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Hunting in pre-Islamic Arabia in light of the epigraphic evidence
... Its location far from all other records is surprising (Figure 2), and we would advise treating this record with caution. Also in Yemen is a rock inscription of a hunting expedition in Wadi Abadan, dated to 355 AD, in which onagers are mentioned as being hunted (Maraqten 2015). This is based on the interpretation of the word fr' in the ancient South Arabian script that sounds similar to the Arabic word for onager (Robin and Gajda 1994). ...
... This is based on the interpretation of the word fr' in the ancient South Arabian script that sounds similar to the Arabic word for onager (Robin and Gajda 1994). Another South Arabian inscription from Wadi Ayan in Yemen uses the word hmr that has also been interpreted as onager (Maraqten 2015), while the Arabic for donkey is hmr. The usual word for domestic donkey in Safaitic is hmr in contrast to 'rd which is onager (M. ...
... com/ photos/ 10156 1334@ N08/ 42314 715035. Li41, Umayma, Dhamar, Yemen,(Maraqten 2015). Li42, Qaryat Al Faw, KSA, https:// desti natio nksa. ...
Aim
If successful, plans to restore the vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula (AP) as announced by the Middle East and Saudi Green Initiatives will see the greatest increase in vegetation cover since the beginning of the Holocene Humid Phase (HHP), roughly 9–10,000 years ago. This marked an expansion in human population that was followed by animal extinctions and extirpations that have been accelerating to the present day. The re‐greening of Arabia presents a major opportunity to reverse much of this species decline; yet no complete list of the large mammal fauna of the AP during the Holocene has ever been published.
Location
Arabian Peninsula.
Time Period
Holocene.
Major Taxa Studied
Large mammals.
Materials and Methods
This paper tackles the problem by drawing on a database of archaeological and historical reports, as well as examination of thousands of published and unpublished rock images, complemented by analysis of over 30,000 toponyms.
Results
Evidence that 15 large mammal species became extinct or extirpated in the Arabian Peninsula since the beginning of the Holocene; previous published historical distribution maps of lions and aurochs shown to be incomplete; historic ranges of cheetah, Syrian wild ass, African wild ass, wild dromedary, lesser kudu, Arabian oryx, wild sheep and bezoar/wild goat distributions expanded; first published evidence of greater kudu, and Somali wild ass in the AP during the Holocene; most complete list of large mammals of the AP from the early Holocene; list of species that made it across the Sahara or recorded in the Levant during historical times that could also have colonised the AP, but for which evidence is yet to be conclusive; support for the Holocene and not the start of the modern era to be the conservation benchmark for re‐wilding; and description of key features on how to identify lost species in rock art.
Main Conclusions
This study shows that the Holocene large mammal fauna of the Arabian Peninsula consisted of many African species previously thought to have become extinct much earlier or not known to have colonised this part of western Asia. Moreover, some Levantine/Asian species were also present providing a unique fauna with affinities from both Afrotropical and Palearctic realms.
... Dozens of depictions of kites have been found in the Hemma Plateau in Syria (Lemaitre & van Berg, 2008;van Berg et al., 2004). Several depictions in Jordan are associated with Safaitic inscriptions, suggesting a very late use (Maraqten, 2015). Even petroglyphs as far afield as the Gharb Aswan region in Egypt, located near "game drives" may depict prehistoric animal hunting traps (Storemyr, 2008). ...
... Although many of the animals depicted in the petroglyphs at Wisad Pools are not found in faunal assemblages from any period, it is worth noting that many of these wild species are depicted more frequently in later periods, after the Neolithic. Addax, oryx, ibex and hartebeest are all well attested in later petroglyphs in the region, associated with Safaitic inscriptions (Maraqten, 2015). ...
Petroglyphs are well known in the Negev, eastern and southern Jordan, and the Arabian Peninsula. Intensive documentation of hundreds of petroglyphs at the site of Wisad Pools in the Black Desert of eastern Jordan records animals, humans, hunting traps and geometric designs, connecting people and places to the larger landscape. These were recorded at the landscape scale with drones and photogrammetry, and the local scale through the construction of a database combined with GPS recording and terrestrial photogrammetry. Petroglyphs of animals and hunting traps are significant because the site is located within a landscape that includes enormous and enigmatic hunting traps (desert kites). Mapping these depictions highlights typological distribution, association of types, and relation to landscape features as well as the topography of the basalt boulders on which they were pecked. The depictions of animals and hunting traps provide clues about the use of desert kites, the social role of hunting, communal gatherings, and feasting in the region.
... Unlike most other gazelle species, it is also able to survive under continental climate and to altitude close to 3000 m, even though it prefers plains and foothills Issues and Challenges in the Conservation of the Goitered Gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa; Güldenstädt, 1780) (Cichon et al., 2011;IUCN, 2017). On the other hand, the goitered gazelle has been intensively hunted for centuries and even millennia, as it is well attested by travelers' accounts, petroglyphs as well as archaeological records (Macdonald, 2005;Maraqten et al., 2015). The hunting pressure was especially high during the Early Bronze Age, from the Arabian peninsula to the Caucasus, when thousand large traps made of dried stones (the so-called 'desert kites') were used for mass-killing the goitered gazelles along their migration paths (Bar-Oz et al., Zeder et al., 2013). ...
... The goitered gazelle has been intensively hunted for centuries and even millennia, as it is well attested by travelers' accounts, petroglyphs as well as archaeological records (Macdonald, 2005;Maraqten et al., 2015). In the mid to late 1300s, muslim armies under the command of Timur Leng 8 were noted hunters of goitered gazelles, killing an estimated of 40,000 each year (Cichon et al., 2011 Project, 2017) in South-West Asia, from the Arabic peninsula, to the Levant, the Syrian desert, the Caucasus, and up to the vast steppe of Central Asia. ...
Despite it is listed as a vulnerable species since 2006, the population of the goitered gazelle is continuously declining. Illegal hunting and habitat destruction are considered as the main causes of this decline, even though this species is very adaptable to various ecosystems - especially arid environments - and was highly resilient to intense hunting pressures until the late nineteen century. Important efforts for conservation have been realized by the implementation of protected areas and have even led to re-introduction. However, the design of these protected areas could be improved. Several studies about habitat selection and home range size of re-introduced goitered gazelles have shown that protected areas should be re-arranged or shifted to areas more intensively used by gazelles. Moreover, habitat fragmentation, which can be involuntary reinforced by the design of protected areas, is a real threat for this migratory species. Indeed, isolation, whatever its origin, leads inevitably to lower genetic diversity.
