
water pollution to desertification; from mass
migration to overcrowded settlements and the
declining security of individuals and states. Because
the present energy system lies at the root of these
problems, renewables are the solution to these
problems. Increasing environmental concerns and
the need for energy independence have led to the
biofuels including the biodiesel market; source of
renewable energy.
Renewable energy sources, in power generation
as well as in transport, continued to increase in 2013;
reaching a record 2.7% of global energy
consumption, up from 0.8% a decade ago.
Renewable energy used in power generation grew
by 16.3% and accounted for a record 5.3% of global
power generation. China recorded the largest
incremental growth in renewables, followed by the
US, while growth in Europe’s leading players –
Germany, Spain and Italy – was below average.
Globally, wind energy (+20.7%) once again
accounted for more than half of renewable power
generation growth and solar power generation grew
even more rapidly (+33%), but from a smaller base.
Global biofuels production grew by a below-
average 6.1% (80,000 b/d –oil equivalent), driven by
increases in the two largest producers: Brazil (+16.8%)
and the US (+4.6%) [1].
Biodiesel is the main biofuel for transport used in
the EU and accounted for about 70 percent of the
biofuels market on volume basis in 2012. Despite the
economic recession, global biofuels output reached
120 billion litres in 2013 and now provides 3.5% of
world transport fuel demand. Global biofuels output
is estimated to grow at 3.5% per year on average
from 110 billion litres in 2012 to 135 billion litres in 2018
and to provide 4% of global road transport fuel
demand in 2018 [2]. The biodiesel market grew from
$8.6 billion in 2009 to $12.6 billion in 2014. Market
growth is primarily dependent on the availability,
quality, and yield of feedstock, as it accounts for 65%
to 70% of the cost of biodiesel production. Biodiesel
production was 29.1 million tons in 2014; Asia
accounted for 18% of global biodiesel production in
2014, the majority from palm oil in Indonesia,
Malaysia and Thailand [3, 4]. In 2010, Neste Oil
opened up a renewable diesel plant in Singapore
with an annual capacity of 800,000 MT and a similar
plant in Rotterdam in 2011. Since 2012, the Neste
plants were operating at nearly full capacity and
refined 1.36 MMT of palm oil, 0.74 MMT of waste and
residues and 7,000 MT of other vegetable oils.
World is looking up to mega energy projects for
solutions whereas the resolution lies in the opposite
direction; micro energy at the local community level.
Papworth (2011) [5] quotes Leopold Kohr’s argument
that “there seems to be only one cause behind all
forms of social misery: Bigness. It appears to be the
one and only problem permeating all creation.
Whenever something is wrong, something is too big.
And if the body of a people becomes diseased with
the fever of aggression, brutality, collectivism, or
massive idiocy, it is not because it has fallen victim to
bad leadership or mental derangement. It is
because human beings, so charming as individuals or
in small aggregations, have been welded into over
concentrated social units [6]. That is why: The Fourth
World; the world of small nations, small communities
and small enterprises is the only world that can be
democratic and reflect genuine human needs or
desires. The only way forward is to: promote
Microenterprise; in Short Supply Chain; using
Appropriate Technology; working towards Right
Livelihoods; incorporating Human Scale
Development; by giving due rights to the Invisibles;
and, in planning, populations are measured in terms
of Ecosons [7].
The term microenterprise connotes different entities
and sectors depending on the country. Generally
speaking;
in developed countries, microenterprises comprise
the smallest end (by size) of the small business sector,
whereas in developing countries, microenterprises
comprise the vast majority of the small business
sector; a result of the relative lack of formal sector
jobs available for the poor. Micro and Home Business
Network, an Australian organization, defines a micro-
business as one with five or less employees. This
definition is often used in the United States. In Europe
a business with less than ten employees may be
officially considered a micro-business.
Microenterprises add value to a country's economy
by creating jobs, enhancing income, strengthening
purchasing power, lowering costs and adding
business convenience [8].
2.0 MICRO BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
First, it’s important to understand that even though
diesel is part of its name, pure biodiesel does not
contain petroleum diesel or fossil fuel of any kind.
Biodiesel is a biofuel: a subcategory of biomass that
includes three energy-crop-derived liquid fuels;
ethanol (referred to as grain alcohol), methanol
(referred to as wood alcohol), and biodiesel.
