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GENERAL ARTICLES
CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 109, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2015 1
The authors are in the ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Insti-
tute, Kasaragod 671 124, India
*For correspondence. (e-mail: balakbh64@gmail.com)
Coconut inflorescence sap and its value
addition as sugar – collection techniques, yield,
properties and market perspective
K. B. Hebbar*, M. Arivalagan, M. R. Manikantan, A. C. Mathew, C. Thamban, George V. Thomas
and P. Chowdappa
Fresh coconut sap (neera), if kept at room temperature for a couple of hours, undergoes fermenta-
tion. Fresh sap is golden in colour, with pH > 7 and has no foul odour. The traditional way of tap-
ping, i.e. collecting the sap in a mud pot kept at the top of the palm under atmospheric temperature
for 8–12 h, ferments the sap before collection itself. The colour turns whitish, pH drops to below 6
and odour of toddy (fermented smell) slowly develops. Hence the only way to avoid fermentation of
sap is either keeping collection boxes at low temperature or to collect the sap every hour and store
chilled. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute has developed ‘coco-sap chiller’ with ice
cubes inside, which maintains the temperature at 2–3
°
C for 10–12 h, and also keeps the sap fresh
and unfermented. The sap collected is sweet, non-alcoholic and also free from contaminants like
ants, other insects, pollen, dust, etc. The fresh, hygienic and unfermented sap is called Kalparasa. It
can be sold as a ready-to-serve health drink under refrigerated condition or can be processed into
value-added natural products like sugar, jaggery, honey, syrup, etc. without the addition of chemi-
cals.
Keywords: Coconut sap, health drink, market prospects, sugar content, tapping.
PALMS are believed to be among the oldest flowering
plants in the world1. The five major economic palms of
the world are coconut (Cocos nucifera), African oil palm
(Elaeis guineensis), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), be-
tel nut palm (Areca catechu) and pejibaye (Bactris gasi-
paes). Among these, coconut produces inflorescences all
through the year and so can be tapped. In India, it is
called ‘tree of heaven’, ‘tree of life’, etc.2. For centuries,
many palm species including coconut have been tapped to
produce fresh juice (sweet toddy), fermented drinks
(toddy, wine, arak), syrup (honey), sugar and jaggery.
One of mankind’s first sources of sugar was probably
Arenga pinnata1. Evidence of the use of Borassus fla-
bellifer sugar in India has been reported by the Greek his-
torian Megasthenes in the 4th century BC. Evidence for
extraction of sugar in India is more than 4000 years old3,
and jaggery and treacle from Caryota urens sap in Sri
Lanka4 has been reported. In Africa, the main traditional
use of palm sap is for wine production. The same has
been reported in Egypt (date palm) long before the birth
of Christ5 and on the Guinea coast by early navigators
during the 15th century6.
Coconut sap or neera is one of the important drinks,
being traditionally tapped from coconut spadix and con-
sumed largely by rural population. It is the phloem sap7,
rich in sugars, protein, minerals, antioxidants, vitamins,
etc. utilized by the plant for the growth and development
of tender or mature coconut. As the flow of sap is slow
and highly prone to fermentation, collection of unfer-
mented sap is a challenging task. While tapping, lime is
commonly used to inhibit fermentation. Even with lime,
the sap becomes white with a foul smell making it unfit
as a health drink. The fermented sap is called ‘toddy’,
which has a strong odour that makes it unpalatable de-
spite being nutritious. The lack of proper collection
methods and suitable inhibitors to prevent fermentation
led to the inclusion of both fermented (toddy) and unfer-
mented (neera) sap under ‘toddy’. Accordingly, the Kar-
nataka Excise Act, 1965 (Act 21 of 1966) adapted from
the Mysore Excise Act, 1901(Act No. V of 1901), The
Hyderabad Abkari Act, 1316 (No. 1 of 1316 F) and the
Madras Abkari Act, 1886 (Madras Act 1 of 1886) were
enacted and tapping of coconut sap was prohibited. Co-
conut is included as an excise tree (Section 11A) and
even the unfermented sap of coconut tree from which
toddy can be produced is interpreted as toddy. However,
unfermented sap and toddy are two different products,
both chemically and nutritionally. In this article we
GENERAL ARTICLES
CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 109, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2015
2
describe the coco-sap chiller developed by Central Plan-
tation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) to collect hygi-
enic and unfermented coconut sap, its qualities, product
diversification and market perspectives. The unfermented
sap thus obtained is called as Kalparasa and registration
under Trademark is awaited8.