... The archaeological evidence of the use of "desert kites" across the Peninsula into the first millennium BC and potentially later (e.g. Betts & Burke, 2015: 76;Crassard et al., 2015;Skorupka, 2010) as well as epigraphic evidence of ritualised hunting practices in the south-west of the Peninsula (Maraqten, 2015) are prime examples of continued interaction with wild animals during this period. Depictions of wild animals, particularly the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) and dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius), at early Bronze Age sites in south-eastern Arabia, most notably on tomb 1059 at Hili (Cleuziou & Tosi, 2007: 239) and on tombs from Umm an-Nar (Cleuziou & Tosi, 2007: 156;Uerpmann H-P. ...
... Epigraphic sources from numerous sites around the Arabian Peninsula describe ritualised hunts in detail, including those undertaken by social elites around the southern and western regions of the Peninsula throughout the first millennium BC (Maraqten, 2015). These include accounts of local rulers hunting as a form of social display to T A B L E 6 The epiphyseal fusion state of oryx remains (NISP) from each horizon. ...
The nature of the relationship between humans and wild terrestrial animals has been little discussed in Bronze Age and Iron Age south‐eastern Arabia, largely due to a relative paucity of their remains in contemporary faunal assemblages. In this paper we present the results of analysis of animal bone recently excavated from Saruq al‐Hadid, a late prehistoric (2200–800 BC) site located in the desert interior of the UAE. Wild terrestrial animals, particularly oryx (Oryx leucoryx) and gazelle (Gazella sp.), were the predominant taxa identified, suggesting long‐term, frequent exploitation of these species. Here we use these remains to examine the implications of this wild animal exploitation for subsistence strategies and social formation at the site and in the region, alongside late prehistoric use of the desert zone and the complexities of the relationship between humans and wild animals that occur in this environment. A reassessment of the zooarchaeological evidence from south‐eastern Arabia highlights the potential economic and social significance of wild animals to late prehistoric societies in the region, and the necessity to factor this importance into considerations of concurrent social developments.
... The current study constitutes the first assessment of the genetic diversity and population structure of goat populations from the southeastern Arabian Peninsula and provides the first insights into the genetic history of these goat populations. All Omani goat breeds included in our study were observed to show high diversity, as demonstrated by the high number of distinct haplotypes (45) observed in a sample of 69 animals. The genetic diversity parameters of Omani breeds were within the range of those observed for other goat populations from Africa [36] and Asia [37] and were similar to those found for other goat populations in the Arabian Peninsula, specifically Saudi Arabia [17]. ...
... Of significant interest is the presence of ibex-like figures engraved in the rocky walls of many caves and wadis in Oman. These engravings were likely made by hunters that frequented the Jebel Akhdar Mountains in search of prey during the fifth and fourth millennia BC (7,000-6,000 years ago) [8] and might be related to similar figures present elsewhere in the Arabian Peninsula [44,45]. According to the mitochondrial evidence presented herein, the Nubian ibex has not contributed to the gene pool of Omani domestic goats. ...
The Sultanate of Oman has a complex mosaic of livestock species and production systems, but the genetic diversity, demographic history or origins of these Omani animals has not been expensively studied. Goats might constitute one of the most abundant and important domestic livestock species since the Neolithic transition. Here, we examined the genetic diversity, origin, population structure and demographic history of Omani goats. Specifically, we analyzed a 525-bp fragment of the first hypervariable region of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region from 69 Omani individuals and compared this fragment with 17 mtDNA sequences from Somalia and Yemen as well as 18 wild goat species and 1,198 previously published goat sequences from neighboring countries. The studied goat breeds show substantial diversity. The haplotype and nucleotide diversities of Omani goats were found equal to 0.983 ± 0.006 and 0.0284 ± 0.014, respectively. The phylogenetic analyses allowed us to classify Omani goats into three mtDNA haplogroups (A, B and G): haplogroup A was found to be predominant and widely distributed and accounted for 80% of all samples, and haplogroups B and G exhibited low frequencies. Phylogenetic comparisons with wild goats revealed that five of the native Omani goat populations originate from Capra aegagrus. Furthermore, most comparisons of pairwise population FST values within and between these five Omani goat breeds as well as between Omani goats and nine populations from nearby countries were not significant. These results suggest strong gene flow among goat populations caused by the extensive transport of goats and the frequent movements of human populations in ancient Arabia. The findings improve our understanding of the migration routes of modern goats from their region of domestication into southeastern Arabia and thereby shed light on human migratory and commercial networks during historical times.
... Of significance are the rock drawings of kites which have been discovered in Jordan. Some of these drawings have been found in association with Safaitic inscriptions (Maraqten, 2015). One of the best preserved rock drawings of kites is the well-known Cairn of Hani, associated with a Safaitic inscription (Kennedy, 2012). ...
... Given the lack of any evidence that wild animals were hunted with a bow-and-arrow, alternative hunting methods have to be taken into consideration. For instance, trapped animals could have been slaughtered by using a knife, stick or club, as Maraqten (2015: 215) reported for ibex-hunting with kites. Another possibility(explored below) is that trapped animals were not killed on the spot but captured, and killed later, e.g. at a butchery site. ...
Although much information has been gathered during the last decade (as a result of archaeological excavations and satellite imaging) many unresolved issues remain about desert kites. These include the precise function of these huge archaeological stone structures which are widely distributed throughout southwestern Asia. According to the common vision, kites were hunting structures used to drive and to mass-kill large herds of wild ungulates. We qualify this view by analyzing the morphology of kites, the behavior of the targeted prey, and the logistical constraints associated with the mass-killing of ungulates. This leads us to conclude that as hunting structures, kites could also have been used for passively trapping animals. We believe it to be likely that kites were used (individually or collectively) for multiple purposes, which may have altered with the passage of time. An important use (at one stage in the existence of many kites) may have been for the mustering of livestock (especially sheep and goats), and for the capture of some wild or feral species of animals suitable for domestication. Some kites may also have been utilized for religious purposes or for cultural ceremonies.
