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Flower formation in the saffron crocus (Crocus sativus L). The role of temperature
Abstract
The freshly formed replacement corms of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) had no chilling requirements, but sprouting only occurred after a period of after-ripening. Sprouting could be accelerated by a short curing at 30 °C. Shoot growth occurred at any temperature between 1 and 30 °C. The optimal temperature for shoot growth (23-25 °C) proved also optimal for flower initiation. No flower primordia were present in the resting buds. Flower organogenesis occurred during the early summer growth. The optimal temperature for flower emergence (17 °C) was markedly lower than for organogenesis. The differences in air temperature explain the different calendar time for saffron flower initiation in different locations. Water availability plays a minor role, if any, on flower formation. Storing the corms at an appropriate temperature will allow to control and extend the period of saffron flowering.
... This is a traditional saffron-producing area in Spain under the Regulatory Council Foundation of the Protected Designation of Origen La Mancha (DOP, 2021). Before planting, corms were incubated at 25 C (Molina et al., 2004a) for 55 d. On 25 Aug. 2019, corms were transplanted into individual 500-mL containers. ...
... No significant effects were recorded in the remaining vegetative growth parameters. It is well known that air temperature is one of the most important factors to induce saffron flowering (Gresta et al., 2009;Molina et al., 2004a;Wang et al., 2021). Molina et al. (2004a) reported that flower emergence required the transfer of the corms from the conditions of flower formation to a markedly lower air temperature (17 C). ...
... It is well known that air temperature is one of the most important factors to induce saffron flowering (Gresta et al., 2009;Molina et al., 2004a;Wang et al., 2021). Molina et al. (2004a) reported that flower emergence required the transfer of the corms from the conditions of flower formation to a markedly lower air temperature (17 C). By applying a colder environment, greater flower production was obtained (Gresta et al., 2009). ...
Saffron is one of the most appreciated, traditional, and expensive spices in the world. The objective of our study was to evaluate the effect of cooling the nutrient solution on the production, and organoleptic and commercial qualities of saffron grown in soilless culture. The nutrient solution was cooled to 4 to 5 C whereas the control treatment was the fertigation supplied at ambient temperature. Corms were placed in a controlled cultivation chamber. The number of flowers per corms, and the weight and length of stigmas were measured. The amounts of safranal, crocin, and picrocrocin were analyzed spectrophotometrically according to the International Organization for Standardization [ISO/TS 3632-2 (2011) Normative]. Our results show that cooling of the nutritive solution increased flower production, the commercial phytochemical content, and organoleptic properties.
... The aboveground processes start by flower emergence (the unique feature of saffron among cultivated crops) in autumn followed by vegetative growth in winter, and ends in spring with the formation of new corms, so-called daughter corms ( Fig. 9.10). The belowground phase starts with newly formed dormant corms followed by flower initiation processes (invisible at field) during the high temperatures of summer (Molina et al., 2004). ...
... Therefore experimental data at field level is not available during this period of development. Under controlled conditions Molina et al. (2004) reported 9 C as the base temperature (where development rate is zero) for flower initiation and 23 CÀ25 C as the optimum temperature during this period. They showed that under optimal temperature, 100À150 days is needed for completion of this phase. ...
... They showed that under optimal temperature, 100À150 days is needed for completion of this phase. Temperature rise above the optimum leads to delayed initiation of flowers and at temperatures higher than 30 C flower initiation ceases (Molina et al., 2004). Development rate is highly temperature dependent and as discussed before the maximum development rate (DR m ) will be reached at an optimum temperature (T o ). ...
Production and processing technologies of saffron
... The aboveground processes start by flower emergence (the unique feature of saffron among cultivated crops) in autumn followed by vegetative growth in winter, and ends in spring with the formation of new corms, so-called daughter corms ( Fig. 9.10). The belowground phase starts with newly formed dormant corms followed by flower initiation processes (invisible at field) during the high temperatures of summer (Molina et al., 2004). ...
... Therefore experimental data at field level is not available during this period of development. Under controlled conditions Molina et al. (2004) reported 9 C as the base temperature (where development rate is zero) for flower initiation and 23 CÀ25 C as the optimum temperature during this period. They showed that under optimal temperature, 100À150 days is needed for completion of this phase. ...
... They showed that under optimal temperature, 100À150 days is needed for completion of this phase. Temperature rise above the optimum leads to delayed initiation of flowers and at temperatures higher than 30 C flower initiation ceases (Molina et al., 2004). Development rate is highly temperature dependent and as discussed before the maximum development rate (DR m ) will be reached at an optimum temperature (T o ). ...
Since the early 1970s, mathematical models have been widely used at different spatial and temporal scales to gain insight into many diverse aspects of crop growth and development. However, these models were chiefly developed for main crop species and the application of modeling approaches for local crops has been overlooked. Undoubtedly mathematical models for underutilized crops such as saffron should be developed by scientists of the producing countries. Iran as the world’s first saffron producer plays a pioneering role in scientific research on this unique species and despite lack of soil, climatic and crop data, local attempts at development of mathematical models for saffron have been undertaken. This chapter provides an overview of these modeling efforts, starting with crop-weather models and artificial neural networks as the yield prediction tools followed by response surface modeling for optimization purposes, and dynamic models for simulation of saffron growth and development. Furthermore, some applications of the models at local and regional scales are discussed.
... Saffron flowering lasts several weeks, generally in a period included from the end of October to the beginning of December. Molina et al. (2004) suggested that it should be linked to temperatures, whereas other authors (Gresta et al., 2009) hypothesized that the flower calendar is influenced by the combination of temperature and soil moisture. ...
... No clear reason is reported in literature to explain this synchrony of flower appearance. The little available information on flowering phenology in saffron has been related to temperature cues (Molina et al., 2004). However, no information is reported on the effect of these cues on timing of flowering and its synchrony. ...
... Our results are in agreement with Molina et al. (2004Molina et al. ( , 2005b) that report that flowering appearance starts when temperature is around 15-17°C, and also with Gresta et al. (2016) reported that lower temperatures are necessary to trigger flowering synchrony. They also reported that the greater flower production obtained in the second year of trial could be related to the combination of air temperature of around 10°C and rainfall of at least 20 mm. ...
In a trial carried out in 2004 in inner Sicily (southern Italy), we explored saffron plants to find a relation between flowering peaks and meteorological data.
Temperature and rainfall of the experimental site were recorded throughout the experimental period, as well as daily flower number and total stigma weight.
Flowering lasted 24 days from November 2 to 25. Two main production peaks were detected. In both cases, this synchrony in flowering was achieved just after a considerable decrease of the minimum temperature that reached values lower than 5°C. Interesting relations between daily flowering peaks and temperature trend have
been hypothesized.
... Flower initiation occurs during early Spring to mid-Summer, depending on location (Milyaeva and Azizbekova, 1978;Koul and Farooq, 1984;Greenberg-Kaslasi, 1991;Molina et al., 2005). High temperatures are required to release bud dormancy and for flower initiation, which is optimal between 23º–27ºC (Molina et al., 2004a;2005). Root development and flower emergence occur in late Autumn at a markedly lower temperature, in the range 15º–17ºC (Plessner et al., 1989;Molina et al., 2004a). ...
... High temperatures are required to release bud dormancy and for flower initiation, which is optimal between 23º–27ºC (Molina et al., 2004a;2005). Root development and flower emergence occur in late Autumn at a markedly lower temperature, in the range 15º–17ºC (Plessner et al., 1989;Molina et al., 2004a). Through the combined effects of the timing of corm lifting and the duration of incubation at 25ºC,Molina et al. (2004b, c) were able to programme the flowering of corms between early September to mid-December. ...