Rationale for tapping
Coconut produces 12–14 inflorescences (spadix) in a
year, on an average one per month. Each spadix can
support 20–25 tender or mature nuts. Tender nut requires
6–8 months, while mature nut takes almost a complete
year for maturity. At a reasonably high water content of
500 ml per tender nut, the total water obtained from
spadix is just 10–12.5 litre. The same spadix, if tapped,
could produce 60–67.5 litre of sap in a period of just 40–
45 days at a conservative yield of 1.5 litre/day. Moreover,
it is rich in nutrients and phytochemicals compared to
tender coconut water. Physiologically, tapping is more
energy-efficient compared to allowing the spadix to pro-
duce nuts.
Tapping techniques
Selection of inflorescence and preparation
Coconut trees can be tapped at an early age as soon as
they attain yield stability. The unopened inflorescence is
used for tapping. The development of female flowers
inside the spathe (about 60 cm long) causes a swelling at
the base, the appearance of which is taken as the appro-
priate stage for tapping (Figure 1 a). The inflorescence
selected for tapping is tied around with a strong coir or
plastic rope to prevent it from bursting (Figure 1 b). The
same is trained using a mallet, hand-massaged (using the
palm) twice a day, in the morning and evening for a
Figure 1. Spadix ready for tapping. a, Ideal spadix with swollen base.
b, Stroking spadix using a mallet.
week. After 4–5 days of stroking, 7–10 cm of the tip is
sliced-off and in a day or two sap starts oozing from the
cut surface.
Traditional method of sap collection
The initial preparation of spadix to be tapped is the same
as described above. As soon as the sap starts oozing out,
tappers apply clay, some type of gummy material or leaf
extract to the cut surface. It is believed to stimulate sap
production, but in reality it was to prevent internal seep-
age of sap in the space available between the peduncles.
Further, a coconut leaf lamina tied to the periphery of the
cut surface allows the sap to trickle; otherwise it drifts
along the surface as the coconut spadix is upright or ver-
tical (forms an angle of 20°–30° to the main axis).
The sap trickling from the cut surface is collected in an
open earthen pot or bamboo sac9, which is placed at the
top of the palm for at least 8–12 h (Figure 2). In order to
prevent fermentation, lime is coated on the inner surface
of the pot. The sap collected by this method is oyster
white in colour and emanates a strong odour. It is also
contaminated with insects, ants, pollen and dust particles.
The sap collected without applying lime is used exclu-
sively for the preparation of toddy, an alcoholic drink.
CPCRI method of sap collection
A PVC connector as described below fitted to the cut sur-
face avoids the application of clay, leaf extract and tying
of leaf lamina. Similarly, for sap collection, instead of an
open earthen pot, a coco-sap chiller is connected.
PVC connectors: A PVC pipe of required size (approx.
50–63 mm diameter), closest to the diameter of spadix,
excluding spathe is selected. One end is closed with an
end cap. Sharp-edged groves of 3 mm are made at the
Figure 2. Traditional method of sap collection in open earthern pots.
GENERAL ARTICLES
CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 109, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2015 3
open end, which fits tightly into the inflorescence (Figure
3). A hard tapering tubular pipe of 10 mm diameter is
fitted 20 mm above the grooves. The connector is tightly
screwed till the hard pipe touches the bottom side of the
cut end and blocks the inter-peduncle space, ensuring free
flow of sap through the pipe10 (Figure 4). This avoids the
need to apply clay, gummy material or leaf extracts11.
Coco-sap chiller: This is a portable device consisting of a
hollow PVC pipe whose one end of which is expanded
into a box shape to house a sap collection container
bound by ice cubes, while the other end is wide enough to
insert and remove a collection container of 2 litre capa-
city12. Side walls of the pipe from outside are covered
with an insulating jacket excluding the portion of spadix
holder which maintains the inside temperature cool (2°–
3°C) with ice cubes. It is light-weight, water-proof, easy
to connect to the spadix (as shown in Figure 5), requires
less ice and retains low temperature for longer periods (at
least 10–12 h) compared to commercially available ice
boxes. It is a new method of collecting unfermented sap
from coconut and other palm trees and preserving its fla-
vour and aroma without the use of preservatives12.
Coconut sap collection using coco-sap chiller: The initial
preparation of the spadix to be tapped is the same as that
Figure 3. PVC connectors of different sizes attached with a hard
tube.