... Therefore, the English language is commonly used in Madinah's signs as it is also a universally known language considering that Madinah Al Munawara is visited by millions of people every year whose languages might differ. Of course, the Arabic language is always mentioned in all the locations as it is the country's official language since the pre-Islamic times in the 7th and 8th centuries (Maraqten, 2015). Moreover, the Arabic language is the mother tongue of most residents in Saudi Arabia. ...
This study proposes to examine multilingual signs around several sites in Madinah, Saudi Arabia. First, AL Nakheel Compound, a residential area, and its residents are characterized by many ethnic groups and mother tongues. Second, Quba Mosque, the second largest mosque in Madinah and the first mosque built by the Prophet of Islam, Mohammad (PBUH), is an important Islamic landmark in the holy city, where the Muslim pilgrims attempt to visit while passing from the city during the "Hajj season" (one of the Islamic religious practices). Third, "Masjid Al Nabawi," or "The Prophet's Mosque," is one of the most important mosques for the Islamic state. Lastly, Sultana Road and Safiya Bint Abd Al Moutalib Street are two main streets in Madinah. Throughout the research, the influence of the English language will be compared to the other languages presented in the signs. The research focuses on a new attempt to expand the scope of linguistic landscape studies, revealing the important role the English language has introduced in the descriptive signs using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Moreover, the quantitative part of the research will present the languages used in Madinah's signs and attempt to prove the English language's broader effect and the secondary effect of the other languages in the noted signs of the proposed locations. In addition to the quantitative part of the research, a questionnaire will be distributed to 150 people to find their observations. Finally, a qualitative section will be given in which short interviews about the proposed areas of research to give a more comprehensive idea to the readers about the distribution of the multilingual signs and reveal the opinions of the interviewed targeted people about the chosen languages in the signs.
... Both south Arabian storm gods ‛Aṯtar and Ta'lab were associated with the ibex 39 . This belief is confirmed and expressed in older hunt ritual dating to 1 st millennium BC. ,in a Sabaean inscription (CIH547) mentioning the punishment of the god ‛Aṯtar to a tribe by preventing them from rain because they did not perform for him ibex hunt in a proper way 40 ,which could refer to dedication of the firstling of the sacrificed hunted ibexes to their deities , although it is not attested in relation to hunting in south Arabian inscriptions 41 .A pair of ibex horns cast in copper found in a small Nabataean temple (1 st century B.C. to the 3 rd century CE) built on the summit of Mount Serbal ( southern Sinai) (Fig.17).It seems that the ibex represented the chief Nabataean god Dushara, "that of the Shara Mountains" 42 , that brings rain from the sky, like the Arabian deity 'Aṯtar and Canaanean Ba'al 43 , and other mountain-storm god. ...
... This identification has previously been proffered for backed microliths from southern Arabia ( [82]: 329) and is common for backed microliths in metal-age site assemblages in wider Southwest Asia [87]. Support for this hypothesis is provided by arrows with single hafted microliths of similar age documented from Egypt [88,89] (Fig 35) and portrayed in 7 th -8 th Century BCE reliefs from Yemen [90]. ...
Excavations at Saruq al-Hadid, Dubai, UAE, discovered a stone tool technology with backed microliths dating to the Wadi Suq period and Late Bronze Age (ca. 1750–1300 BCE). The stone technology is a contemporary with metal production in the region, and the assemblage was recovered from a thick bone midden deposit at this multi-period site on the edge of the Rub’ al-Khali Desert. Small cobbles of chert were imported to the site and were reduced into flakes by hard-hammer percussion. Cores were frequently rotated during knapping and the reduction strategy was ad hoc, lacking hierarchical reduction stages. Flake tools were used as-is or modified by retouching. Some flakes were selected for backing into geometric microliths, and backing techniques often reflected high levels of stoneworking skill to produce stylised scalene shapes. A review of contemporary archaeological evidence, and the context of the Saruq al-Hadid assemblage, suggest that microliths may have been made as stone armatures for arrows despite the contemporary use of copper-based arrowheads.
... 8 On the subject of hunting in the Safaitic inscriptions and related matters, e.g. desert kites, etc, see Macdonald (2005) and Maraqten (2015) for a general introduction on hunting traditions in Pre-Islamic Arabia. 9 See Müller (1962: 34) and Sima (2000: 143 f.) for Semitic parallels. ...
Safaitic inscriptioptions from Wadi Salhum - NE Badia of Jordan
... Departing from the meagreness of mentions in Ṣayhadic texts, A. Beeston believed that dagger and lance were the main weapons for the rank and file in Old South Arabia and that archery was mainly used for the hunt (1976, 13). Years afterward, C. Robin found himself in the same situation in a study of Old South Arabian knights and hunters (Yule, Robin, 2005-6; in general on hunting in pre-Islamic Arabia: Maraqten, 2015). Potts is more careful and points out that Beeston may press his point too far, citing rock art in Arabia which shows archers (Potts, 1998:200). ...
The presentation of Samad Late Iron Age (LIA) weaponry made in the final field-work report in Samad al-Shān of 2001, for different reasons was hardly received in the specialist literature. A main reason is its publication in German language. Another is the fewness of students for this period in south-eastern Arabia. Despite the modest state of research for this period/assemblage in central Oman, an update which focusses on defence in general is worthwhile and the material relatively abundant, even compared with a more intensively researched contemporary assemblage (Pré-Islamique Récente, e.g. Mouton, 2008), centred mostly in sites located in the United Arab Emirates
... Of significance are the rock drawings of kites which have been discovered in Jordan. Some of these drawings have been found in association with Safaitic inscriptions (Maraqten 2015). One of the best preserved rock drawings of kites is the well-known Cairn of Hani, associated with a Safaitic inscription. ...