... Adding this figure to the duration of pre-incubation at 25ºC needed by the corms to reach this stage of development, resulted in a total duration of storage of 139 d after lifting (Table I). This figure is similar to the maximum length of time that corms may be stored at 25ºC without affecting their flowering potential (up to 150 d;Molina et al., 2004a, c). Hence, there is no benefit to using more expensive cold-storage. ...
Conditions for the cold-storage of saffron crocus (Crocus sativus L.) corms to delay flowering have been characterised. Storage of corms at 2°C after flower initiation resulted in a time-dependent abortion of those flowers already initiated. The more advanced the stage of flower initiation at the beginning of cold-storage, the faster the rate of flower abortion. Overall, no benefit resulted from cold-storing corms after flower initiation. Corms stored in the cold before flower initiation, formed flowers when incubated after storage at 21°-25°C. The number and size of flowers formed, and the yield of spice saffron per corm, depended both on the duration and conditions of cold-storage. Storage at freezing temperatures (0° or -1°C) damaged the corms. Flowering could be induced in corms stored between 0.5°-2°C. Within this range, temperature had little effect on the subsequent behaviour of corms. Flower number and flower size decreased gradually with increasing duration of cold-storage. This decrease was slower when storage was performed in 1% oxygen than in a normal atmosphere (21% oxygen). Corms lifted after leaf-withering, and stored at 2°C in 1% oxygen for 70 d, could be forced to flower from early December until the end of January with the same yield of spice saffron as non cold-stored corms. These results complement previous findings on the control of saffron flowering. Taken together, they allow saffron flowering without loss of spice yield from early September to the end of January. Flowering could be further delayed until May by extending the duration of cold-storage, but this delayed flowering resulted in a significant reduction in spice saffron yield.
... With the aim of making the crop economically viable, it is necessary a change in the traditional production system, proposing a new culture system based on the forced production (Plessner et al., 1989;Molina et al., 2004aMolina et al., , 2004bMolina et al., , 2005. ...
... The forcing of bulbous plants is a normal practice at the commercial level (Muñoz et al., 2002). The studies and scientific publications of Plessner et al. (1989) and Molina et al. (2004aMolina et al. ( , 2004bMolina et al. ( , 2005) corroborate this production system in the cultivation of saffron spice. ...
... In the works of Plessner et al. (1989) and Molina et al. (2004aMolina et al. ( , 2004b, as well as the tests performed by Sajardo et al. (2005), it was proved that conservation at 25 and 30ºC allows to extend the flowering outdoors period. The corms stored at 25ºC produce a step forward in flowering with regard with its usual stage in the open (from October 15 to November 15) and even overlapping with it. ...
Abstrat Crocus sativus L. crop surface has decreased in the last years due to several factors. Despite of this, it remains a very popular product at the international level, where the saffron from La Mancha is considered the highest quality. The scientific and technological developments in the sector allow obtaining spice saffron by forced cultivation under controlled environmental conditions (temperature and relative humidity, mainly). In this paper is developed a prototype factory intensifying and increasing the yield per unit surface, getting a system of exploitation and management less painful, less laborious and more efficient. The production program covers a period of 4.5 months from August to December, obtaining a production of 57 kg of roasted saffron at 1095 m 2 . The financial study gives an internal rate of return of 14.4% and 5.5% with and without financing, respectively. This is a prototype factory with innovative technological and agronomic development.
... The flowers of the second year emerge from the corm formed in the previous year, and therefore, their characteristics are influenced by how well-nourished the developing corm was during the first year. In autumn, when the ambient temperature drops below 16 °C, the corm blooms [10]. During the harvest, the flower is collected, and the stigma, composed of three filaments, is separated. ...
... Among these, crocetin esters are the primary compounds responsible for the colour [13,14], picrocrocin for the bitter taste [15], and safranal contributes to the aroma [16]. It is also important to mention hydroxy-β-cyclocitral (4-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-1- In autumn, when the ambient temperature drops below 16 • C, the corm blooms [10]. During the harvest, the flower is collected, and the stigma, composed of three filaments, is separated. ...
Saffron is a spice that is obtained by dehydrating the stigmas of the Crocus sativus flower. Iran is the country that produces the largest amount of saffron, exceeding 90% of world production. Currently, there is a growing medicinal use which implies that there is more demand than supply worldwide, in turn, a large amount of labor is required to obtain it; for these two reasons, it reaches a high price in the international market. This demand is due to the high concentration of apocarotenoid metabolites that it biosynthesizes. In this work, the content of these metabolites of saffron from six production areas of Iran and neighbouring countries infected with saffron latent virus (SaLV) and dehydrated at two temperatures is compared. The corms of the six provenances were planted in a homogeneous plot and the stigmas analyzed were those of the second year after planting. The analysis showed that corms do not completely retain the memory of their original origin. In general, the ratio of the sum of mmol/kg of HTCC derivatives to the sum of the mmol of crocins is greater than two. This implies that the biosynthesis of saffron apocarotenoids due to the degradation of β-carotene towards HTCC is more important than that of zeaxanthin formation, which later gives HTCC and crocetin dialdehyde.
... P < 0.001). The number of days that the soil was at 23°C or higherthe minimum temperature required to induce flower bud production (Molina et al. 2004) was low at 20 cm in all three years where we recorded soil temperature (1 day in 2017 up to 12 days in 2018). This temperature was sustained for only 1 to 5 days before cooling again. ...
... We started noticing the presence of a bud by early August, and the shoot became apparent by mid-September. Flower initiation also occurs in early August in Spain and in Azerbaijan (Azizbekova and Milyaeva 1999); however, in Spain, 2 months elaspe from complete leaf senescence (early June) to floral initiation (early August) during which flower induction takes place (Molina et al. 2004), whereas this period lasted 2 to 3 weeks in the current study. Earlier work has shown that optimal soil temperatures that are required for floral induction vary between 23 and 27°C, and corms need to remain at these temperatures for 10 to 12 weeks (Molina et al. 2005) to induce maximum flower production. ...
Saffron, an autumn crocus that produces a highly valuable spice, is grown mainly in Mediterranean climates. Nevertheless, saffron farms have been established recently in the province of Quebec. This led us to test cultivation practices that could influence plant phenology, saffron yield, and corm growth, including planting depth, planting period, and the application of fertilizers, mycorrhizal fungi, and biostimulants at planting. Soil temperature was monitored at the different planting depths throughout the year. Floral initiation was also monitored during spring and summer. Shoot emergence was delayed and final emergence reduced as planting depth increased; however, more shoots were produced by shallow-planted corms, which could lead to the production of corms too small to flower. The best time for planting saffron corm is between the end of July and the third week of August. Mineral fertilization hastened leaf emergence and improved corm production and their nutrient content. Neither the addition of mycorrhizal fungi or of biostimulants had any significant impact on saffron growth or flowering. Floral induction likely took place in July as flower bud appeared in early August. In most years, flower and saffron production was low in this location. It appears that soil temperature did not remain high for long enough during the summer to promote floral induction and autumn temperatures decreased too fast, limiting shoot and flower emergence most years. However, these climatic conditions did not affect corm production; corms could thus be sold to secure revenues for producers.
... Some authors (Mollafilabi, 2004;Fernandez et al., 2004) suggest that the optimal climatic conditions for this species are rainy autumns, mild winters and warm summers, even though it is known that saffron can tolerate temperatures of À18 8C (Mollafilabi, 2004), as well as peak temperatures up to 40 8C (personal observation). The little available information on flowering phenology in saffron has been related to environmental cues like temperature (Molina et al., 2004), radiation, water availability or nutrient (Behdani et al., 2004). However, no data are Scientia Horticulturae xxx (2008) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 Saffron is well known for its use as a condiment spice, as a dye and traditional medicine. ...
