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A star attraction: e illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises 1
A star attraction: The illegal trade in
Indian Star Tortoises
Neil D’Cruze1,2, Bhagat Singh2, omas Morrison2, Jan Schmidt-Burbach2,
David W. Macdonald1, Aniruddha Mookerjee2
1 e Wildlife Conservation Research Unit2, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, e Recanati-
Kaplan Centre, Tubney House, Abingdon Road, Tubney, OX13 5QL, UK 2 World Animal Protection1, 222
Grays Inn Road, 5th Floor, London, WC1X 8HB, UK
Corresponding author: Neil D’Cruze (neil.dcruze@zoo.ox.ac.uk)
Academic editor: Klaus Henle|Received9 July 2014|Accepted 4 November 2015|Published 9 November 2015
http://zoobank.org/A1DBC4BB-7FE1-4C65-BFEF-C960B9B29655
Citation: D’Cruze N, Singh B, Morrison T, Schmidt-Burbach J, Macdonald DW, Mookerjee A (2015) A star attraction:
e illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises. Nature Conservation 13: 1–19. doi: 10.3897/natureconservation.13.5625
Abstract
We report on illegal international trade in Indian Star Tortoises (Geochelone elegans), with a particular
focus on India and Thailand.Within India, this species has received protection as a Schedule IV list spe-
cies of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 for over 40 years. This study documents the illegal trade of
55,000 individuals poached from just one ‘trade hub’ in India. Although domestic demand persists, these
individuals appear to have been primarily sourced to satiate international demand for pets in other Asian
countries (e.g. Thailand and China). Since 1975, this species has been included in Appendix II of the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) that regu-
lates all commercial trade. However, an analysis of the CITES trade records relating to Thailand imports
(between 2004 and 2013) found large discrepancies indicating potential illegal activity which question
the legitimacy of its founding captive stock. Given its role as a major hub of illegal trade activity, both as a
consumer and a country of transit, we support calls for Thailand to prohibit private ownership by extend-
ing its domestic legislation to also cover non-indigenous tortoise species. In consideration of conservation
and animal welfare concerns, we also call for more field research to determine the impacts of illegal trade
on wild populations, an updated assessment of its conservation status, increased cooperation between
national enforcement agencies, and the implementation of targeted human behaviour change initiatives
to help reduce consumer demand for this species.
Keywords
CITES, exotic pet, Geochelone elegans, illegal wildlife trade, India, ailand
Nature Conservation 13: 1–19 (2015)
doi: 10.3897/natureconservation.13.5625
http://natureconservation.pensoft.net
Copyright Neil D’Cruze et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC
BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
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Neil D’Cruze et al. / Nature Conservation 13: 1–19 (2015)
2
Introduction
e illegal trade in wildlife is a big and burgeoning business, with global prots esti-
mated to be worth between $8 – $10 billion US dollars each year (Lawson and Vines
2014). It can have severe negative impacts on wild populations, leading to biodiversity
loss, the introduction of invasive species, and disease (Bush et al. 2014). is unregu-
lated activity also represents a particularly severe threat to wild animal welfare during
illegal capture, transport, sale and subsequent use (Baker et al. 2013). Increased under-
standing of the links with other types of criminal activity, including drug tracking,
organized crime, and terrorism is also highlighting how illegal wildlife trade threatens
the stability and security of the societies involved (Lawson and Vines 2014).
A substantial component of illegal wildlife trade comprises reptiles and their deriva-
tives or products (Nijman et al. 2012). A recent global analysis of reptile trade indicates
an apparent shift away from illegally wild-caught to legal captive-bred sources over
recent decades (Robinson et al. 2015). However, despite this trend, INTERPOL seized
thousands of live reptiles and products worth more than 28 million US dollars follow-
ing a global reptile enforcement operation ‘RAMP’ in 2010 (INTERPOL 2010). More
recently, 10% of the 799 international seizure records reported by EU Member States
in 2012 involved reptiles (TRAFFIC 2013). Some reptile groups (particularly freshwa-
ter turtles and tortoises) are facing disproportionately high extractions and therefore
proportionately high extinction risks, with consumer demand for use as food, curios,
ceremonies, and pets being a major threat to their survival (Robinson et al. 2015).