Since the discovery of desert kites during the 1920s in southwestern Asia (where they are widely distributed) their possible functions have received much attention from archaeologists. Two main functions have been hypothesized, namely, kites primarily used either as game traps or as structures used for livestock husbandry. Two papers published in the 1990s expressed opposing views about the relevance of these different uses. During the last two decades much information has been gathered on kites as a result of archaeological excavations and satellite imaging. However the function or functions of desert kites remains uncertain. Starting from the 1990s debate, we revisit this controversial issue by reviewing the academic literature published since then. On the basis of this literature and other considerations, we conclude that although some (or all) may have been used for hunting, their main use was for the mustering of livestock. This favors the hypothesis of Echallier and Braemer (1995). In addition, it seems likely that kites were used for a third function, namely the capture of some wild or feral species of animals, particularly goats.
... While these structures were definitely human-built, very few organic artefacts (such as remains of char- coal or animal bone) have been found within and around kites. In the absence of sufficient evidence from petroglyphs or the existence of travelers' accounts ( Betts, 1987;Kennedy, 2012;Maraqten, 2015;, Barge et al. (2015b, p. 159) point to the presence of chronological ele- ments in the stratigraphy which appears to be the only source for dating the building and/or use of a kite. ...
Possible reasons for using kites to kill gazelles are comprehensively reviewed in this article. Even though they are now well inventoried and documented, desert kites are still not well understood, as exemplified by the recurrent controversies about their function and dating. According to the dominant view, kites were hunting structures used to drive and to mass kill large herds of wild ungulates, particularly gazelles. Although kites were intensively used during the Early Bronze Age, some of them could have been built and used before that. Beyond these issues, the cultural and socioeconomic aspects of the kites phenomenon are even less understood, and therefore we focus on changing reasons for the long-lasting use of kites as hunting devices. We contend that the reasons why they were used during the period of utilization for hunting gazelles changed, in most cases, in response to socioeconomic development. It is hypothesised, for example, that, as a result of urban development, kites may have been increasingly (but not exclusively) used to kill gazelles to trade their products with urban communities and farmers, even though they had
other uses as well which are also considered. The main hypothesis presented in this article enables diverse opinions about the types of uses and reasons for utilizing desert kites to be reconciled, including in particular varied reasons given in the literature about why they were used for killing gazelles.
... Seen from this perspective, the communal hunt on this prestigious animal, but also the collaborative effort of a drive hunt on gazelles (and Asiatic wild ass), as well as the joint consumption of the meat, may have been two parts of an activity that strengthened group cohesion . It is therefore not surprising to encounter the (ritual) hunt on prestigious animals charged with symbolism even in much later times, like for instance hippopotamus hunts (among others) in Predynastic Egypt (Hendrickx, 2011) or those of ibexes in Yemen (Serjeant, 1976;Ryckmans, 1976;Maraqten, 2015) e to mention but two examples. ...
An aurochs right humerus with a fragment of an embedded projectile point was discovered during excavations at early Neolithic Göbekli Tepe in south-eastern Turkey. Evidence for hunting trauma in bones is extremely rare in the prehistoric record from the Near East and Africa, while the dataset from Europe is much larger. In this contribution a hunting lesion from Göbekli Tepe and its context will be described and discussed against the background of data on similar hunting lesions found in Europe, the Near East and Africa. Communal hunting is identified as one strategy to hunt down large game like aurochs, which, in the case of Göbekli Tepe, will be placed in the socio-cultural context of large scale gatherings.
... This variation in hunting dog skills is well-documented among ethnographic reports of dog-assisted hunting groups (e.g., Nobayashi, 2016;Perri, 2014). Later depictions of hunting dogs are also seen in pre-Islamic rock art across the Arabian Peninsula and nearby regions, and the use of hunting dogs is frequently reported in ancient inscriptions (Maraqten, 2015). Hunting dogs with similarly pricked ears and curled tails are also seen on leashes hunting wild goats, lions and leopards in 4th millennia BC rock art from Armenia (Manaserian and Antonian, 2000). ...
The function of prehistoric dogs in hunting is not readily visible in the archaeological record; interpretations are thus heavily reliant on ethnographic data and remain controversial. Here we document the earliest evidence for dogs on the Arabian Peninsula from rock art at the sites of Shuwaymis and Jubbah, in northwestern Saudi Arabia. Hunting scenes depicted in the rock art illustrate dog-assisted hunting strategies from the 7th and possibly the 8th millennium BC, predating the spread of pastoralism. Though the depicted dogs are reminiscent of the modern Canaan dog, it remains unclear if they were brought to the Arabian Peninsula from the Levant or represent an independent domestication of dogs from Arabian wolves. A substantial dataset of 147 hunting scenes shows dogs partaking in a range of hunting strategies based on the environment and topography of each site, perhaps minimizing subsistence risk via hunting intensification in areas with extreme seasonal fluctuations. Particularly notable is the inclusion of leashes on some dogs, the earliest known evidence in prehistory. The leashing of dogs not only shows a high level of control over hunting dogs before the onset of the Neolithic, but also that some dogs performed different hunting tasks than others.
... The rock art is dominated by a small number of frequently depicted animals (746 camels, 210 ibex, 202 dogs, 120 ostriches and 104 cattle). Ibex are depicted throughout all phases of rock art creation at Shuwaymis and may have been a symbol of religious activity; for the pre-Islamic periods, ritual ibex hunts are attested in South Arabian inscriptions (Maraqten, 2015;Serjeant, 1976: 84). Engravings of ostrich are also very common and are often depicted in association with domestic camels (out of 49 panels containing ostrich depictions, 44 showed an association with domestic camels). ...
The animal species depicted in the rock art of Shuwaymis, Saudi Arabia, provide a record of Holocene climatic changes, as seen by the engravers. Of 1903 animal engravings, 1514 contained sufficient detail to allow identification with confidence. In addition, the stratigraphy of the engravings and the depiction of domesticates provide a broad chronological framework that allows a division into images created during the Holocene humid phase and animals represented after the onset of desert conditions. Despite the large sample size, only 16 animal species could be identified, which represents an extraordinarily narrow species spectrum. Comparison with the scarce faunal record of the Arabian Peninsula shows that all larger animals that are thought to have been present in the area were also depicted in the rock art. The contemporaneous presence of at least four large carnivores during the Holocene humid phase suggests that prey animals were abundant, and that the landscape consisted of a mosaic of habitats, potentially with thicker vegetation along the water courses of the wadis and more open vegetation in the landscape around them. Community Earth System Models (COSMOS) climate simulations show that Shuwaymis was at the northern edge of the African Summer Monsoon rainfall regime. It is therefore possible that Shuwaymis was ecologically connected with southwestern Arabia, and that an arid barrier remained in place to the north, restricting the dispersal of Levantine species into Arabia.