Technically, a fatty acid alkyl ester, biodiesel can be
easily made through a simple chemical process from
virtually any vegetable oil including; Soy, Palm, Corn,
Canola, Coconut, Jatropha, Millettia Pinnata, Cotton
seed, Peanut, Sunflower and many more. Biodiesel
can also be made from recycled cooking oil or
animal fats from rendering plants. There have been

157 C. S. Abdullah, N. Baluch & S. Mohtar/Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 77:5 (2015) 155-161
some promising experiments with the use of algae as
a biodiesel feed stock. Biodiesel is most commonly
produced through a process called
transesterification (Figure: 1) which involves taking
naturally occurring carbon chain molecules, known
as triglycerides, found in such feed stocks as seed oils
and animal fats, and converting them into methyl
esters, which is the chemical term for biodiesel.
Figure 1 Biodiesel production flow chart (Source: ESRU, 2013)
Almost all biodiesel is produced using base
catalysed transesterification as it is the most
economical process requiring only low temperatures
and pressures and producing a 98% conversion yield.
The Transesterification process is the reaction of a
triglyceride (fat/oil) with an alcohol to form esters
and glycerol. A triglyceride has a glycerine molecule
as its base with three long chain fatty acids
attached. The characteristics of the fat are
determined by the nature of the fatty acids
attached to the glycerine. The nature of the fatty
acids can in turn affect the characteristics of the
biodiesel. During the esterification process, the
triglyceride reacts with alcohol in the presence of a
catalyst, usually a strong alkaline like sodium
hydroxide. The alcohol reacts with the fatty acids to
form the mono-alkyl ester, or biodiesel and crude
glycerol. In most production methanol or ethanol is
the alcohol used (methanol produces methyl esters,
ethanol produces ethyl esters) and is base catalysed
by either potassium or sodium hydroxide. Potassium
hydroxide has been found to be more suitable for
the ethyl ester biodiesel production; either base can
be used for the methyl ester. Figure 2 shows the
chemical process for methyl ester biodiesel. The
reaction between the fat or oil and the alcohol is a
reversible reaction and so the alcohol must be
added in excess to drive the reaction towards the
right propensity and ensure complete conversion [9].
The approximate proportions of the reaction are:
100 lbs of oil + 10 lbs of methanol → 100 lbs of
biodiesel + 10 lbs of glycerol
Figure 2 Chemical process for methyl ester biodiesel
(Source: ESRU, 2013)
Once separated from the glycerin, the biodiesel
goes through a purification process, removing all
remaining alcohol and catalyst. It is then dried and
stored. To guarantee the biodiesel is without color,
odor and Sulphur, an additional distillation process
may be implemented.
Soybean oil is the most common feedstock used in
U.S. production, while rape seed and palm oil is used
in Europe and Asia. An important factor in
considering which feedstock to use is the stock’s free
fatty acid (FFA) content. Biodiesel is a low-emissions
diesel substitute fuel made from renewable resources
and waste lipid. The most common way to produce
biodiesel is through transesterification, especially
alkali-catalyzed transesterification; it is safe,
biodegradable, and produces less air pollutants than
petro diesel. Biodiesel can be used in its pure form
(B100) or blended with petroleum diesel; common
blends include B2 (2% biodiesel), B5, B10, and B20.
Most vehicle manufacturers approve blends up to
B5, and some approve blends up to B20. In
considering a new biodiesel facility or an upgrade of
existing biodiesel plant, it is imperative that ultrasonic
mixing technology be considered; it is efficient and
ideal for micro scale biodiesel processing. Biodiesel
must be segregated and handled separately
because of its unique physical properties. Biodiesel
can be corrosive to rubber materials and liner
materials and cannot be stored in concrete lined
tanks [10, 11].
2.1 Biodiesel Quality
Today, making biodiesel is not just about making a
renewable fuel; for biodiesel producers this is the
challenge of producing high-quality biodiesel with
consistent characteristics, regardless of feedstock at
times. Using traditional ASTM (American Society for
Testing and Materials) methods is time consuming
and challenging. It involves sample preparation, the
use of reagents, and time; usually at least 40 minutes
per sample. Quality Trait Analysis (QTA) offers an
Infra-red based, on line, quality testing system for
biodiesel producers. Besides its potent user-interface,
QTA offers gamut of options; from measuring the
feed stocks & raw materials, in process fuel, and
glycerin purity to finished B100 per ASTM D6751 &
EN14214 specs [12].