e illegal trade in Testudines is arguably nowhere more prevalent than in Southeast
Asia (Nijman and Shepherd 2015). Increasing auence across this region is thought to
be stimulating illegal activity (Nijman and Shepherd 2010), leading to steep declines
in populations of a large number of species (Nijman and Shepherd 2015). ailand
has long been known as a major hub of this trade (e.g. van Dijk and Palasuwan 2000)
where large numbers of many species, both native and non-native, are illegally ac-
quired and traded globally as pets (Chng 2014). For example, a recent study focused
on ai enforcement activity revealed that a total of 18,854 freshwater turtles and
tortoises were seized in 53 cases reported between 2008 and 2013 alone (Chng 2014).
Of ongoing and increasing concern from an international illegal wildlife trade
perspective (Shepherd et al 2004, IUCN SSN TTSG 2010, Horne et al 2012, UN-
EP-WCMC 2014), the Indian Star Tortoise (Geochelone elegans) is a relatively small
and adaptable terrestrial species primarily found in scrub forests, grasslands, and some
coastal scrublands of arid and semi-arid regions throughout its wide range (Das 2002).
Nesting seasons coincide with the monsoons that vary depending on the geographic
location (e.g. (May to June in western India) (March to June and October to January
in south-eastern India) Das 2002). is species is famed for the ‘star-like’ radiating
patterns of yellow intermixed with black spots on the pyramidal scutes of its shell that
serve as camouage in the wild (Das 1991) (the literal translation of its local name
‘nakshatra tabelu’ is ‘star tortoise’). However, it is this same patterning that also makes
it a popular pet to collectors around the world (Fyfe 2007).
A star attraction: e illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises 3
e Indian Star Tortoise was last formally assessed in 2000 and is ocially consid-
ered as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List as it was not thought to be threatened
with extinction in any of its range countries (which include India, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka (Das 2002)) at that time (Asian Turtle Trade Working Group 2000). However,
given that it may become so unless trade is closely controlled, in 1975, it has been
included on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (UNEP-WCMC 2011). Consequently, in-
ternational trade in specimens can take place if an export permit or re-export permit is
acquired (CITES 2015). However, to safeguard its wild populations, India had chosen
to adopt stricter domestic measures than CITES (WWF 1994). Placed under Schedule
IV of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 for over 40 years it has been illegal to possess
and commercially trade this species either within or from India (Sekhar 2004).
Despite this legal protection, according to Chng’s study (2014) the Indian Star Tor-
toise was the most frequent illegally traded tortoise seized by ai authorities between
2008 and 2013 (5966 individuals during 15 cases). Furthermore, this species has also been
observed to be the most common openly traded tortoise at the infamous Chatuchak Mar-
ket in Bangkok, ailand, during the last decade (653 individuals observed for sale). As a
non-indigenous species, it is not currently protected under ailand’s Wild Animal Res-
ervation and Protection Act (WARPA) and enforcement action can only be taken if illegal
trade activity is evidenced. However, especially given the possibility of forged trade permits
and corruption (TRAFFIC 2008), it can be extremely dicult to identify illegally traded
wild sourced individuals and establish the international custody chain once tortoises have
been smuggled into the country (Chng 2014). Consequently, there are legitimate concerns
that the domestic trade of captive bred Indian Star Tortoises in ailand represents a ‘legal
loophole’ facilitating illegal poaching from the wild (e.g. Nijman and Shepherd 2015).
Despite increasing concern regarding the illegal international trade in this species,
there is a lack of current specic information regarding the number of Indian Star Tor-
toises obtained via illegal methods, where the traded animals originate from, and the
sourcing strategies used to supply them (e.g. Asian Turtle Trade Working Group 2000).
To date, there have been four main studies that focussed on the illegal trade in this
species from India (Moll 1983, WWF 1994, Sekhar et al. 2004, Anand et al. 2005).
One of the most recent peer-reviewed studies conservatively estimated that between
10,000 and 20,000 individuals are being poached from the wild in India each year
with authors describing it as ‘an erratic localised enterprise’ which ‘must be contained
before it assumes alarming proportions and becomes established’ (Sekhar et al. 2004).