The first part of this study presents evidence from the Qurʾān and early Arabic writings to argue that dīn in the Qurʾān often means “worship” instead of “religion” and that islām means exclusive worship of the One God rather than “submission” to Him. Specifically, I show that the noun dīn and the verb dāna frequently convey the ideas of “service” and “servitude” in early Arabic texts, a usage that underlies the qurʾānic meaning of dīn as “service” or “worship” offered to God. Moreover, in line with strong indications from the Qur’an, several early works of exegesis and lexicography understand islām as exclusive devotion to and monotheistic worship of God instead of submission to His will. In the second part, the study reinterprets the three verses that use the terms dīn and islām (Q 3:19, 3:85, and 5:3). It focuses on Q 5:3, which prohibits ten animal food items, announces the completion of the Believers’ dīn , and identifies this dīn as islām . As I argue, the new food restrictions of this verse are not simply dietary but also cultic, as their goal is to distinguish the Believers’ way of worship from that of the mushrikūn (“pagans”). In particular, the “cultic decalogue” of Q 5:3 bans the meat of animals that die violently (during hunting or otherwise), in order to ensure that the Believers eat meat only from animals that are slaughtered properly. Such slaughter involves the explicit and exclusive invocation of Allāh’s name, an act that showcases and safeguards the Believers’ adherence to monotheistic worship, namely, islām .
References to the pilgrimage in the Qur’an, called ḥajj and ʿumra, are often very brief, but recent studies have shown that most of what is gleaned from the Qur’an about the practice can find parallels in pilgrimages to other sites in Arabia. In this article, I read the Qur’anic data on ḥajj and ʿumra in the light of Arabian inscriptions that mention pilgrimage rituals. In particular, the annual pilgrimage to the Awām Temple in Ma’rib in South Arabia, about which we know a great deal, can shed light on the larger context of the ritual in pre-Islamic Arabia. I argue based on a discussion of Qur’anic and epigraphic materials that the ḥajj and ʿumra of the Qur’an share many elements with other Arabian pilgrimages, but the Qur’an clearly expresses discontent with certain practices of pre-Islamic pilgrimage such as ritual hunt while endorsing or approving others such as the procession between the hills of al-Ṣafā and al-Marwa. Most importantly, I contend that the Qur’an attempts to decouple pilgrimage and animal sacrifice especially due to the latter’s strong association with physical objects of veneration called awthān and nuṣub in the Qur’an.
This chapter focuses on religious slaughter with emphasis on Halal slaughter. It examines the historical background of Halal slaughter as well as the practice of slaughtering animals with and without stunning. The requirements of Halal slaughter and the concept of Tayyib during Halal meat production are explained in greater detail.For the purpose of this book, religious slaughter or religious rite is used to refer to slaughter in accordance with the traditions of Muslims (Halal) and Jews (Shechita) only. However, apart from Islam and Judaism, there are other religions with guidance on how animals must be slaughtered for consumption by their followers; this chapter focuses on Halal slaughter due to its prevalence, economic and animal welfare significance.
Islam is the only biblical religion that still practices animal sacrifice. Indeed, every year more than a million animals are shipped to Mecca from all over the world to be slaughtered during the Muslim Hajj. This multi-disciplinary volume is the first to examine the physical foundations of this practice and the significance of the ritual. Brannon Wheeler uses both textual analysis and various types of material evidence to gain insight into the role of animal sacrifice in Islam. He provides a 'thick description' of the elaborate camel sacrifice performed by Muhammad, which serves as the model for future Hajj sacrifices. Wheeler integrates biblical and classical Arabic sources with evidence from zooarchaeology and the rock art of ancient Arabia to gain insight into an event that reportedly occurred 1400 years ago. His book encourages a more nuanced and expansive conception of “sacrifice” in the history of religion.
This article considers the archaeology, based mainly on eggs, of the extinct ratite (flightless birds, infraclass Palaeognathae) Struthio camelus syriacus (henceforth referred to as ‘ostrich’). Ostrich eggs were used as canteens, vessels, or raw material to produce prestige objects or ornaments. Starting with eggs discovered in a Middle Bronze Age cemetery in Tel Aviv, the production technology, symbolism and meaning, as well as assumed motivations and other cultural marks are analysed. The finds are analysed in a broader context, including the relationship between man and ostrich. The article reviews occurrences where ostrich-related remains, such as workshops, complete and fragmented eggs, as well as a small number of bones that have been recovered in archaeological excavations and surveys, have been found.
In this paper the archaeofaunas from Yalā and Barāqish (Area C) are presented and discussed. Together they provide some of the best data on the interrelationships between people and animals—and particularly animal foodstuffs—in Sabaean and Minaean Yemen, i.e. in the South Arabian early historic (“protohistoric”) society of the 1st millennium BC. Importantly, these two archaeological or “cultural” faunas are in many respects complementary, this being a reason why they have been chosen for this summary account. Yalā’s fauna represents a relatively secluded area in the piedmont belt away from trade routes, and a timespan of a few generations. The Barāqish samples, on the contrary, derive from a long-lived town and fluvial oasis in the semi-desert, which notably also flourished as a caravan station in a dynamic commercial network.
By the Late Middle Ages, mounted troops - cavalry in the form of knights - are established as the dominant battlefield arm in North-Western Europe. This paper considers the development of cavalry after the Germanic Barbarian Successor Kingdoms such as the Visigoths in Spain or the Carolingian Franks emerged from Roman Late Antiquity and their encounters with Islam, as with the Moors in Iberia or the Saracens (Arabs and Turks) during the Crusades, since an important part of literature ascribes advances in European horse breeding and horsemanship to Arab influence. Special attention is paid to information about horse types or breeds, conformation, tactics - fighting with lance and bow - and training. Genetic studies and the archaeological record are incorporated to test the literary tradition.