... In saffron, temperature certainly plays a role in flowering induction and flower appearance (Molina et al., 2004(Molina et al., , 2005a. However, in contrast with Molina et al. (2005b) who point out that flowering appearance is strictly related to temperature and ascribe a minor role to water content, our results show that temperature interacts with soil water content as environmental cues to trigger flowering. ...
Saffron is well known for its use as a condiment spice, as a dye and traditional medicine. Saffron is experiencing an increasing interest mainly due to its peculiar and manifold properties of the metabolic pool of its stigmas, mainly crocetin esters and picrocrocin. This species is cultivated in environments with very different climatic conditions and with very different corm rates from place to place, passed down over the centuries. The aim of this study was therefore the evaluation of the influence of rainfall, temperature and corm density on flower phenology, stigmas yield and main compositional characteristics of two saffron corms provenience. Flowering beginning in saffron seems to be influenced by the combination of temperature and soil moisture, whilst its flowering calendar proves independent of corm provenance, environment and plant density. On the contrary, the studied factors exert a strong effect on both total stigmas yield and qualitative characteristics: colder environment resulted in a higher flower production, but lower quality of stigmas. Flower number was positively correlated with the stigmas yield, but negatively with its unitary weight. The content of crocetin esters and picrocrocin has been evaluated according to the spectrophotometric ISO normative, which ranked the samples into three qualitative decreasing categories (I–III). The spectrophotometric data showed positive correlation with the unitary stigmas weight and negative with stigmas production.
... He studied seven parameters (minimum, maximum and mean temperature, daily temperature difference, relative humidity, rainfall and sunlight) in his research and documented that saffron growth stages are severely affected by climatic parameters especially temperature during the growth period. Furthermore, Molina et al. (2004) reported the optimal temperature range between 23 to 27.8 o C for flower formation. Similarly, according to Rahimi et al. (2017) the most favorable temperature requirement for flower induction/differentiation and development of the saffron corms ranges between 23 to 27 °C with 23 °C marginally superior for the formation of maximum number of flowers. ...
The current study was conducted in growth chamber with the aims to examine the effect of different soil types and temperature regimes on quantitative and qualitative traits of saffron and to assess the agro-climatic suitability of selected sites of Poonch Division of Azad Jammu & Kashmir for field scale saffron cultivation. Soil from 07 sites was collected and processed for pot filling. A total of 63 plastic pots (21 for each temperature level i.e., 19, 26 and 32 oC), were filled with soils of each site and incubated separately in growth chambers. The pots were arranged under completely randomized design (CRD) replicated thrice. Results indicated that maximum number of flowers (1.35 per plant), flower fresh weight (29.03 mg per plant), stigma length (1.21 cm), stigma fresh weight (8.97 mg per plant) and stigma yield (8.60 mg per pot) was recorded for Khaigala site (loam textured soil) at 26 oC followed by Trarkhel (sandy loam textured soil) and Abbaspur (loam textured soil) sites. On an average, maximum 58.30 days were taken to initiate flowering in soil of Alisojal site (clay loam textured soil) with flowering period of 17.06 days. The maximum number of daughter corms (2.92 per plant), corm diameter (9.61 mm), corm weight (15.76 g per plant), corm yield (47.28 g per pot), picrocrocin (11.32%) and safranal (0.22%) content was again recorded for Khaigala site (at 26 oC). However, maximum crocin content (14.33%) was noted for Alisojal site (1831 m altitude). The Cluster and PC analyses revealed that Khaigala, Trarkhel and Abbaspur sites produced saffron of better quality and agro-climatically suitable for establishment of saffron. Further, the saffron grown on loam and sandy loam textured soils showed better performance compared to that of clay textured soils.
... Flowering induction is controlled by endogenous genetic components and various environmental factors, including the photoperiod, the hormonal status, vernalization, plant age pathway, temperature pathway, and internal pathway. In saffron as a short-day plant, the temperature-dependent pathway plays a substantial role in controlling flowering time, among others (Molina et al. 2004). The MADS-box gene family is the most important transcription factor involved in the flowering control process. ...
Improving flower yield through lengthening flowering duration is a primary breeding objective in saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Asexual reproduction in saffron limits biodiversity and conventional breeding. Hence, eliciting flowering-related gene expression by plant growth regulators is one way to achieve this aim. The phytohormones methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and 6-benzyl amino purine (BAP) signals are received by the MADs-box gene family. In this study, to elucidate the role of phytohormones on flower development, plant were treated with BAP (0 and 5 mg L⁻¹), and methyl jasmonate (MeJA) (0, 20, and 100 mM) at three developmental stages of the saffron life cycle. Then, the expression of the SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE (CsSVP) gene as a MADS-box gene family was assessed in the saffron corm. The activities of antioxidant enzymes, soluble sugar, starch content, and soluble protein content were also measured in corm, leaf, and root tissues. The application of MeJA and BAP treatments resulted in down-regulation of CsSVP expression in the corm during dormancy. At the dormancy stage, catalase, peroxidase activity decreased, and ascorbate peroxidase activity increased following MeJA treatment. In contrast, an increment in catalase and peroxidase activity and reduction of ascorbate peroxidase activity were observed after treatment with MeJA during the flowering stage. This change in enzyme activity is most likely due to flowering, which demands the re-allocation of resources. As flowering is a process heavily influenced by the environment, plants treated with MeJA, which may mimic environmental stress, showed changes in antioxidant enzyme activity. Overall, these results suggested that MeJA and BAP treatments play a significant role in the vegetative-to-reproductive phase change in saffron.
... Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a triploid herbaceous geophyte that is reproduced by means of replacement corms and is cultivated in environments with very different soil characteristics [1][2][3] for its red scarlet stigmas that are used worldwide as a spice and natural dye [4]. Origin, abiotic stresses, agronomical practices, and processing methods (stigma separation, drying, and storage) can influence both the plant and the saffron spice yield, composition, and quality [5,6]. ...
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) establish mutualistic symbiotic associations with plant roots and act as biofertilizers by enhancing plant nutrient and water uptake. Moreover, AMF colonization may influence the biosynthesis of plant bioactive compounds in medicinal and aromatic plants. There is limited information on AMF associations with Crocus sativus L. (saffron) roots and their effect on crop performances and spice quality. In the present work we verified the efficiency of root mycorrhization in potted conditions, and then we evaluated the yield and quality of the saffron produced in two Alpine sites during two cultivation cycles with the application of AMF. Two inocula were applied, either a single-species (Rhizophagus intraradices) or a multispecies mixture (R. intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae). The trial conducted in potted conditions confirmed that both AMF commercial inocula established symbiotic relationships with saffron roots. The multispecies inoculation yielded the highest content of arbuscules in colonized portions of the root (100%), while the single-species was slightly less (82.9%) and no AMF were recorded in untreated control corms. In open-field conditions, AMF colonization of the root systems, flower production, and saffron yields were monitored, and bioactive compounds contents and antioxidant activity in the dried spice were analyzed using spectrophotometry and high performance liquid chromatography. Overall, the saffron produced was high quality (ISO category) and had high contents of bioactive compounds, with very high total polyphenol content and elevated antioxidant activity. The use of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbionts as biostimulants positively affected saffron cultivation, improving the crop performances and the content of important nutraceutical compounds. In particular, the inoculum composed by R. intraradices and F. mosseae increased flower production and the saffron yield. R. intraradices alone enhanced the spice antioxidant activity and the content of bioactive compounds such as picrocrocin, crocin II, and quercitrin. Since saffron is the world’s highest priced spice, the increases in yield and quality obtained using AMF suggests that farms in marginal areas such as alpine sites can increase profitability by inoculating saffron fields with arbuscular mycorrhiza.