Given that the trade in this species was last assessed more than 10 years ago, we
conducted eldwork in India over a 17 month period in order to address the follow-
ing questions: (1) Where are the current main centres of poaching activity in India?
(2) How many tortoises are being (illegally) poached from India each year? (3) What
methods are criminal actors using to conduct this illegal trade activity? (4) What are
the intended destinations for animals poached from India? We hope that the informa-
tion gathered will help to guide existing eorts to both preserve remaining wild popu-
lations and safeguard the welfare of individual Indian Star Tortoises.
Neil D’Cruze et al. / Nature Conservation 13: 1–19 (2015)
4
Methods
Illegal trade
To help focus our eorts we collected records of illegal trade from the scientic and grey
literature. is semi-systematic review identied the historical occurrence of the illegal
trade in 11 (38%) of the 29 states and in one (14%) of the 7 union territory capitals
in India over the last 20 years (Figure 1). We identied Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi,
Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal as being historically associated with illegal sale and owner-
ship of this species (Moll 1983; Sekhar et al. 2004; Anand et al. 2004; WWF 1994)
(Figure 1). We noted that the cities of Bengaluru (also known as Bangalore), Chennai,
Delhi, Hyderabad, Kandla, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai, Pune, iruvananthapuram
and Vadodara are also all specically mentioned in this regard (e.g. WWF 1994).
We identied the thorn scrub forests located where the borders of the southern
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu states meet as being historically associ-
ated with the sourcing of wild Indian Star Tortoises (WWF 1994) (Figure 1). We
Figure 1. Indian states with documented illegal Indian Star Tortoise trade activity (provided in the
existing scientic literature) and the current known geographic distribution of this species within India.
A star attraction: e illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises 5
noted that the Saurashtra and Kutch regions of Gujarat are also specically cited
in this regard. We veried this information via concurrent communication with
a number of herpetologists and wildlife enforcement ocials aware of this issue.
Given our specic research objectives (outlined above), we identied the southern
state of Andhra Pradesh and the western State of Gujarat as the two sites for our
eld research.
In Gujarat we focussed our eorts on 16 rural villages and two urban towns sur-
rounding the city of Ahmedabad (referred to hereafter as the ‘Gujarat trade hub’) (Fig-
ure 2). In Andhra Pradesh we focused for US spelling consistency our eorts on eight
rural villages around the urban town of Madanapalle, which is located approximately
150 km away from the southern Indian city of Bengaluru, in the state of Karnataka
(referred to hereafter as the Andhra Pradesh trade hub) (Figure 2). Between August
2013 and December 2014, we deployed a total of 5 researchers to gather eld data. We
elicited information, (including footage and stills) from collectors, couriers, consumers
and shop retailers regarding source locations (both wild and captive-bred) and intend-
ed destinations (both domestic and international). Where possible, researchers docu-
mented information regarding the volume and welfare state of the animals involved.
Figure 2. e current domestic and international illegal export trade routes for the Indian Star Tortoise,
involving various transport methods (according to this study’s eldwork).
Neil D’Cruze et al. / Nature Conservation 13: 1–19 (2015)
6
Legal trade
Regulated trade mechanisms can also act as a ‘cover’ for and facilitate the illegal trade
in wild animals (e.g. via false paper work) (TRAFFIC et al. 2008, Dutton et al. 2013).
Given existing concerns that ‘legal loopholes’ are being exploited to sell illegally
sourced animals in ailand (Nijman and Shepherd 2015) we also obtained data from
the CITES WCMC (http://trade.cites.org/) to check for any inconsistencies. is da-
tabase reports all records of import and export of CITES listed species as reported by
Parties. Historically there has been some debate amongst taxonomists as to whether
this species should be divided into several subspecies or even multiple species (Fife
2007). However, for consistency we included all records referring to ‘Geochelone el-
egans’. We focus on the live records only, during the period 2004–2013 inclusive, with
a specic focus on the numbers reported by both India and ailand.