Excavations at Saruq al-Hadid, Dubai, have recovered a large assemblage of stone artefacts, including backed microliths, from a dense midden of animal bone deposited during the mid-second millennium BC. Stoneworkers at Saruq al-Hadid combined simple core reduction methods with sophisticated backing techniques to produce the microliths. Unstandardized flake blanks were backed directly, or were truncated into segments which were subsequently backed. The final stage of backing was carefully controlled and was probably accomplished using a pressure technique; the backed surface on many microliths is distinctively domed in profile. Most microliths are asymmetrical in shape and many display a distinctive scalene triangle morphology. The microliths probably functioned as armatures for arrows, although other functions are possible. Here we contextualize microlith production at Saruq al-Hadid through a review of late prehistoric microlith traditions in southeastern Arabia and neighbouring regions of Asia and Africa. This raises intriguing but unresolved issues related to preceding technological traditions, cultural connections, and group identity.
Excavations at Saruq al-Hadid, a late prehistoric (c.2000 BCE – c.800 BCE) site located in the Emirate of Dubai, U.A.E., have recovered several tonnes of animal bone. Due to a thorough sieving and retention strategy the remains of a range of taxa were collected, from camels to rodents. Within this wealth of material several dozen fragments of a variety of bird species were identified that have given a unique insight into human activity in the interior of southeastern Arabia; from sea birds (an unexpected find, given that the site is 40km away from the current coastline), to a fragment of raptor that might reflect early hunting practices. The presence of certain bird species in the remains may also be indicative of the site’s past environment and suggests it was likely different to the sparsely vegetated mobile dune field it is today. This paper outlines these remains, from their excavation to their analysis. The insights they provide into the nature of the occupation at Saruq al-Hadid are discussed, thereby demonstrating the great utility of studying even a relatively small assemblage of archaeological bird remains.
Tamed and domesticated carnivores like dogs, cheetahs and mongooses participated as search and chase aids in human hunt efforts during most of the human history, in different societies, as attested by anthropologic, literary or graphic sources. In order to impose human will on the animals, different tethering devices were developed, such as leashes, collars and harnesses. These devices significantly differ from others created e.g. for hauling, riding or carry palanquins.
During the Roman and Byzantine periods, these animals and their restraining gear were depicted in realistic hunting scenes in the southern Levant on different media, including churches, synagogues and private dwellings mosaic floors. These mosaics are discussed as evidences of everyday life. Therefore, this research analyzes the mechanism involved in translation of reality to images, the choice of hunting animals and their respective equipment as motives represented on the mosaics, the differences between prestige and utilitarian hunt and the motivation behind the animal owner’s choices and preferences.
During the Late Bronze and Iron Ages, the vast arid areas of the southern Levant, northwestern Arabia and Sinai were inhabited by populations whose main way of living was nomadic herding and trade, small-scale agriculture and occasional mining, complemented with a few settled centers. The nomadic, non-literate communities have been traditionally studied through the lenses of the outside written sources (especially, the New Kingdom Egyptian and Neo-Assyrian inscriptions) and sometimes seen as intrinsically stable, unranked societies. However, the desert societies left an enormous record of rock art that has not received similar attention. This article aims to study the local rock art and the iconography of other visual media it influenced, focusing on the information they supply on the social organization of these societies. The analysis provides several – yet still tentative – results on the sacred and power of the desert nomads: it attests the emergence of local nomadic chiefs in the LBA/IA transition and later, leaders who relied on their performance in war and on the realization of ritual huntings and cultic practices that ensured control over nature and access to the tribal deities.
By the Late Middle Ages, mounted troops - cavalry in the form of knights - are established as the dominant battlefield arm in North-Western Europe. This paper considers the development of cavalry after the Germanic Barbarian Successor Kingdoms such as the Visigoths in Spain or the Carolingian Franks emerged from Roman Late Antiquity and their encounters with Islam, as with the Moors in Iberia or the Saracens (Arabs and Turks) during the Crusades, since an important part of literature ascribes advances in European horse breeding and horsemanship to Arab influence. Special attention is paid to information about horse types or breeds, conformation, tactics - fighting with lance and bow - and training. Genetic studies and the archaeological record are incorporated to test the literary tradition.
Petroglyphs accompanying many Safaitic inscriptions are considered as a direct source of information about ancient Safaitic tribes, specifically their culture and society. Animals , wild and domestic, possible hunting scenes, anthropomorphs, presumed battle scenes and geometric symbols appear frequently in the Safaitic rock art. This research is concerned with a new collection of Safaitic Bedouin rock art containing possible hunting scenes. Data were collected during an epigraphic survey at Al-c Ausajī al-Janoubī in the northeastern Bādiya of Jordan. Petroglyphs on nineteen rocks are proposed to depict hunting of animals.
The basalt plateau of Hemma (circa 25 x 30km), linked to very ancient volcanic activity, lies along the right bank
of wadi Aweidj, north of the town of Hassake, in Syrian Djeziria. In 1995 the first engraved surfaces were discovered by chance on the eastern border of the plateau, near the village of Khishâm, by the members of the Tell Beydar expedition. This discovery was only exploited three years later. The General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums (GDAM, Damascus) was then notified of the presence of rock engravings in the region.
It is not only oil in which Saudi Arabia is rich, but it is also among the four richest rock art regions of the world. Hundreds and thousands of petroglyphs, painted rock art, and ancient Arabian inscriptions sites are located all over the country, representing various cultural phases, from the Neolithic until the recent past. One can see the naturalistic, schematic, abstract, mythical, and mystical images representing ancient ideology, thoughts about the metaphysical world, religious entity, economy, environment, human activities, and variety of animal types, according to particular climatic and environmental conditions. The rock art of Saudi Arabia is the mirror of its rich cultural heritage of so-called Bedouin or desert dwellers that surprises the world with its 4000 archaeological and more than 1500 rock art sites.