... Similar results in Torbat and Ghoochan in the formation and growth of daughter corms show the importance of minimum temperature to facilitate in this period for photosynthesis and growth. Molina et al. (2004) showed that the main factor in determining shoot growth and flower formation is temperature. They also stated that the optimum temperature for flowering out of the soil is less than optimum temperature for the formation of flowers. ...
These days, sustainability in agriculture is one of the most important sections in sustainable development. The main income in rural regions in Khorasan Razavi province in Iran is from agricultural products especially saffron. In this study the effect of climatological parameters on saffron yield was studied. Seven parameters (mean temperature, minimum temperature, maximum temperature, daily temperature difference, relative humidity, rainfall and sunlight) during 20 years in five cities including Torbat Heydarieh, Gonabad, Neyshaboor, Sabzevar and Ghoochan were used. The yield of saffron also in Jihad-e Keshavarzi Organization was measured. Results indicated that saffron growth stages are severely affected by climatic parameters especially temperature and sunlight during the growth season. Also relative humidity and rainfall affected saffron growth in dormant stage (July-August) of saffron.
... وجشود بشا اکوسیسشت کارکرد و ساختار بر کشتی چند الگوهای ویژه اهمیت ها (Koocheki et al., 2005;Nassiri Mahallati et al., 2008) ،Koocheki et al., 2005)Koocheki & Seyyedi, 2015;Koocheki et al., 2014)Koocheki et al., 2007;Gresta et al., 2008;Renau-Morata et al., 2012.Molina et al., 2005 .)حرارت درجه تعدیل بر عالوه (Molina et al., 2004Molina et al., , 2005Koocheki et al., 2010) آبیشششاری صشششحیح مشششدیریت و (Sepaskhah et al., 2008;Azizi-Zohan et al., 2009;) ، مسشتق ارتبشاط در اول سال در زعفران گل عملکرد ی میشاان بشا بنه در مذایی اندوخته مادری های می باششد (Nassiri Mahallati et al., 2007;Rezvani Moghaddam et al., 2013a) ؛ به طور ی ،اول سال در ً معموال که بنه ها از ،گشرم چهشار از کمتشر وزن با یی برخوردارنشد گل تولید جهت پایینی بسیار توانایی (Koocheki et al., 2014)Kafi et al., 2002;Kumar et al., 2009)Kafi et al., 2002;Gresta et al., 2008)Kafi et al., 2002;Rezvani Moghaddam et al., 2013a)Koocheki et al., 2011;2012b;)Mazloumi et al., 2007;Taslimi et al., 2007)2007. Comparison of the effects of solar drying and vacuum processes with traditional methods on properties of saffron. ...
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a perennial plant which grows basically in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. Despite saffron’s adaptation to these regions, the assessment of changes in cultivation area over the last 30 years reveals that cultivation of this crop has sharply increased. According to the available statistics, there are 21 provinces where saffron is cultivated on about 84,000 hectares of land. Nonetheless, saffron yield per unit area has aggressively fallen from 5.1 kg ha-1 in 1982 to 3.2 kg ha-1 in 2015. Saffron yield loss can be caused by several factors, such as mismanagement in agriculture section, economics and post-harvest processing as well as the recent droughts. Lack of attention to these factors could lead to further decline in saffron yield in the future. The saffron yield loss over the last 30 years is an alert for saffron-related institutions such as the universities, research centers and Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO) to pay more attention to this crop and prepare more comprehensive programs. In developing these programs, the importance of government policies for planning and approving enough budget is to be highlighted. In this review, first we focus on the reasons for saffron yield loss during the last 30 years and then we try to provide some solutions in relation to these reasons.
... Saffron is a member of the Iridaceae family (Liliales, Monocots) whose carrying genomes are relatively large and are poorly characterized (Fernández and Pandalai, 2004). The saffron ecotypes of different provinces have been studied by several researchers (De Juan et al., 2003;Gresta et al., 2009;Jalali-Heravi et al., 2010;Maggi et al., 2011;Molina et al., 2005Molina et al., , 2004Renau-Morata et al., 2012;Turhan et al., 2007). It was concluded that there were significant differences between ecotypes and that climatic conditions affected directly and/or indirectly on quantitative and qualitative traits of saffron. ...
To study and assess the phenotypic and genotypic variations between different saffron ecotypes and the phenotypic/genotypic relationships between yield and yield components of saffron flower a split plot experiment in randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted at the agricultural research station of Urmia University, Urmia, Iran during 2011-13 cropping years. 15 traits of yield and yield components of saffron flower were measured such as: Fresh Stigma Weight, Dry Stigma Weight and Stigma Length. The results showed that genetic variances were much higher than phenotypic variances for more traits. Fresh and dry leaf weight (94 and 95% respectively) and dry stigma yield (94%) had the highest heritability between traits. It became also very clear that these traits had the highest genetic diversity. Results of the correlation coefficients showed that the phenotypic correlations were higher than the genotypic correlations for almost of all traits. Traits daughter corm number (0.98), flower number (0.97), dry and fresh daughter corm weight (0.96 and 0.95, respectively) and dry stigma weight had the highest genotypic correlation with dry stigma yield. Phenotypic and genotypic path analysis determined that fresh and dry stigma weight, flower number, leaf width and dry flower weight had the highest positive direct effects on dry stigma yield. In general, with the purpose of the study and assessments to genotypic correlation coefficients, genetic parameters and genotypic direct and indirect effects, we can conclude that traits flower number, leaf number, weight and number of daughter corm were the most effective traits and had the highest positive impacts on the saffron yield. Therefore, with the phenotypic selection of saffron ecotypes in respect of these traits the saffron yield can be increased.
... This data are also in agreement with McGimpsey et al. (1997) whom, in the first year of a multi-year experiment, obtained a flowering period of about 30 days. It should be noted, however, that weather conditions (temperature and rainfall) have very great effects on flowering induction and flower appearance in saffron (Molina et al., 2004(Molina et al., , 2005Gresta et al., 2009). Although, the climatic data did not show marked differences from one year to the next (Table 1), the second year of the experiment was characterized by a daily temperature 2-3 • C lower compared to the first year and by a more uniform and effective distribution of rainfall just before and during the flowering period. ...
Saffron is an annual plant usually grown as a perennial crop, with well-known problems, which are related to the reduction of soil fertility (mainly caused by weeds, biotic pathologies and micronutrients scarcity) that in the long run determine a dramatic yield reduction and overexploitation of the soil. In this view, crop rotations are considered the traditional antidote to the soil sickness. However, the evidence of the effects of previous crop on saffron stigma yield and corm production is slender and fragmentary. A two-year study was carried out to evaluate the effect of three different previous crops (faba bean, saffron and fallow) on saffron stigmas yield and replacement corms production. Two different corm densities (30 and 45 corms m⁻²) were also studied. Faba bean as previous crop determined the highest performance in terms of flower number (up to 400 flowers m⁻²), stigma yield (up to 2 g m⁻²) and replacement corms (up to 4.7 kg m⁻²). This paper, to our knowledge, is the first experimental based research on the effects of previous crop on stigma and corm yield of saffron.
... Producing enough saffron from 4.50 to 5.50 kg against the existing level for increased demand against the background of changing climate scenario is a challenging task for agencies involved in saffron research and development. Singh et al. (2005) and Molina et al. (2004), reported that the optimal temperature requirement for emergence of saffron flower is 17°C. Being vegetatively propagated crop through corms or cormlet; the corm selection is as old as its cultivation centuries ago. ...