Results
Illegal Trade
e Gujarat Trade Hub
With regards to vendors, researchers did not observe any Indian Star Tortoises on open
display in this trade hub. However, we found individuals available for purchase upon spe-
cic request at the popular ‘Dilli Chakla’ market in Ahmedabad with seven Indian Star
Tortoises (six juveniles and one adult, all in visibly poor health) privately shown to re-
searchers by two vendors during two visits over this period (Figure 2 and Figure 3). Prices
ranged from 1,000 to 3,000 Indian rupees (INR) (15 and 50 USD) per animal (Figure
3). Vendors informed researchers that animals sold in Gujarat are typically sourced via
contacts based in Bangalore (Figure 2) and are in ready stock in quantities that vary from
one to 10. However, larger quantities, if needed, can be supplied with advance payment.
ey also conrmed that local communities in rural villages surrounding Ahmedabad
are also utilised to source wild tortoises from the wild (Figure 2 and Figure 3). e ven-
dors typically operated behind a legitimate facade of dealing in aquariums, exotic birds,
and domesticated mammals, such as dogs, cats, rabbits and guinea pigs.
With regards to domestic consumers, despite their legal protection, Indian Star
Tortoises are still being openly kept as pets in Gujarat (Figure 4). We observed a total
of 107 animals in 17 Hindu households and temples during 36 visits. Owners con-
rm previous reports (e.g. WWF 1994) that the presence of a tortoise in a household
is considered to be a good omen in this particular region of the country. Researchers
observed over 100 hatchlings in one urban household on the outskirts of Ahmedabad
alone. e owner informed researchers that she was holding these individuals in order
to safeguard and prevent their predation prior to subsequent release back into the wild.
She was clear to state that, although some were intended for close friends and relatives,
none of these animals were intended for commercial sale.
A star attraction: e illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises 7
In addition, Indian Star Tortoises are still being openly kept at religious tem-
ples for spiritual purposes (Figure 4). We observed a total of 22 animals at three
different Shiva temples (with a maximum of 11 individuals observed at one tem-
ple) throughout the survey period. We were not permitted access into three ad-
ditional temples that were reported to house Indian Star Tortoises. Temple rep-
resentatives confirmed that the tortoise is believed to represent an incarnation of
the Hindu God “Vishnu” and as such temple animals are decorated with vermil-
lion marks to symbolize this venerated deity (Figure 4). Animals were reportedly
sourced directly from the wild rather than purchased via vendors. Although we
were unable to document direct evidence of either the medicinal or subsistence use
of Indian Star Tortoises as a source of protein, collectors stated that this activity
does still take place.
Previous reports (e.g. WWF 1994) specically refer to Gujarat as a major organ-
ised source of Indian Star Tortoises intended for illegal shipment to the Middle East.
However, we found no evidence of any organized illegal transport of Indian Star
Tortoises originating from the Gujarat Trade Hub. is is surprising, especially given
Gujarat’s 1,600 km long coastline, the regular movement of boats to neighbouring
Gulf countries, its relatively good transport links (both road and rail) with other large
cities in neighbouring states, and the openly observed domestic trade in this species.
However, given the relatively short time period of our eldwork in this geographi-
cal area (conducted between August 2013 and January 2014), we acknowledge that
further investigation is needed to possibly conrm the absence of illegal transport
outside from Gujarat.
Figure 3. Indian Star Tortoise ‘chain of custody’ demonstrating the various illegal trade actors and reported
market value of individual animals involved in illicit trade activity originating from within India. Tortoise val-
ue refers to the maximum observed price (in US dollars) paid to the traders operating at each respective level.
Neil D’Cruze et al. / Nature Conservation 13: 1–19 (2015)
8
e Andhra Pradesh Trade Hub
Unlike Gujarat, in Andhra Pradesh we encountered an organized, large-scale operation
engaged in the illegal sourcing of wild Indian Star Tortoises for international consumers
(Figure 2, Figure 3). Between January and December 2014 we embedded researchers
into a rural hunter-gatherer community known as ‘Haki Piki’ in Karnataka, ‘Yenadi’ in
Andhra Pradesh and ‘Irula’ in Tamil Nadu. During this time we observed the collection
of at least 55,500 juvenile wild tortoises (a total of 27 consignments, with an average
of two per month; Figure 5) by individuals operating from one rural village centre
that was collecting tortoises from 15 smaller settlements located along the borders of
Figure 4. A An Indian Star Tortoise at a religious temple near Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India B A shopkeep-
er with a pet Indian Star Tortoise near Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India C Indian Star Tortoises kept as pets in
a household near Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India D An Indian Star Tortoise marked with spiritual ‘puja’ paint.