158 C. S. Abdullah, N. Baluch & S. Mohtar/Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 77:5 (2015) 155-161
Figure 3 Biodiesel conversion using ultrasonication (Source:
Hielscher Ultrasonics)
3.0 ASCENDANCY OF ULTRASONIC
REACTOR
3.1 Ultrasonics
Ultrasonics specializes in equipment for the
ultrasonication of liquids (Figure: 3); this includes
homogenizing, disintegration, emulsification, and
dispersing or particle size reduction (milling).
Ultrasonication is an effective means to break cell
structures; it generates alternating high-pressure and
low-pressure waves in the exposed liquid. During the
low-pressure cycle, the ultrasonic waves create small
vacuum bubbles in the liquid that collapse violently
during a high-pressure cycle. This phenomenon is
termed as ultrasonic Cavitation. Ultrasonic waves of
high intensity ultrasound generate cavitation in
liquids. Cavitation causes extreme effects locally,
such as liquid jets of up to 1000 km/hr, pressures of up
to 2000 atm (29,400 psi) and temperatures of up to
5000 Kelvin (4727 C0). The implosion of the cavitation
bubbles results in micro-turbulences and micro-jets of
up to 1000km/hr. Large particles are subject to
surface erosion (via cavitation collapse in the
surrounding liquid) or particle size reduction (due to
fission through inter-particle collision or the collapse
of cavitation bubbles formed on the surface). This
leads to sharp acceleration of diffusion, mass-transfer
processes and solid phase reactions due to crystallite
size and structure changing. The implosion of the
cavitation bubble causes strong hydrodynamic
shear-forces. These shear forces can disintegrate
fibrous, cellulosic material into fine particles and
break the walls of the cell structure, releasing more of
the intra-cellular material, such as starch or sugar into
the liquid. In addition, the cell wall material is being
broken into small debris. Cavitation is an
extraordinary method of concentrating the diffuse
energy of sound into a chemically usable form [13].
3.2 Ultrasonic Homogenizing
Ultrasonic homogenizing is a mechanical process to
reduce small particles in a liquid so that they
become uniformly small and evenly distributed; it is
very efficient for the reduction of soft and hard
particles. The homogenization is based on cavitation.
When liquids are exposed to intense ultrasonication,
sound waves propagate through the liquid causing
alternating high-pressure and low-pressure cycles
(approx. 20000 cycles per sec). During the low-
pressure cycle, high-intensity small vacuum bubbles
are created in the liquid, as the liquid vapor pressure
is attained. When the bubbles reach a certain size,
they collapse violently during a high-pressure cycle.
During this implosion very high pressures and high
speed liquid jets are generated locally. The resulting
currents and turbulences disrupt particle
agglomerates and lead to violent collisions between
individual particles (Figure: 4).
Figure 4 Comparative droplet size
Figure 5 Comparative agitation

159 C. S. Abdullah, N. Baluch & S. Mohtar/Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 77:5 (2015) 155-161
3.3 Emulsions
Emulsions are dispersions of two or more immiscible
liquids. Highly intensive ultrasound supplies the power
needed to disperse a liquid phase (dispersed phase)
in small droplets in a second phase (continuous
phase). In the dispersing zone, imploding cavitation
bubbles cause intensive shock waves in the
surrounding liquid and result in the formation of liquid
jets of high liquid velocity. In order to stabilize the
newly formed droplets of the disperse phase against
coalescence, emulsifiers (surface active substances,
surfactants) and stabilizers are added to the
emulsion. As coalescence of the droplets after
disruption influences the final droplet size distribution,
efficiently stabilizing emulsifiers are used to maintain
the final droplet size distribution at a level that is
equal to the distribution immediately after the
droplet disruption in the ultrasonic dispersing zone.
Stabilizers actually lead to improved droplet
disruption at constant energy density (Figure: 5).
3.4 Dispersing (Milling) and De-Agglomeration
Dispersing (Milling) and de-agglomeration of solids
into liquids is another important application of
ultrasonic devices. Ultrasonic cavitation generates
high shear that breaks particle agglomerates into
single dispersed particles. High intensity
ultrasonication is an interesting alternative to other
technologies such as; high pressure homogenizers,
agitator bead mills, impinging jet mills and rotor-
stator-mixers. When sonicating liquids the sound
waves that propagate into the liquid media result in
alternating high-pressure (compression) and low-
pressure (rarefaction) cycles. This applies mechanical
stress on the attracting electrostatic forces. Ultrasonic
cavitation in liquids causes high speed liquid jets of
up to 1000km/h (approx. 600mph). Such jets press
liquid at high pressure between the particles and
separate them from each other. Smaller particles are
accelerated with the liquid jets and collide at high
speeds. This makes ultrasound an effective means for
the dispersing and de-agglomeration but also for the
milling and fine grinding of micron-size and sub-
micron size particles.