This paper argues that the wide geographical distribution of desert kites, which are huge archaeological structures of stone visible from satellite images, must be more broadly acknowledged as a momentous factor in the study of their variability and function. This is important so that researchers can more accurately understand and interpret their impact on biodiversity, landscapes and subsistence patterns. The first results and perspectives of the Globalkites research project are discussed and presented. Often considered as hunting traps, the kites could have also been used for animal husbandry. In a broader archaeological context, where kites seem to have been oper-ating from the Neolithic to recent historical times, we propose an interdisciplinary approach at the crossroads of anthropology (archaeology and ethnology), geomatics and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), geostatistics, mathematics and computer-ized data processing and geoarchaeological and bioarchaeological sciences (isotope studies, paleoclimatology, archaeozoology…). The principal aims of the project are to clearly articulate the variability of the structures and their relationship with the function and chronology of the kites. It is also crucial to discuss the wide distribution of these structures across the Middle East and Central Asia as a global phenomenon and the ideas that explain the dispersal and movements of people and/or traditions must be addressed.
The stone structures known as kites and found widely in ‘Arabia’, are one of the more intriguing archaeological traces in what are often arid and bleak landscapes. They were first reported from the air in 1927, and by 1995 — largely through interpretation of old aerial photographs — c.500 had been identified. Now (2012), remote‐sensing techniques of various kinds have produced a huge increase, to over 3000. Recent work has also extended the geographical spread of kites in ‘Arabia’, from south‐eastern Turkey and north‐western Iraq to central Yemen. Much detailed work will be required to develop and refine a typology for kites as a whole and to digest and present data from remote sensing on which specialists may build interpretations and explanations. Current tabulation and mapping, however, already reveal patterns, and the discovery of an unusual form in the desert between Damascus and Palmyra in Syria deserves special attention.
Please cite this article as: Monchot, H., Bailon, S., Schiettecatte, J., Archaeozoological evidence for traditional consumption of spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx aegyptia) in Saudi Arabia, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2014.02.012. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Spread throughout the deserts of the southern Levant are numerous triangular-shaped stone structures known as kites. Ancient kites are built of two long converging low stone walls with a circular enclosure at the apex. The enclosure can range from a few meters to 100 meters in diameter, and the walls may extend for hundreds of meters or even several kilometers. These well-preserved structures provide testimony to the magnitude of the systematic mass hunting of hoofed animals in the ancient Near East.
Google Earth offers the opportunity to study “desert kites”, large, presumably Neolithic gazelle-hunting structure, shaped like children’s kites. They occur throughout the Near East where large stones were available, e.g. in the Harrat (lava deserts). Kites typically consist of km-long guiding walls, ending in a ha-sized enclosure. In Jordan at least 550 kites are counted, and another 252 in Saudi Arabia. The Jordanian and the 45 northern SA kites are of a different type (“star-shaped” and arranged in chains) than the 207 in the Harrat Khaybar in Central SA (“barbed” and individual). Size statistics are presented; relative stratigraphy and kite function is discussed
Remarkably, the largest archaeological game traps ever recorded in the Near East are found in arid landscapes, both on plains and in hilly terrains. This paper describes the construction methods used on steep slopes in the Negev Highland. Apparently, in some cases a massive rampart (rather than a free-standing wall) was built around the trap's head. The details reflect careful planning and heavy-duty work, including leveling and then using more than 100 t of stone for the rampart construction. New 14C data date the Sayarim site to the Early Bronze Age (minimum age), and the Pitam site to pre-Late Bronze Age.
De nombreux sites archéologiques et d'art rupestre ont été découverts depuis dix ans en bordure orientale du plateau basaltique du Hemma (Hassake, Syrie) et le long des wadis qui l'entaillent. Les récoltes de surface montrent que la zone est occupée du 7e millénaire à la fin de l'époque parthe ; la période néo-assyrienne est la mieux représentée. Les vestiges archéologiques comportent des desert-kites, des cercles de pierre (non datés) et des habitats d'époque néo-assyrienne et achéménide. Quelque 2 500 roches gravées s'échelonnent entre le 5e/4e millénaire et le IIIe siècle de notre ère, avec deux concentrations principales sur les sites de Khishâm-2 et de Kefra. Depuis 2001, le travail de terrain est assuré par une mission syro-belge qui pratique des sondages, des prospections et des relevés de l 'art rupestre. L 'article est consacré aux desert-kites, illustrés par des structures construites et des gravures rupestres.
Les vestiges de 11 desert-kites, ont été découverts sur une distance de 25 km. Celui de Khishâm-2, muni d'un enclos long de 140 m, est le plus grand et le mieux conservé. Ces constructions se présentent individuellement et non en chaînes, comme ce peut être le cas en Syrie méridionale et en Jordanie. Aucun nouvel élément de datation n 'est apparu jusqu 'ici. Les dates proposées ailleurs se répartissent généralement du Néolithique au Bronze ancien, sans que des constructions et des usages plus tardifs puissent être exclus. Les enclos polygonaux ou sub-rectangulaires sont généralement installés sur une pente, en équilibre sur une crête naturelle, murs d'accès d'un côté, enclos de l 'autre. Les cellules périphériques se trouvent aux angles du polygone, le long du mur le plus bas et le long du mur opposé à l 'entrée. Aucune solution définitive n 'a été atteinte en ce qui concerne l'utilisation de ces structures sans doute destinées à accueillir des animaux.
Quelque 70 représentations rupestres de desert-kites ont été découvertes. Leur support rocheux est souvent utilisé comme un paysage naturel. Ces figures appartiennent aux mêmes phases culturelles que les constructions, mais leur typologie est plus diversifiée. Les figures anthropomorphes et surtout zoomorphes associées renvoient tantôt à la thématique de la chasse, tantôt à des divinités ou présentent des scènes non interprétables. Des représentations similaires découvertes en Jordanie présentent souvent les mêmes caractères stylistiques que celles du Hemma, ce qui soulève la question de leur attribution éventuelle à des populations mobiles.
Il fut suggere recemment que les « desert kites » - des structures construites selon toute vraisemblance, pour la chasse -avaient aussi servi pour gerer des troupeaux semi-domestiques. Dans cette reponse, les arguments avances pour justifier cette hypothese sont examines. Pour des raisons a la fois biologiques, il nous est apparu impossible de la retenir.
Archaeological investigations into the steppic regions of the Near East have only recently been systematized in controlled surveys and excavations. Prior to this information regarding pastoral nomads and 'archaeological' remains came from travellers' accounts. One corpus of such data concerned extensive stone structures in the basaltic sub-region of the Badiyat esh-Sham, 'desert kites', which have received much speculative attention. Their function and date were not established in any empirical way until very recently, and even then, the nature of evidence is problematical; it is typical of what might be called steppic archaeology. This, the long debate regarding 'kites' and the new evidence to hand are presented here and set against the development of steppic hunting technology from the Neolithic up to more recent periods.