A star attraction: e illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises 9
Figure 5. e number of Indian Star Tortoises extracted from one hub ‘Madanapalli’ in Andhra Pradesh
(India) throughout 2014, as observed by this study’s eld research.
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Figure 2, Figure 6). ese secondary level
rural traders typically utilize forest dwelling communities like members of the ‘Girlol’
forest tribal community to collect juvenile tortoises (Figure 3). Collection is predomi-
nantly seasonal, taking place after the local monsoon seasons (March and April; and
September, October and November) when tortoises tend to emerge out of hiding to
feed on fresh sprouting vegetation (Figure 5). Primary collectors tend to pick up speci-
mens that are year-old or older, but collection of sub-adults and adults also takes place.
Between 100 and 150 juvenile tortoises are typically gathered at one time over a
period of approximately one week with primary collectors receiving between 50 and
300 Indian Rupees (INR) (1 and 5 USD) per animal from secondary level urban (‘mid-
dle men’) traders depending on the size and health of the animal (Figure 3). erefore,
we conservatively estimate (assuming no mortalities) that the collector engagement in
this illegal operation has a collective annual value of up to 16,500,000 INR (263,000
USD) for their impoverished communities. Collectors conrmed they are also often
used as couriers to transport these animals to the tertiary level (‘main’) traders (Figure
3). Animals are often wrapped in cloth and packed into suitcases. However, to avoid
detection by enforcement agencies, some are also placed into boxes lled with a top
layer ‘mask’ of other legal produce such as fruit, vegetables, crustaceans and sh.
Neil D’Cruze et al. / Nature Conservation 13: 1–19 (2015)
10
According to collectors, these tortoises are transported within India to several
main traders either by road or by rail (Figure 3, Figure 7). Specically with regards to
this particular trade hub, reference was made to illegal transport along the national
highway on the eastern coast of the country joining Chennai (in Tamil Nadu) with
Kolkata (in West Bengal) (Figure 7). In addition collectors also made reference to a
railway route linking Anantapur and Chittoor (in Andhra Pradesh) to Guwahati (in
Assam) via Kolkata (Figure 7). At this stage of the trade chain the main illegal traders
are reported to pay between 800 and 1000 INR (12 and 16 USD) per animal (Figure
3). erefore, we conservatively estimate (assuming no mortalities) that engagement
in this operation has an annual value of up to 55,000,000 INR (880,000 USD) for
the middlemen involved.
Figure 6. A: Rural Girlol community collector with wildlife snares; B, C and D; Rural community
traders with illegally sourced Indian Star Tortoises (destined for international markets) near Madanapalle,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
A star attraction: e illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises 11
e direct involvement of collectors ends at this point. However, communication with
ai enforcement ocials conrmed that cargo boats in Kolkata are used to transport tor-
toises to other Asian countries including Malaysia, Singapore and ailand (Figure 7). Inter-
national passengers also act as couriers taking ights direct from Bengaluru, Chennai, Kol-
kata and Mumbai (India) or indirect via Dhaka (Bangladesh) into ailand’s Suvarnabhumi
International Airport (Anon. Pers. Comm., 2014) (Figure 3 and Figure 7). Alternatively,
porous borders are utilised to transport tortoises into Bangladesh (e.g. Dhaka) for further
air transport into ailand (Figure 7). From here, tortoises are also own on to additional
destinations within Southeast Asia including China (predominantly Hong Kong) (Anon.
Pers. Comm., 2014) (Figure 7). roughout our study we found no evidence to suggest
that Indian Star Tortoises are being tracked via Indian from either Sri Lanka or Pakistan.
Legal Trade
Global – CITES Records
Excluding seizure records, CITES reports a total of 211 separate Indian Star Tortoise trade
records between 2004 and 2013 (Suppl. material 1). In total, we observed 37,896 individ-
ual Indian Star Tortoises reported by export countries during this time. However, during
the same time period we also observed a total of 41,014 individual Indian Star Tortoises
reported by import countries (representing a discrepancy of 3,118 tortoises). We found
that only eleven (5%) of these 211 separate trade transactions have involved wild sourced
animals and 198 (94%) of these records have been for commercial use.