3.5 Sonochemistry
Sonochemistry is a branch of chemical research
dealing with the chemical effects and applications
of ultrasonic waves; that is, sound with frequencies
above 20 kHz those lie beyond the upper limit of
human hearing. Sonochemistry is the application of
ultrasound to chemical reactions and processes. The
mechanism causing sonochemical effects in liquids is
the phenomenon of acoustic cavitation, explained
earlier. Sonochemistry - is applied to enhance the
mass-transfer in the production of biodiesel [13].
Figure 6 Ultrasonic Reactors; UIP 500, 1000 &1500hd models
(Hielscher Ultrasonics)
3.6 Ultrasonic Reactors
Ultrasonic Reactors are recommended for biodiesel
production capacities of 0.25 ton (80 gal) per hour or
more (Figure 6). In general, production/operation
should consider using three to five units in parallel to
accommodate variations in production rates. Excess
methanol and catalyst are significant cost factors in
biodiesel production. Hielscher ultrasonic reactors
add cavitational shear to the mixing process. This
gives much smaller methanol droplets resulting in
improved methanol and catalyst utilization.
Therefore, less methanol and catalyst are required. In
addition to that, the cavitation influences the
reaction kinetics, leading to faster and more
complete transesterification. Ultrasonic mixing
reactors replace tank agitators and other dynamic
shear mixers. The ultrasonic reactors are generally
installed to mix two feed streams; oil and methanol
(with catalyst). For this, crude pre-mix is pumped into
the ultrasonic reactor, where the ultrasonic
cavitation mixes and emulsifies both reagents within
5 to 15 seconds. This is an inline mixing process. When
the mix exits the flow cell reactor, the glycerin will
separate by gravity within less than 60 minutes.
Alternatively, one can feed the mix into a centrifuge
after several minutes of residence / reaction time.
The inline mixing reduces the number and volume of
tanks used for conventional batch processing. This
improves capital utilization.
Basically, making biodiesel from oil, methanol (or
ethanol) and catalyst, is a simple chemical process.
The problem lies in the chemical reaction kinetics.
The conventional transesterification of the
triglycerides to fatty methyl esters (FAME) and
glycerin is slow and not complete. During the
conversion process not all fatty acid chains are
turned into alkyl esters (biodiesel). This reduces the
biodiesel quality and yield, significantly.
The long conversion time and the inferior biodiesel
yield can be attributed, to a large part, to the use of
inappropriate mixing systems. In principle, oil and
methanol are immiscible; therefore; a methanol-in-oil
emulsion needs to be formed. This requires

160 C. S. Abdullah, N. Baluch & S. Mohtar/Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 77:5 (2015) 155-161
emulsification equipment rather than conventional
mixers or stirrers. Ultrasonic cavitational mixing is the
most advanced means to form fine-size emulsions at
micro and large processing scale.
There is a direct link between methanol droplet size
and biodiesel yield as well as conversion speed. This
makes ultrasonic reactors the most productive
technology in the biodiesel industry; biodiesel
conversion process using Ultrasonication is shown in
figure 3. The ultrasonic mixing devices produce more
high quality biodiesel, faster. The installation of
ultrasonic reactors into the biodiesel process line
reduces operational costs, too. Excess methanol
does not react during the conversion process. It is
added to support the chemical reaction kinetics only
and it needs to be recovered at the end of the
process. Recovered methanol is of inferior quality,
only; that is why methanol recovery increases your
processing costs. The use of ultrasonic reactors
reduces the required amount of excess methanol by
up to 50%. A molar ratio (The mass of a mole is the
gram formula mass of a substance) between 1:4 or
1:4.5 (oil: methanol) is sufficient for most feedstock,
when using Hielscher ultrasonic mixing.
Many biodiesel producers - in particular small and
mid-size community level biodiesel producers -
reduce their costs by switching to raw materials of
poorer quality, such as animal fats, recycled
restaurant oils or waste oils. The ultrasonic process
intensification improves the conversion results for any
feedstock. This makes it easier to produce ASTM
D6751or European EN 14212 compliant biodiesel from
high FFA oil or high viscosity fat or grease.