Keeping in view the dearth of well-defined saffron germplasm, an exploration trip was conducted to collect saffron germplasm from the growing tracts of Kashmir valley. A total of 28 diverse accessions were collected and evaluated. Data recorded was subjected to basic statistical analysis viz., minimum, maximum, mean and coefficient of variance as well as Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index (SDI) was also worked out. Correlation study was done to know the extent and pattern of contribution among the traits and saffron yield. An attempt was made to quantify the extent of diversity present among the accessions explored and evaluated with the help of NTSYSpc software; dissimilarity coefficient and a dendogram was drawn. Presence of good variability in respect of vegetative, agro-morphological traits as well as reproductive traits like days to anthesis (35 - 44 days), duration of flowering (15 - 21 day), No. of flowers per plant (2 - 4), style length (26 32 mm) and saffron (style) weight, confirmed that there is tremendous scope of improvement in saffron production. The Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index (SDI) ranged from 0.08 to 0.25. Style length and dry saffron weight showed good amount of diversity as compared to the other parameter. Correlation study confirmed that corm size is a single trait which influences vegetative growth (plant height and number of leaves) positively. This genetic stock tagged with known potential could be utilized for current need as well as for future hybridization programme with its close relatives viz., C. thomasii and C. cartwrightianus.
... Several environmental parameters affect flower induction in saffron among which temperature seems to play a pivotal role. 38,39 Flower induction requires an incubation of the corms at high temperature (23-27 °C), followed by a period of exposure at moderately low temperature (17 °C) for flower emergence. There are evidences which show the critical importance of light and temperature in biological activities of plants including regulatory effects on dormancy period, vegetative and generative growth particularly flowering habit. ...
Kashmir valley is a major saffron (Crocus sativus Kashmirianus) growing area of the world, second only to Iran in terms of production. In Kashmir, saffron is grown on uplands (termed in the local language as "Karewas"), which are lacustrine deposits located at an altitude of 1585 to 1677 min above mean sea level (amsl), under temperate climatic conditions. Kashmir, despite being one of the oldest historical saffron-producing areas faces a rapid decline of saffron industry. Among many other factors responsible for decline of saffron industry the preponderance of drought-like situation has become a major challenge imposed by climate change. Saffron has a limited coverage area as it is grown as a 'niche crop' and is a recognized "geographical indication," growing under a narrow microclimatic condition. As such it has become a major victim of climate change effects, which has jeopardized the livelihood of thousands of farmers and traders associated with it. The paper discusses the potential and actual impact of climate change process on saffron cultivation in Kashmir; and the biotechnological measures to address these issues.
... 21 Little information is available concerning saffron flower induction, but a major effect has been ascribed to the initiation and duration of flowering, while an inferior (or null) role has been found for soil water content. 22 The stigma yield obtained in the present experiment was very high compared with previous reports. 18,20,23 This result may be attributed to the large mean size of corms (3.5 cm diameter) used here, which belonged to the middle-high size class, compared with the corms commonly commercialised. ...
BACKGROUND: Saffron is one of the most appreciated and expensive spices known and has been used from the oldest times as a dye for fabrics, a condiment to enrich food and for medicinal purposes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of crop management methods on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the spice in southern Italy. Two sowing times (end of July and end of August) and two corm dimensions (4 and 3 cm horizontal diameter) were evaluated.
RESULTS: Flowering period and duration were not influenced by the studied factors, while early sowing time and greater corm dimension resulted in a greater number of flowers per m2, increased stigma yield and a greater total yield of replacement corms. Early sowing time also showed a significant positive influence on stigma quality measured as apocarotenoid content according to ISO guidelines.
CONCLUSION: The results show that, in a Mediterranean environment, appropriate crop techniques and selection of corms can result in economic levels of production and improve the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of saffron. In fact, according to their apocarotenoid contents, samples from the early (July) and late (August) sowing times belonged to the first and second ISO categories respectively. Copyright
... Flower initiation occurs as the temperature rises above 20°C during late spring, whereas, flower emergence occurs as temperature falls below 16°C.Plessner et al. (86)showed that it was possible to induce flowering of saffron before leaf emergence by storing corms in dry vermiculite at 15°C for 35 days and then transferring them to controlled conditions in phytotron (moist growing media, 16 h 17°C day/12°C night photoperiod). Optimum temperature for flower emergence should be lower than for flower formation.(69)This fact explains the difference in the timing of flower initiation in locations with contrasting climates. ...
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is the most expensive spice of the world, and it is one of the
85 members of the genus Crocus. It is native of Asia Minor, and it is cultivated in Mediterranean
countries. Saffron predominantly contains certain chemical constituents
that are responsible for imparting colour, flavour, and aroma. Some of its components
have cytotoxic, anti-carcinogenic and anti-tumor properties. Since, saffron is a triploid
(2n = 3x = 24) plant and fails to produce seed upon selfing or crossing, so it is propagated
through corms. The growing area for saffron is not extensive, although its
demand in the international market is increasing. Research activities have been initiated
to develop new production technologies of this spice in many countries. Saffron
grows best in friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay calcareous
soils. Besides, climate and soil, planting time, seed/corm rate, planting depth,
corm size/weight, crop density, nutrient management, weed management, growth regulators,
harvest, and post-harvest management also influence saffron quality and quantity.
In this paper, an attempt has been made to compile the recent agronomic research
on saffron for commercial flower and corm production.
... Flower induction is a very complicated mechanism in saffron. Little information is available on flower induction in saffron; nevertheless, flowering seems to be mainly influenced by environmental factor such as Molina et al. (2004a) ascribe the ability to influence the beginning and duration of flowering to temperature, while an inferior or negligible role is ascribed to soil water content. Certainly, as in most geophyte plants, both seasonal and daily thermoperiodism are involved as the main environmental factors inducing flowering (Halevy, 1990). ...
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is an autumnal flowering geophite whose dried stigmas, well known for their aromatic and colouring power, have been used since immemorial time as a spice in human nutrition, for medicinal purposes and as a dye. Many doubts remain on its origin; it was probably selected and domesticated in Crete during the Late Bronze Age. Saffron is an autotriploid geophyte species, self- and out-sterile and mostly male-sterile and therefore unable to produce seed, that reproduces by means of corms. Furthermore, it has a reverse biological cycle compared with the majority of cultivated and spontaneous plants: flowering first in October-November, then vegetative development until May, which means that the vegetative development is not directly important for production of stigmas, but for the production of new corms. Due to its unique biological, physiological and agronomic traits, saffron is able to exploit marginal land and to be included in low-input cropping systems, representing an alternative viable crop for sustainable agriculture. Notwithstanding this great potential and the considerable increase in new generation consumer demand for saffron, the future of the plant is still uncertain. Indeed, the main obstacles to saffron production are: (1) the limited areas of cultivation in countries where it is traditionally grown, (2) the great amount of sophisticated spice, (3) management techniques executed by hand, and (4) the very high price of the spice. Here we review the main biological, genetic and ecological traits associated with agronomic management techniques of saffron in relation to environmental conditions. Colour, taste and aroma are the essential features on which the quality of saffron stigmas is founded. In turn, these aspects are strictly connected with the biomolecular composition of the stigmas, namely, the carotenoids and their derivatives. With this in mind, the biosynthetic pathway that leads to the formation of saffron secondary metabolites and their abundance in the spice is presented, together with the biomedical properties commonly associated with saffron. Furthermore, a detailed overview of the more recent instrumental methods to assess the quality of saffron, strictly from a chemical point of view, will be discussed.