India – CITES Records
After analysing the CITES records, we observed no live Indian Star Tortoises (or body
parts) exports from India between 2004 and 2013 (Suppl. material 1). During the
same time period we found only one import record reported by India (Suppl. material
1). is record relates to 601 wild sourced tortoises that were repatriated following an
enforcement seizure made in Malaysia in 2011. ese records indicate no legal trade in
this species originating from India over the last 10 years.
ailand – CITES Records
After analysing the CITES records, we observed a total of 2,650 live tortoises im-
ported into ailand, via seven trade transactions, between 2004 and 2008 (Figure
8; Suppl. material 1). However, we found only 1,100 live individuals reported by
exporting countries into ailand over the same time period (representing a discrep-
ancy of 1,550 tortoises) (Figure 8; Suppl. material 1). We found all of the live imports
reported as being sourced via captive breeding programmes for commercial purposes
(Suppl. material 1).
Neil D’Cruze et al. / Nature Conservation 13: 1–19 (2015)
12
We observed that the majority of import trade transactions into ailand (43%;
n =3) came from Lebanon, although imports also came from Jordan (19%) and Japan
(19) (Figure 7). We found that Kazakhstan reported to be the country of origin in all
records including such data (57%) (Suppl. material 1). Between 2009 and 2013 only
one tortoise was imported into ailand from Singapore, for personal use, from an
unknown source (Figure 7; Suppl. material 1).
Between 2004 and 2008 we observed a total of 540 live tortoises exported from
ailand, via ten trade transactions (Figure 9; and Suppl. material 1). However, we
found an additional 960 live individuals reported by importing countries from ai-
land over the same time period (representing a discrepancy of 420 tortoises) (Figure 9;
and Suppl. material 1). We found all of the live exports reported as being sourced via
captive breeding programmes (Suppl. material 1).
We observed that the majority of export trade transactions went to Hong Kong
(30%; n = 3) and Japan (30%), although exports also went to Taiwan (20%) and Bang-
ladesh (20%) (Figure 7; and Suppl. material 1). We found Kazakhstan to be most fre-
quently cited as the country of origin (70%) although Lebanon (20%) and Kyrgyzstan
(10%) are also cited with Indian Star Tortoises passing through ailand for an inde-
nite period of time (Suppl. material 1). Between 2009 and 2013 we found only three
Indian Star Tortoises exported from ailand to Japan for commercial use from a cap-
tive bred source (Figure 7; Figure 9 and Suppl. material 1).
Figure 7. Map to show legal international trade routes for Indian Star Tortoises imported into and ex-
ported out from ailand between 2004 and 2013 (according to CITES WCMC trade database records).
A star attraction: e illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises 13
Figure 8. e number of Indian Star Tortoises legally imported into ailand between 2004 and 2013
according to CITES WCMC trade database records. ‘ai imports’ refers to import records reported by
ailand. ‘Global exports’ refers to export records reported by all other CITES Parties citing ailand as
the intended country of import.
Figure 9. e number of Indian Star Tortoises legally exported out of ailand between 2004 and 2013
according to CITES WCMC trade database records. ‘ai exports’ refers to export records reported by
ailand. ‘Global imports’ refers to import records reported by all other CITES Parties citing ailand as
the country of export.
Neil D’Cruze et al. / Nature Conservation 13: 1–19 (2015)
14
Discussion
Conservation and Welfare
e Indian Star Tortoise was last formally assessed for the IUCN Red List fteen years
ago when it was classied as Lower Risk/Least Concern. However, its conservation
status is already acknowledged to be in urgent need of updating (Asian Turtle Trade
Working Group 2000) and preliminary assessments suggest that a reclassication as
‘Vulnerable’ may be more appropriate (Horne et al 2012). More detailed eld studies
regarding the impacts of illegal extraction on wild Indian Star Tortoise populations
over time are no doubt required to fully inform this assessment process. However, in
cases where there are evident threats to the survival of a species, a threatened listing
may be justied even though there may be little direct information on its biological
status (IUCN 2015).