Figure 4. Sap flow through the connector hooked to the cut surface.
described earlier. Once the sap starts oozing out, the
coco-sap chiller is prepared to be connected to the
spadix13. Ice cubes (0.5–0.75 kg depending on climate
and amount of sap) or 3–4 gel ice packets are spread
inside the chiller. A container or plastic pouch of food-
grade quality connected to an O-ring is placed in the
grove made for the purpose. A stainless steel or plastic
filter placed above the O-ring prevents contamination
from pollen or plant material.
The spadix is inserted through the spadix holder, such
that the cut surface is just above the centre of the filter
(Figure 6 a). At this position the spadix is tightly fastened
to the spadix holder using rexin or plastic cover, thus pre-
venting the entry of ants and other insects. The top open-
ing of the box is closed with a lid (Figure 6 b). The box is
suspended from the tree crown using the handles pro-
vided (Figure 6 c).
During the initial few days of tapping, the spadix is
upright or vertical and hence a connector is required for
the flow of sap from cut surface to the collection con-
tainer. Gradually, the spadix becomes flat or horizontal
and sap from cut surface directly trickles to the container
without the need of connectors. The filled container is
taken out twice a day (in the morning and evening) and
the sap is transferred to another ice box meant for further
storage.
The most important aspect in sap tapping is the hygiene
factor. Coco-sap chiller, filter and connectors are washed,
while ice cubes and collection container are replaced and
the box is reconnected as mentioned above. Each spadix
requires one box and at a time 2–3 boxes can be con-
nected per tree.
Figure 5. ‘Coco-sap chiller’ developed by CPCRI for the collection
of hygienic and unfermented sap.
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CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 109, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2015
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Advantages of sap collection using the coco-sap chiller:
This new method of sap collection using the coco-sap
chiller surmounts the challenge of processing, i.e. ‘purify-
ing fermented sap (improving pH value, removing odour,
etc.) into a palatable drink as in the traditional method’.
This is a paradigm shift and has the following advantages:
• The sap collected is non-alcoholic, fresh, hygienic,
sweet and delicious.
• Fresh and delicious sap can be collected at any time of
the day.
• Sap is devoid of lime, clay, leaf extract, etc.
• It is free from contaminants like ants, other insects,
pollen and dust particles.
• It is a highly nutritious, ready-to-serve natural health
drink without the need for lengthy processing.
• It can be preserved fresh for a long duration under
frozen or sub-zero condition.
• Chemical-free natural products, viz. coconut sugar,
jaggery, confectionery and honey can be prepared.
• It is a closed system, with no emission of volatiles and
does not attract harmful insects on coconut palm.
• Tapping can be done throughout the year, even during
the rainy season.
Figure 6. Preparation of coco-sap chiller for sap collection. a, Spadix
inserted through the spadix holder. b, View of completely closed sys-
tem. c, Coco-sap chiller connected to the tree crown.
• Fabrication of the device is simple, cheap and from
locally available material.
• The device is suitable for collection of sap from coco-
nut and other palms.
• It is easy to operate. Hence skilled climbers can easily
tap Kalparasa.
Tapping frequency
Tapping is done twice a day, in the morning and evening.
Each time 1–2 mm spadix is sliced and it can be tapped in
this way for 40–45 days depending on the tapper’s skill,
seasonal conditions and nature of the palm. A single
spadix can be tapped until it is reduced to a stump of
about 10–15 cm length. About three weeks before reach-
ing this point, another spadix is prepared in order to
ensure continuity of sap production. At a time, 2–3 spadi-
ces can be tapped from a tree.
Sap yield
Sap yield is influenced by both genotype and environ-
ment; it varies from day to day, season to season, spadix
to spadix and tree to tree. In B. flabellifer and Nypa fruti-
cans significant differences were seen for sap production
between farms, months and sex of the palm, also the sap
flow was higher during cool nights14,15. In coconut, sap
production is more in talls and hybrids compared to
dwarfs16. On an average a spadix can produce 1.5–3 litres
of sap per day or 60–80 litres in a span of 40–45 days.
Even if 6 of the 12 spadices produced are tapped and the
remaining allowed to produce nuts, around 400 litres of
sap and a few nuts can be harvested. The sap yield is
again influenced by the skill of the tappers. Highly
skilled tappers can tap the spadix for two months as
against 30–45 days of average tapping.