This paper aimed to develop an ideal twelve-month weather module ensuring stable production based on congenial average weather data observed at different development stages. Descriptive statistics revealed that mean saffron yield obtained during 2023, 2022, and 2013 (26.7 g/50 m2) designated as excellent yielders were significantly different from 2017, 2014 designated as poor yielders (6.7 g/50 m2). Excess or deficit precipitation was responsible for saffron production loss, resulting in hormonal crosstalk leading to flower abortion or forced sub-hysteranthus characteristics of saffron. Saffron yield depended not only on the quantity of available water but also on the time of availability. For best flower yields, the crop should receive 40% (35–38 mm) water in the sprouting phase (September) and 60% (52–62 mm) water in the flowering preparatory phase (October). The study confirmed that flower initiation started as and when the day temperature reached around 20°c and the night temperature reached around 2.5°c. The plant attains full bloom with further decline in temperature (maximum temperature of 18.6°c and mean minimum temperature of 1.25°c). Saffron, under temperate conditions, on average, received 1044.9 h to 1170 h of chilling to induce vernalization. The study confirms that the amount of chilling hours received by the crop is not the decisive factor for the quantum of saffron flowering but is a precursor for vernalization. The excess precipitation accompanied by high relative humidity during maturation and senescence can cause corm rot initiation, leading to corm death and, thus, affecting the corm population/unit area. It could be a cause of poor flowering in poor yielders. Weather parameters recorded during the flower ontogenesis period recorded 104% excess precipitation (270.9 mm) over poor yielders (132.7 mm), and thus, besides other reasons, can be a cause of poor yields observed during 2014 and 2017.
Saffron is cultivated in most part of Iran, because of low water requirement and well adaptation to diverse environmental condition. In recent years, for many reasons such as low water requirement, saffron cultivation areas has been increased especially in Khorasan Razavi province. Temperature is one of the most important factors in saffron flowering phenomena. The aim of this research was to evaluate the response of saffron to temperature in Khorasan Razavi province counties (Torbat-e-Heydarieh, Gonabad, Nishabour, Sabzevar and Ghoochan). Climatic data (monthly minimum, average, maximum temperatures and diurnal temperature range) and saffron yield data were collected for past 20 years period. The stepwise regression methods were used to remove extra parameters and only keep the most important ones. By using these equations and ArcGIS software zoning, Spline method was find the best for saffron crop zoning. The results of linear regression in Gonabad showed that minimum, maximum and average temperature and also diurnal temperature range in March and April months had the greatest impact on saffron yield. For each of the four indices (the minimum, maximum and average temperature and also diurnal temperature range) the best area for saffron cultivation was the southern part of the province (particularly Gonabad); so by increasing distance from this area to north areas (such as Kashmar, Torbat-e-Heydarieh, Sabzevar, Nishabour, Mashhad and finally Ghoochan) saffron yield reduced by 30 to 50 percent. Therefore, the northern areas of the province had relatively low saffron yield. According to result of this research …
Saffron is one of the most appreciated, traditional and expensive spices in the world. The aim of our study was to evaluate the effect of electric conductivities (ECs) of nutrient solution on the production and commercial qualities of saffron grown in soilless culture. Corms of saffron were placed in a controlled cultivation chamber in pot of 0.5 L refilled with standard coir as substrate. The treatments with standard macro- and micronutrient content were the EC supplied at 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 and 3.5 dS m−1. The parameter measured were vegetative growth, number of flowers per corms, the weight and length of stigmas, the absorption of water, nitrate and potassium from fertigation, metabolite content and commercial categories. The amounts of safranal, crocin and picrocrocin were analysed spectrophotometrically according to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO/TS 3632–1 (2003) Normative). The best results in fertigation uptake, vegetative growth and commercial production were obtained at ECs of 2.0 to 2.5 dS m−1, while the best metabolite concentrations and commercial category were recorded between ECs of 2.5 to 3.0 dS m−1. Saffron quality in soilless culture improved slightly in relation to traditional method of crop.
n order to evaluate the trend of saffron yield and study the relationship between saffron yield fluctuations and various climatic parameters, research was designed and conducted in Mashhad, Torbat Heydariyeh, Kashmar, Birjand and Qaen during 20 years (1998-2018). According to meteorological data from the last 20 years, the average rainfall decreased by 33% and the average temperature increased by 0.5 °C . On the other hand, the regression results between yield and climatic parameters indicates that the pattern of temperature rise and decreased rainfall in all studied cities was significantly in line with saffron yield declining. In this period, the study's findings also revealed that over the last 20 years, an average of 112.3 hectares of saffron cultivation have been added to the areas under cultivation of saffron and at the same time, saffron yields have dropped by an average of 0.08 kg per hectare. Climatic indicators significantly affected decreased saffron yield in Razavi and South Khorasan. The results also revealed that the average and maximum temperature were the main variables influencing the reduction of saffron yield. For instance in Torbat-e Heydarieh, the variable of average temperature predicted 42 percent of the variability of the yield and in other cities studied, the maximum temperature variable predicted between 24 and 56% of the variability of the yield. Furthermore, the results of the time series analysis of saffron yield revealed that saffron yield will show a decreasing and negative trend by 2025 in all studied cities. Up to 2025, Mashhad and Kashmar with a slope of 0.09 and 0.07 kg/ha, had the highest and lowest decreasing trends, respectively.
Abstract
In order to evaluate the trend of saffron yield and study the relationship between saffron yield
fluctuations and various climatic parameters, research was designed and conducted in Mashhad,
TorbatHeydariyeh, Kashmar, Birjand, and Qaen during 20 years (1998-2018). According to
meteorological data from the last 20 years, the average rainfall decreased by 33%, and the average
temperature increased by 0.5 °C. On the other hand, the regression results between yield and
climatic parameters indicate that the pattern of temperature rise and decreased rainfall in all studied
cities was significantly in line with saffron yield declining. The results revealed that the saffron
cultivation area had been increased by 112.3 ha each year. Meanwhile, saffron yields have dropped
by an average of 0.08 kg per hectare per year. Climatic indicators significantly affected decreased
saffron yield in Razavi and South Khorasan. The results also revealed that the average and
maximum temperature were the mainvariables influencing the reduction of saffron yield. For
instance, in Torbat-e Heydarieh, the average temperature predicted 42 percent of the variability of
the yield, and in other studied cities, the maximum temperature variable resulted in 24 and 56% of
the variability of the yield. Furthermore, the time series analysis of saffron yield results revealed
that saffron yield will show a decreasing and negative trend by 2025 in all studied cities. Up to
2025, Mashhad and Kashmar, with a slope of 0.09 and 0.07 kg.ha-1, had the highest and lowest
decreasing trends, respectively.