We report on the illegal wild removal of at least 55,000 Indian Star Tortoises from
just one trade hub in India over a period of one year. is Figure is (three to six
times) larger than the 10,000–20,000 individuals previously estimated to be poached
throughout the entire range of this species each year (Sekhar et al. 2004). erefore,
despite the current wide distribution of the Indian Star Tortoise, it may be wise to
adopt a more precautionary approach to the conservation of this species by providing
it with a threatened category status until such detailed information becomes available.
is illegal trade also represents an on-going animal welfare threat (Sekhar et al.
2004, Anand et al. 2005). Physical injury and stress associated with illegal capture, han-
dling and overcrowding can lead to disease and death of traded animals (Warwick 1990;
Baker et al. 2013). However, new research also continues to demonstrate that the stress
associated with captive conditions during private ownership can also cause detrimental
behavioural changes, such as hyperactivity, lethargy and anorexia (e.g. Arena et al. 2012).
Previous studies have raised concerns that Indian Star Tortoises are being smug-
gled from India into pet markets in Asia, Europe and the United States (e.g. Horne
et al. 2012) Although more detailed information is required regarding the consumers
involved in this illegal trade chain, our study suggests that many of the Indian Star
Tortoises being illegally traded from the Andhra Pradesh trade hub in India appear to
be destined for use as exotic pets in Asian countries, such as ailand and China. As
such there are concerns that even if these animals survive capture and illegal transport
their welfare may still be compromised as it is currently unclear whether vendors and
consumers in these countries possess even a basic understanding of Indian Star Tortoise
husbandry requirements (Sekhar et al. 2004, Anand et al. 2005).
An Organized Criminal Network
Ownership of Indian Star Tortoises is likely to have been a long held cultural practice
in India (WWF 1994). However, the international commercial trade in this species
A star attraction: e illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises 15
appears to be a relatively new and rapidly increasing phenomenon. During an initial
survey, Moll (1983) found no evidence of Indian Star Tortoise trade at any of the
wildlife markets visited throughout the country and it was not until the mid-1990’s
(WWF 1994) that initial conservation concerns regarding this illegal activity were
rst raised. In Gujarat, our ndings conrm those of Sekhar et al. (2004) who de-
scribed an “erratic localised enterprise”. Although, commercial trade is clearly taking
place, we found no evidence of organised international criminal involvement at this
particular trade hub.
Unfortunately, our ndings did conrm that the commercial trade in this spe-
cies has evolved into an international organised criminal operation in other parts
of the country (e.g. the Andhra Pradesh trade hub). is type of illegal activity
involves a wide range of actors ranging from the rural poor to wealthy urban en-
trepreneurs (TRAFFIC 2008). It appears that ‘middlemen’ have built upon the
methods to disguise consignments that were rst documented more than 10 years
ago (Sekhar et al. 2004) to smuggle tortoises internationally via road, rail, air and
sea. Even when liberal mortality rates are taken into account, this represents a lucra-
tive business venture worth hundreds of thousands of USD each year to the main
criminal actors involved.
Legal Loopholes
Our analysis of CITES records also raises some concerns regarding the current legal
trade in this species. We found large discrepancies between imports and exports relat-
ing to ailand that are widely recognized indicators of illegal activity. Historically,
Kazakhstan is reported to have been the main supplier into ailand despite the fact
that it is not a range country for this species and a complete lack of import records
for any captive breeding stock (Suppl. material 1). e signicant involvement of
Lebanon (a non-CITES Party until 2013) also calls the legitimacy of ailand’s
founding stock into question. Previous calls for CITES Management Authorities
to investigate this particular trade route (e.g. Nijman and Shepherd 2010) may be
partly responsible for the observed lack of Indian Star Tortoise imports into ailand
over the last ve years.
India’s Wildlife Protection Act prohibits both trade and private ownership of
this species. However, legal domestic trade in other Asian countries appears to be
undermining India’s eorts to protect this species (Nijman and Shepherd 2015).
Specically, now that the illegal laundering of wild caught animals via legal pathways
is subject to increased scrutiny, it appears that illegal reptile traders are increasingly
using other more clandestine methods to smuggle these animals into ailand and
on to other target consumer countries, such as China. Once they enter countries
that permit legal trade in this species, it is very dicult for the relevant enforcement
agencies to distinguish between wild caught and captive bred animals (Nijman and
Shepherd 2010).