Quality attributes of sap
Distinct differences are noticed between the sap collected
by traditional method and CPCRI technique (Table 1 and
Figure 7). Fresh sap collected by the CPCRI technique is
slightly alkaline in pH, golden brown or honey-coloured,
sweet and delicious.
Changes in pH and sugar content of fresh sap
Fresh sap has slightly alkaline pH (7.5–8, minor variation
from tree to tree) (Figure 8). It begins to ferment within
2–3 h under ambient temperature and pH shows a declin-
ing trend. pH of the completely fermented sap is around
3.5. The sap stored in a deep freezer (–2°C to –1°C) re-
mains fresh and no change in pH was observed. Fresh sap
(pH 7.5) has around 15% sugars (Figure 8). It decreases
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CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 109, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2015 5
to about 6% at pH 4. During the same period, the reduc-
ing sugar level increases up to 5% (Figure 9). Fresh sap,
when left exposed to the atmosphere undergoes initial
lactic acid and final alcoholic fermentation due to the
action of microorganisms.
Biochemical and mineral composition
Fresh sap is rich in sugars, minerals and proteins. It is
also a rich source of phenolics and ascorbic acid and
essential elements, viz. N, P, K, Mg and micronutrients
Zn, Fe and Cu. Tables 2 and 3 give the biochemical con-
stituents, mineral and vitamin composition of freshly col-
lected sap.
Value-added products from Kalparasa
Coconut sap contains about 15% sugars and considerable
amount of nutrients, which can be easily converted to
prepare various value-added products. Coconut sugar,
jaggery and honey are obtained by evaporating the water
of unfermented sap at 115°C. The viscous and fairly thick
Table 1. Quality attributes of sap collected using the CPCRI
technique and traditional technique
CPCRI Traditional
Attribute technique technique
Soluble solids (ºBrix) 15.5–18 13–14
pH 7–8 6 or low
Colour Golden brown or honey Oyster white
Defects, decay, insects, Absent Present
pollen, dust
Flavour Sweet and delicious Harsh odour
Pathogens, chemicals and Absent Present
extraneous matter
Microbial load Low High
Figure 7. Coconut sap collected by coco-sap chiller (left) and tradi-
tional method (right).
hot sap (brix 75°–80°) is cooled to get coconut honey or
syrup (Figure 10 a). Further heating of the sap to a more
viscous and thicker consistency and pouring it into either
coconut leaf or steel moulds helps in the preparation of
coconut jaggery. Further heating of viscous sap with con-
tinuous stirring to avoid charring, turns it into crystal
form, i.e. sugar granules (Figure 10 b). At this stage it is
suddenly cooled. While cooling, it is continuously stirred
to break the lumps. The product obtained is sieved to get
uniform particle size and to produce quality sugar.
Coconut sugar is also known as coconut palm sugar,
coco sugar or coco sap sugar. Unlike cane sugar which
supplies only calories, coconut sugar supplies calories
and nutrients. It has high mineral content compared to un-
refined and refined cane sugar, and is a rich source of po-
tassium, magnesium, zinc and iron (Table 4). In addition,
it contains all essential amino acids required for protein
synthesis, and is rich in vitamins like B1, B2, B3 and B6.
Compared to unrefined cane sugar, coconut sugar has
Figure 8. pH of coconut sap collected by CPCRI method and tradi-
tional method.
Figure 9. Relation between pH and total sugar and reducing sugar
content of coconut sap.
GENERAL ARTICLES
CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 109, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2015
6
two, four and ten times the amount of iron, magnesium
and zinc respectively.
Market prospects
Kalparasa as natural health drink
Kalparasa and the market price it commands has fuelled
ambitions of Indian coconut farmers who have been
struggling to cope with unstable prices and rising labour
Table 2. Biochemical and mineral composition of freshly collected
coconut sap (per 100 ml)
Biochemical parameters Range Average
pH 6.57–7.50 7.18
Total sugar (g) 10.08–16.50 15.18
Reducing sugar (g) 0.439–0.647 0.554
Amino acids (g) 0.123–0.338 0.245
Protein (g) 0.150–0.177 0.165
Sodium (mg) 69.4–117.5 90.6
Potassium (mg) 146.1–182.4 168.4
Phosphorus (mg) 2.0–6.4 3.9
Manganese (mg) 0.009–0.014 0.012
Copper (mg) 0.028–0.035 0.031
Zinc (mg) 0.018–0.026 0.020
Iron (mg) 0.049–0.058 0.053
Phenolics (mg) 4.80–5.40 5.10
Antioxidant activity (mM TE) 0.299–0.355 0.321
Source: Ref. 12.