In order to investigate the effects of vegetation covering and shading on the economic yield of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a split–plot experiment based on Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications was conducted at the Gonabad station for two cropping years (2018-2019, 2019- 2020). Experiments included main factor, density at four levels (90, 60, 120, and 150 corms per square meter) and
sub-factors of crop residue management and shading at four levels (removal of saffron residues at the end of the growing season as (control), presence of saffron residues at the end of the growing season, (control) + use of 2 (t.ha-1) barley straw and finally (control) + use of shading). Due to the nature of sub-factors, the data for the second year of growth were measured and analyzed. The results of the analysis of variance showed that density and cover management had a significant effect (p≤0.01) on the vegetative characteristics of saffron (number, length, and leaf area). However, the effect of density and the interaction effect of density × covering on vegetative traits had not significant effect. Also, the results of measured traits related to yield showed that the effect of corm density, covering management, and the interaction of corm density × type of covering on the number, flower weight, and economic stigma yield were significant (p≤0.01). The highest amount of dry stigma yield and fresh weight of flowers with values of 5.16 and 411 (kg.ha-1), respectively, achieved from the treatment of 150 corms per square meter density and use of cereal straw covering and the lowest of these traits with values of 2.2 and 200 (kg.ha-1) was obtained from the density of 60 corms per square meter and control. Stepwise regression analysis for variables related to saffron economic yield showed that the number of flowers per unit area alone could explain 90.59% of the variation in saffron economic performance. Considering the positive effect of covering application on adjusting soil temperature compared to the maximum daily air temperature (at least 7%) and the simultaneous positive effect of this method of cropping management with induction of flowering stage in saffron, it seems that the use of different types of covering, especially cereal straw, is recommended to stabilize and improve saffron yield due to its low cost and easier access to covering saffron fields.
Keywords: Flowers, Green area, Mulch, Temperature, Yield.
Saffron is traditionally a family farming crop, grown on relatively small-scale farms based on the sustainability of yield with reliance on locally available resources. Due to its expansion in areas of the cultivation worldwide, innovations are needed in production and processing. There are several factors that limit saffron production and yield at a worldwide scale including lack of access to high-quality plant materials, mismanagement of agricultural inputs, and the loss of technical knowledge and new technologies. This chapter addresses new techniques in saffron production such as soilless beds, forced flowering, applications of hormones, organic production, and smart farming using multidisciplinary large data sets to manage farms. We also consider new uses of saffron in animal feeding and saffron waste for packaging alongside e-commerce as new ways to trade this spice.
Domestication of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), an exceptional triploid plant, occurred between 300 and 1600 BCE and was possibly first harvested as a mutant of Crocus cartrightianus. To gain a thorough understanding of Crocus and its position in plant kingdom, this chapter will briefly introduce the Iridaceae family to which the genus Crocus belongs, followed by an explanation of the species of Crocus. The habitats of Crocus species, the act of contractile root, and the types of corms and tunica will also be described. The evolution of saffron is a matter of ambiguity; however, different aspects of the evolution and phylogeny of saffron will be explored. To increase our knowledge of saffron, its botany as well as the botany of similar species will be explained, and the probable progenitor of saffron will be introduced and discussed.
This chapter outlines the ecophysiology of saffron such as plant performance and survival in terms of climatic and physiology factors. It starts by explaining the effect of temperature and precipitation on saffron flowering and survival. Temperature and precipitation duration are of utmost importance for saffron cultivation. It then describes the lifecycle of saffron in terms of flowering and vegetative phase, production of replacement corms, and the dormant phase. The effects of some factors on physiological criteria such as leaf area index, crop growth rate, relative growth rate, net assimilate rate, and leaf area ratio are also discussed. At the end of the chapter, the major factors responsible for higher production and productivity of saffron are explained.
The article describes the design and implementation of a computer based industrial system for production of saffron. The proposal is based on an automated greenhouse with temperature, light and irrigation control together with harvesting and stigma separation devices. The harvesting device has been specifically developed using scalability properties and computer vision. The greenhouse is designed to increase the crop density if required generating a more sustainable and continuous production. The main advantages of the proposed method are as follows: the harvesting of the saffron flower and the procedure to get the stigmas are carried out in the same process; the greenhouse allows to significantly extend the flowering time of the saffron plant; and higher productivity per worker and per planting area is achieved. In order to show the feasibility and applicability of the proposed approach, real experimentation has been carried out for the extension of the flowering time and for the harvesting and stigma separation devices and successful results have been obtained.
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is an autumnal herbaceous flowering plant belonging to the Iridaceae family. It is considered the most expensive spice in the world and a valuable medicinal herb. The origin of saffron is unclear. The probable center of origin of the plant is Asia Minor (Greece) and/or the Middle East (Iran). From the historical point of view, use of saffron for medical treatment, perfume, food and dye dates back 4000 years. Saffron stigmas contain three important secondary metabolites, crocin, picrocrocin and safranal that are responsible for the saffron color, taste and aroma, respectively. Saffron’s adaptation to hot and dry climates has led to widespread cultivation in arid regions, notably Iran where it is a primary income source for many people. The triploid genome of saffron causes the production of abnormal pollen triggering self-sterility. With respect to the clonal nature of saffron, it is believed that there is only one cultivar worldwide. Lack of genetic variation restricts the use of traditional plant breeding based on selection. Probable wild relatives could be an excellent source of genes to alter saffron traits by cross-pollination. In addition, an induced mutation approach with various mutagen agent treatments is an alternative to produce genetic variations. Recent advances in sequencing methods and next-generation sequencing (NGS), provide efficient approaches such as transcriptome sequencing along with proteome and metabolome information, which would help to exploit functional genomics toward genetic engineering of the economic traits of saffron.
Saffron, Crocus sativus L., belongs to the iris plant family, characterized for having a purple flower with red stigmas and yellow stamens. Saffron long scarlet stigmas are highly valued for flavouring food and adding a golden-yellow color. Saffron, as dried stigmas, is the most expensive spice in the world, well known for its aromatic and colouring power. It has been used as a spice in human nutrition, for medicinal purpose and as a dye. Saffron is cultivated in environments with very different climatic conditions, it grows well under temperate and dry climates, however its vegetative growth coincides with cold weather. Saffron production and processing in Iran is still based on traditional knowledge of farmers. Due to the nature of production of saffron as a high labor demand and family oriented crop, its production methods have not changed much through history. However, many research programs are being run in this country.
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a valuable product that is moderately resistant to drought and is cultivated in environments with very different climatic conditions. The most important chemical compositions of saffron include crocin and crocetin derivatives. Saffron is used as a food colouring and flavouring agent in the food industry. Moreover, it is utilized in folk medicine as antispasmodic, carminative, sedative, anti-depression and for heart disease. In this study, saffron samples from different altitudes, i.e. Marand with altitude of 1360m and Kashmar with altitude of 1000m above sea level were collected and dried in the same conditions and compared with commercial samples. Three major metabolites (crocin, picrocrocin and safranal) were quantified in both altitudes by Spectrophotometry. The results obtained showed that saffron samples from Marand had the most amounts of crocin and picrocrocin (absorbance: 306 and 118). Also, after extraction, antioxidant activity was quantified by the DPPH free radical scavenging method. The results indicated that saffron samples from Marand had higher concentration of these constituents and antioxidant activity in comparison to that of samples from Kashmar. However, due to reduction of rain and increasing drought in the Azerbaijan region, cultivation of saffron in Marand is recommended on the basis of the results of this research and high yield and quality of saffron.
In order to evaluate and access the best conditions to cultivate saffron in Tabriz, an experiment was conducted at the Agricultural Research Station of the University of Tabriz (Khalatpooshan), in a factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design and three replications. The treatments included two ecotypes of saffron in 4 levels of mother corm weight (3.1- 5, 5.1- 7, 7.1- 9 and more than 9 g) and two planting methods (row and mass). The results showed that corm weight and planting method had significant effects on the number and weight of replacement corms. But there was no significant effect on the different ecotypes. Among the experimental treatments, corms with 7.1- 9 g weight lead to the highest total corm number (342.65 corm.m-2) and corm yield (892.9 g.m-2) and the yield of flowers and stigma of saffron. It seems that for production of larger replacement corms and increased flowering yield, we need to culture large maternal corms. In addition, we observed the best economical yield that is determined by amount of stigma, in row planting method. The results showed that row planting method leads to a higher amount and yield of replacement corm production in comparison to mass planting method. As a result, producing corms with high weight followed by increasing of flower yield requires the use of large maternal corms for cultivation and row planting method.