Neil D’Cruze et al. / Nature Conservation 13: 1–19 (2015)
16
Consumer demand
With regards to consumers, our study reveals that within India some demand un-
doubtedly persists for subsistence purposes among members of the rural poor (i.e. as a
source of protein). However, on wider assessment, wealth also appears to be an equally
strong (if not stronger) driver as domestic demand also extends to ‘luxury’ use as exotic
pets and spiritual purposes. Similarly, although more research is required, international
demand for this species throughout South East Asia (particularly ailand and China)
also appears to be driven by demand for use as exotic pets stimulated by increasing af-
uence across this region (Nijman and Shepherd 2015).
Recommendations
Given the scale of the illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises uncovered during our study,
we recommend that more detailed research should be carried out in order to establish
the impact that this unregulated activity is having on wild populations. is informa-
tion will be required in order to make a fully informed updated formal assessment
of the IUCN Red List status of this species. However, while this information is be-
ing collected, we suggest that assessors use existing information to inform whether a
precautionary approach to the listing of the Indian Star Tortoise is required to help
safeguard its survival.
Working together, national enforcement agencies can detect and disrupt the traf-
cking of wildlife by organised criminal groups, for example by documenting illegal
business activities and identifying laws that have been broken in each other’s jurisdic-
tions (TRAFFIC 2008). Given the relatively recent development of a highly organised
international criminal trade network (involving India, ailand and other Asian coun-
tries such as China) we recommend increased cooperation between relevant national
enforcement bodies in collaboration with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations’
Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN).
e legal trade in other Asian countries also appears to be undermining India’s ef-
forts to protect the Indian Star Tortoise. As such, we support existing calls (e.g. Nijman
and Shepherd 2015) for these ‘sink’ countries to implement corresponding national bans
regarding the commercial trade in this species. In particular, given its concerning current
role as a country of transit, extending WARPA to protect non-indigenous species could
help to aid ailand’s existing enforcement eorts to address this illegal trade activity.
It is important to note, wildlife laws and enforcement eorts stand little chance
of success unless consumer demand for protected wildlife is also addressed (TRAF-
FIC 2008). Consequently, we recommend that further studies should be carried out
to acquire a more detailed understanding of the attitudes and behaviours of Indian
Star Tortoise consumers. is information will help to inform existing and any future
human behaviour change initiatives focussed on reducing consumer demand for this
protected species.
A star attraction: e illegal trade in Indian Star Tortoises 17
Evidence suggests that a multifaceted approach can be successful in reducing il-
legal trade in Indian Star Tortoises. For example, a recent market survey has indicated
a dramatic drop in the number of Indian Star Tortoises in Malaysian shops over the
last 10 years as a direct result of new wildlife legislation, increased enforcement eort
and targeted public awareness initiatives (Chng and Bouhuys 2015). As such this type
of approach has the potential to yield similar results in other countries of Indian Star
Tortoise trade concern such as ailand.
Acknowledgements
We thank BC Choudhary, Margaret Balaskas, Kate Nustedt, Simon Pope, Gajender Shar-
ma, Emily Reeves, Lyndall Stein, and Peter Paul van Dijk for their invaluable comments
and insights during this research project. Many thanks to the Investigation and Intelligence
Team at World Animal Protection, and anonymous contributors, who provided conden-
tial information in support of this research. Special thanks go to Steve McIvor for support-
ing this project. is research project was fully funded by World Animal Protection.
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Supplementary material 1
Table S1. Table of the Indian Star Tortoise trade transactions (1975–2013)
Authors: Neil D’Cruze, Bhagat Singh, omas Morrison, Jan Schmidt-Burbach, Da-
vid W. Macdonald, Aniruddha Mookerjee
Data type: trade transactions data
Explanation note: Table to show the Indian Star Tortoise trade transactions (1975-
2013) as recorded by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spe-
cies of Wild Fauna and Flora World Conservation Monitoring Centre (CITES
WCMC) database (http://trade.cites.org/).
Copyright notice: is dataset is made available under the Open Database License
(http://opendatacommons.org/licenses/odbl/1.0/). e Open Database License
(ODbL) is a license agreement intended to allow users to freely share, modify, and
use this Dataset while maintaining this same freedom for others, provided that the
original source and author(s) are credited.