Table 3. Vitamin content in freshly
collected coconut sap
Vitamin Value (mg/100 ml)
Thiamine 77.00
Riboflavin 12.20
Pyridoxal 38.40
Pantothenic acid 5.20
Nicotinic acid 40.60
Biotin 0.17
Folic acid 0.24
Inositol 127.70
Choline 9.00
Vitamin B12 Trace
Vitamin C 17.5
Source: Ref. 17.
Figure 10. Coconut sap value-added products. a, Coconut honey.
b, Coconut sugar.
costs. Palakkad Coconut Producers Company Ltd
(PCPCL), Kerala, one of the largest coconut producing
companies, is the first to adopt the CPCRI method of sap
collection and also the first to commercialize the sale of
fresh unfermented sap in the market. Fresh sap is col-
lected from the farmers, transported to a storage centre
and distributed to different kiosks where it is dispensed
through juice dispensers (Figure 11). The market experi-
ence indicates that Kalparasa as a natural non-alcoholic
beverage has high demand as an instant thirst quencher.
Switching to Kalparasa tapping has improved the income
of farmers, generated employment opportunity for the
youth and tappers, and provided multiple advantages to
the economy and consumers.
Table 4. Comparison of mineral nutrients composition of coconut
sugar with unrefined and refined cane sugar
Cane sugar
Coconut Unrefined Refined
sugar (brown) (white)
Macro‐minerals (mg/100 g dry wt)
Nitrogen 202 10 0
Phosphorus 79 3 0.07
Potassium 1030 65 2.5
Calcium 6 24 6.0
Magnesium 29 7 1.0
Sodium 45 2 1.0
Sulphur* 26 13 2.0
Micro‐minerals (μg/100 g dry wt)
Boron* 30 0 0
Zinc 2100 200 120
Manganese 130 200 0
Iron 2190 1260 120
Copper 230 60 6
Source: CPCRI, Kasaragod12; *Philippines Coconut Authority17.
Figure 11. Kalparasa stored in dispenser for sale.
GENERAL ARTICLES
CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 109, NO. 8, 25 OCTOBER 2015 7
Coconut sugar
In India, coconut sugar is prepared and sold by small-
scale industries in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala,
Lakshadweep Islands and Karnataka. There is a huge de-
mand for coconut sugar, however, production and supply
are limited. The recent revelations on the health benefits
of coconut sugar in comparison with cane sugar have led
to a sudden surge in the demand for coconut sugar in the
international market. Indonesia, the Philippines and Thai-
land are the major producers and suppliers of coconut
sugar to the global market.
Future prospects
The recent advancements in coconut sap collection and
its processing into natural value-added products and their
associated health benefits have led to a sudden surge in
domestic and international market for Kalparasa and co-
conut sugar. Apart from assuring stable and lucrative in-
come to the coconut farmer, switching to Kalparasa
tapping provides multiple advantages to the economy,
environment, farmer and consumer as listed below.
It is estimated that even if 10% of the 2 million hectare
area under coconut farming in India is tapped, with con-
servative yield of 1 litre/day, Rs 36,000 crores can be
generated annually, of which 25–30% will be the
farmer’s share.
The potential to develop new and indigenous technolo-
gies for Kalparasa by-products (honey, sugar, jaggery)
and value-added products (ice creams, toffees, syrups,
jam, pudding, cake, snacks, etc.) would be a boost to the
local economy. Coconut tree can produce as high as
19 tonnes/ha/yr sugar compared to 5–10 tonnes of sugar-
cane. As India is the second largest cultivator of coconut,
it has high potential for coconut sugar production.
Experiences from countries where coconut is allowed
for tapping like in South Sumatra and the Philippines
suggest that it is 8–10 times more profitable than selling
nuts. A tapper earns more than twice otherwise that of a
field worker per day. An important advantage is that a
tapper can earn daily income throughout the year.
Organic cultivation is practiced at least in certain
regions of India, like Lakshadweep Islands. Many farmers
have recently turned towards organic cultivation of coco-
nut. Hence, there are huge prospects for production of
organic coconut sugar/Kalparasa and its export in the
international market.
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Received 31 July 2014; revised accepted 10 July 2015
doi: 10.18520/v109/i8/