Catalyst price represents a marginal fraction of the
biodiesel production costs only. As with the excess
methanol, the costs result from recovery and inferior
glycerin quality. Ultrasonic mixing improves the
methanol-in-oil emulsification and generates more
and smaller droplets.
This leads to a better distribution and increased
catalyst efficiency. In addition to that, the ultrasonic
cavitation improves the mass-transfer; as a
consequence, you can save up to 50% catalyst
when compared with shear mixers or stirrers.
Glycerin is a byproduct of biodiesel production. A
higher conversion rate and lower excess methanol
lead to a much faster chemical conversion and to a
sharper separation of the glycerin. For the reasons
described above, the glycerin contains less catalyst
or mono-glycerides and it causes lower refining costs.
Biodiesel is a green fuel. To be green, the energy
required for growing, harvesting and processing must
be lower than the energy contained in the biodiesel.
The installation of ultrasonic mixing lowers the energy
required for processing. Hielscher ultrasonic devices
have an outstanding efficiency in the conversion of
electricity to mechanical mixing action. These
ultrasonic devices process approx. 22 gallon of
biodiesel using only 0.1kWhr electricity, which is
equivalent to operating a 100 watts light bulb for one
hour. This is a fraction of the energy consumption of
shear mixers or hydro-dynamic mixers.
The ultrasonically assisted transesterification can
typically run at lower process temperatures; this
reduces the required heating energy, as well.
In a US study two 1 kW ultrasonic reactors, model
UIP1000hd from Hielscher, were used in converting a
500 gallon batch biodiesel process to a continuous
process with a proposed design flow rate of 1-2 GPM
(gallons per minute). The reactors were installed in a
privately designed and owned biodiesel plant using
PBSY (Prime Bleachable Summer Yellow) cottonseed
oil. Changes in operational parameters were tested,
over two months, to determine performance impacts
including; vegetable oil flow rate, methanol to oil
ratio, catalyst to oil ratio, reactor inlet temperature
and reactor pressure. The study of these reactors
provided the facility operators with the following
conclusions: The use of Hielscher ultrasonic reactor
technology is a highly cost-effective means of
converting a batch biodiesel reaction process to a
continuous process; High quality biodiesel can be
produced on a continuous basis with greatly
reduced operating costs in terms of methanol and
catalyst usage; The ultrasonic reactors provide
significant operational flexibility; and key operating
parameters may be easily adjusted to optimize
process performance with the aim of continuous
control of biodiesel quality [14].
4.0 CONCLUSION
Biodiesel, a form of biofuel, is a green fuel; diesel fuel
manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats, or
recycled greases. It is safe, biodegradable, and
produces less air pollutants than petroleum-based
diesel. It is part of the solution to make the energy
supply more renewable and will pave the way for a
cleaner environment and creation of jobs. Ultrasonic
reactor technology is highly cost effective way to
micro produce biodiesel. The ultrasonic process
intensification considerably improves the conversion
rate with lower excess methanol, making it easier to
produce biodiesel to ASTM D6751 and EN 14212
specifications.
The impact of growing biofuels markets has the
potential to provide new jobs and incomes
throughout the supply chain from rural communities
and farmers to biotechnology and engineering
companies, and fuel producers and distributors
across the world. The EU, the US, South America,
emerging economies and developing nations, can
all potentially benefit from the development of
sustainable advanced biofuels, in particular,
biodiesel. Renewable energies can stimulate
technological innovation and economic
development, and that renewable energy will
become fully competitive with conventional energy
systems. Renewable energy has crucial economic
and social benefits for the poorest countries in the

161 C. S. Abdullah, N. Baluch & S. Mohtar/Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 77:5 (2015) 155-161
world; home grown renewable sources can help
developing countries to fuel their economic
development and to insulate themselves against
rising world energy prices.
The phrase "Think globally, act locally" urges people
to consider the health of the entire planet and to
take action in their own communities and cities. In
fact it is small villages and towns that are driving the
move toward 100 percent renewable energy policy
in Germany; German villages compete with each
other for the title of who produces more renewable
energy per capita. Winners are even feted with an
annual award. The incentive to use 100% renewable
energy, for electricity, transport, or even total primary
energy supply globally, has been motivated by
global warming and other ecological as well as
economic concerns. Renewable energy use has
grown much faster than anyone anticipated [15].
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