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a perennial and triploid- geophyte crop which can be maintained up to 8–10 years. During each season, saffron propagates exclusively by replacement corms produced from the mother corm after blooming. The new corms are formed above the old ones, so the crop density increases more and more. Therefore, the flower number and dry stigma yield of saffron are relatively low in the first year and increases to maximum in the fifth to sixth year after planting. The stigma yield of saffron largely depends on weather and soil conditions during replacement corms formation. Research activities have been conducted to developing the appropriate and new agronomic technologies can result in economic levels of production and improve the crop yield. The objective of this review article is to describe and discuss the phonological stages of saffron based on mother- replacement corms behaviors. In addition, relevant literature related to main factors affected the replacement corms behavior is reviewed.
Conditions for the cold storage of saffron crocus (Crocus sativus L.) corms that lead to delay flowering have been characterized. Storage of corms at 2°C after flower initiation resulted in a time-dependent abortion of those flowers already initiated. The more advanced the stage of flower initiation at the beginning of cold storage, the faster the rate of flower abortion. Overall, no benefit resulted from cold storing corms after flower initiation. Corms stored in the cold before flower initiation formed flowers when incubated after storage at 21-23°C. The number and size of flowers formed, and the yield of spice saffron per corm, depended both on the duration and conditions of cold storage. Storage at freezing temperatures (0 or -1°C) damaged the corms. Flowering could be induced in corms stored between 1-2°C. Within this range, temperature had little effect on the subsequent behaviour of corms. The number and the size of flowers decreased gradually with increasing duration of cold storage. Corms lifted after leaf-withering and stored at 2°C for 60 days could be forced to flower from early November until the end of December with the same yield of spice saffron as non cold-stored corms. Flowering could be further delayed until May by extending the duration of cold-storage, but this delayed flowering resulted in a significant reduction in spice saffron yield.
The cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) has recently attracted the interest of many farmers in inland areas of Sicily, where the crop was diffused from the twelfth century. At that time the stigmas were used to produce "Piacentinu Ennese", typical cheese aromatizated with saffron of Enna Province, recognized since some years by the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO). The cultivation of this species could help, in addition to ensure the brand PDO, to support the integrative farm income in marginal areas of the island characterized by low levels of farm mechanization as well as difficulties for irrigation. In this frame, we carried out a preliminary experimental trial to evaluate the productivity of the crop in central Sicily using corms acquired in Sardinia and classified into three weight categories:>40 g, 40÷20 g and <20 g; the corms were transplanted the first decade of August 2004, plant density of 25 corms m-2, and grown in dry conditions adopting polyannual growing cycle. After three years of production, we registered good crop adaptability to climatic conditions, high yields and a significant positive correlation between production of stigmas and corm size. The average yield of the three categories of corm weight was in the first year 0.6 g m-2, in the second 1.9 g m-2 and finally in the third it has dropped considerably with values equal to 0.4 g m-2. The acquired information can support the cultivation of this species in the marginal areas of Sicily (Mathew, 1977; Basker et al., 1983; Fernandez, 2004; Argento et al., 2006; Gresta et al., 2008a, b).
Total rooting and flowering capacities were not affected by planting depth. In the case of shallow planting, contractile roots, whose function is to lower the daughter corms into the ground, formed singly at the base of daughter corms. The sprouting rate was enhanced or reduced by shallow planting in the field, depending on the prevailing climatic conditions. Leaf elongation increased markedly with the planting depth. Number of sprouting buds and hence that of daughter corms decreased with the planting depth. -from Authors
Crocus sativus is a subhysteranthous species, ie it blooms in autumn shortly after planting, before, concomitantly with, or after leaf appearance. The remainder of its growing season consists of initiation, filling up, and maturation of the daughter corms at the beginning of summer. A controlled temperature regime during corm storage affects flowering and production of daughter corms. -from Authors
Lifting the corms of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) after leaf withering (late June to early July) and storing them at 25 °C during a variable period of time before forcing flowering at 17 °C, allowed us to program flowering at will from mid September to mid December. An earlier flowering was obtained lifting the corms before leaf withering (by the end of May) and/or heat curing the corms at 30 °C during 20 days before the incubation at 25 °C. On the other hand, flowering could be delayed storing the corms at low temperature. The conditions of this cold storage were critical as regards to the stage of flower initiation of the corms, the temperature and duration of storage and the composition of the atmosphere. A departure from the optimal conditions resulted in flower abortion and/or a reduction in flower size. The combination of the techniques described allowed us to extend the harvest season of saffron in the greenhouse from early September to the end of January, with a saffron spice yield per corm higher than 17 mg. Since the mean duration of the period of flowering for a batch of corms was 13 days, we could grow 11 batches in that period. With the planting density we used (457 corms m-2); 1 hectare of greenhouse yielded 855 Kg of saffron spice in a year. The period of flowering could be extended until the end of March but with a smaller spice saffron yield per corm (over 14 mg).
Research into the chemical composition of saffron, the dried stigmas of Crocus sativus, has seen a renaissance in recent years. Different HPLC protocols for the analysis of saffron constituents have been established, enabling rapid authenticity control of the spice. Saffron flavor has attracted the interest of several research groups. Among the estimated 150 volatile compounds of saffron, approximately 40–50 constituents have so far been identified. Sensory studies allowed the detection of novel key flavor compounds. For some volatiles, generation from acid-labile progenitors was shown. Most recently, a considerable number of non-volatile aroma precursors could be isolated and structurally characterized. This paper reviews the present knowledge about the chemical composition of the world's most expensive spice and gives special emphasis to recent findings on saffron aroma formation.
The mechanisms controlling the onset of renewed bud growth and development of floral primordia in vegetative plant propagules defy easy explanations. The basic developmental functions including the onset and release of bud dormancy appear to be under the control of several biochemical/physiological signals, all of which must be permissive to achieve normal growth. The multifactorial model of control, which implicates changes in growth hormones, respiratory substrates, nucleoproteins and gene activation as the effective signals in the regulation of bud growth and flowering, best accounts for the complexity of the process. Each individual factor in the regulatory complex appears to control specific events of morphogenesis, the whole process being triggered only when a harmonious integration of the required factors is achieved. An understanding of the molecular biology of the process is, however, still a field of ignorance, and investigations in the area with plant growth regulator (PGR) and developmental mutants as tools would yield vital clues in understanding the process.
This review examines the literature data concerning the biological activities of saffron extract. Numerous studies have revealed that this substance possesses cytotoxic, anticarcinogenic and antitumor properties. A brief description of the other biological effects as well as chemical composition of the saffron extract is also included. Finally, these findings are interpreted and the possible mechanism of the antitumor effects of saffron extract are discussed.
Stigma Croci, stigma of Crocus sativus L., is a precious traditional Chinese medicine, which is commonly used to activate blood circulation and to dissipate blood stasis. Three plant species, Carthamus tinctorius L., Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L. and Hemerocallis citrina Baroni, could carry the name Stigma Croci in the commercial markets of South East Asia. However, C. sativus is the only one that has proven its effectiveness, while the others could act as adulterants. The authentic identification of C. sativus on the market is difficult. By using molecular genetic method, the spacer domains of 5S-rRNA were cloned from the genomic DNAs that were isolated from C. sativus, C. tinctorius, H. fulva and H. citrina. The cDNAs encoding the spacer domains, about 300 to 500 bp, were sequenced. The nucleotide sequences of these four species showed great diversity, which could serve as markers for authentic identification of Stigma Croci to distinguish from its substitution and counterfeit.
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