Recent surveys in the basalt region of eastern Jordan have located several rock carvings of a form which suggests that they might represent the "kites" (animal traps) common in the area.
Depuis qu'ils ont ete signales pour la premiere fois dans les annees vingt, les desert kites ont fait l'objet de nombreuses descriptions et hypotheses explicatives. Dans l'hypothese la plus generalement acceptee, ces installations sont considerees comme etant des pieges edifies par des chasseurs de gazelles. Des releves et fouilles recents, effectues sur des ensembles de Syrie meridionale et centrale, montrent que, dans de nombreux cas, l'hypothese d'installations construites par des eleveurs et principalement destinees a la capture, au rassemblement et au parcage periodique d'animaux semi-domestiques semble plus vraisemblable. Les auteurs proposent donc un nouveau schema d'evolution de l'utilisation de ces structures, explication qui laisse entrevoir l'existence probable de techniques pastorales communes a tout le Proche-Orient ancien
Archaeologically, Saudi Arabia is one of the least explored parts of the Middle East. Now, thanks to Google Earth satellite imagery, a number of high-resolution ‘windows’ have been opened onto the landscape. Initial investigations already suggest large parts of the country are immensely rich in archaeological remains and most of those identified are certainly pre-Islamic and probably several thousand years old. Detailed interpretation of one ‘window’ east of Jeddah forms the basis for illustrating the richness of the heritage and how the satellite imagery can be exploited to shed important light on the character and development of the human landscape. Through this ‘window’ we set out a proposed methodology for future work and where it may lead.Highlights► Google Earth high-resolution images of Saudia Arabia. ► Provide access to archaeological monuments in basalt desert. ► Areas not previously covered by aerial photography. ► Complex funerary monuments exploit landscape. ► The Works of the Old Men in Arabia
Desert kites are stone-built, funnel-shaped installations comprising two long and low stone-built walls
(‘arms’) converging on an enclosure or pit at the apex. They are found in the deserts of the Near East, and
are generally accepted as representing game traps to catch herds of wild ungulates. Their chronology is
debated but some desert kites appear to have functioned as early as the 7th millennium BC. The largest
number of these structures is recorded in the deserts of eastern Jordan where they often form chains of
up to 60 km long. In contrast, in the Negev (Israel) and Sinai (Egypt) deserts, the desert kites are few in
number and occur as small, individual installations.
This paper presents the results of archaeological surveys and excavations of 16 desert kites from the
Negev desert and northeast Sinai. We present radiocarbon dates, infrared stimulated luminescence ages
and chronology of material culture to show that desert kites in this region were established in the late
4th–early 3rd millennia BC and ceased to function by the mid-2nd millennium BC. The size, shape and
location of the desert kites fits the physical conditions of the terrain and also the ethology and ecology of
the prey species hunted.
C'est le deuxième volume consacré aux collections épigraphiques et archéologiques provenant des sites du Jawf, déposées au musée National de Sanaa, Yémen. Ce volume contient 130 pièces composées des inscriptions, des stèles inscrites, plaques en pierre incisées, fragments des piliers, objets en bronze et des bijoux. La plupart de ces pièces datent des VIIIe-Ier s. av. J.-C.
Exercise 5-1: Navigating Google Earth's Interface, and the Planet Exercise 5-2: Create a Polygon and Edit Its Properties Through Google Earth's Form Menus Exercise 5-3: Edit the Gardens Polygon Using KML
The ancient range of the Arabian ostrich can be extended considerably when ostrich representations in rock-art and on pottery, as well as finds of ostrich egg-shell, are added to the evidence of 19th- and 20th-century sightings prior to the bird's extinction. This evidence, moreover, stands in stark contrast to the image gleaned from a traditional faunal analytical perspective which relies almost exclusively on osteological material to demonstrate the presence of a particular species. The very long tradition of ostrich egg-shell use by ancient and modern populations in Arabia provides us with a virtually' unique example of the human 'exploitations' of a resource derived from a bird which, for the most part, sucessfully eluded its would be captors and killers until the advent of motorized travel and high-powered firearms.
Among the thousands of Hismaic inscriptions found in the ismā desert of southern Jordan are the signatures of countless authors and artists who carved their names, thoughts and drawings into stone. These signed carvings, which typically give not only the name of the author but also, on occasion, the name of his father, grandfather and even great‐grandfather, provide an extraordinary record of the actual individuals who roamed the desert wadis 2000 years ago. This article, which focuses on a collection of Hismaic inscriptions and drawings from the Wādī afīr canyon of southern Jordan, illustrates how traditional epigraphic study of these names, combined with a GIS‐based landscape approach, can provide a much clearer picture of not only who was carving the inscriptions and where, but also how the various authors may have been related or acquainted.
Recently, several depictions of camels pursued by horsemen with spears have been interpreted as hunting scenes. References to ethnographic descriptions of bedouin life in the 19th and early 20th centuries suggest these may in fact be scenes of raiding rather than hunting.
Ibex are an important iconographic element in the art of South Arabia. The origins, geographical distribution, chronology and divine affinities of ibex are considered, drawing on both archaeological and epigraphic sources.
Across the arid expanses of the Arabian peninsula and even at the margins of its limited upland farmlands in Northern Yemen
and the Asir, pastoralism has proved an enduring and effective economic strategy through the later Holocene. Goats, camels,
and cattle are the principal herd animals, with mixed strategies of goats and sheep, goats and camels, and to a lesser extent
cattle and goats. Strategies have changed through time and across geographic and socio-political territories with the herding
of particular animals such as cattle or camels conferring not only specific economic benefits and constraints but also playing
significant roles in the establishing and differentiation of people’s social identities and statuses. While it is not entirely
clear when a fully pastoral commitment, that is, one that emphasized production of secondary animal products, appeared in
Arabia, it is evident that there long remained groups with partial economic dependence on herd animals and still exploiting
the rich interior game (e.g., gazelle, ibex) and coastal-estuarine resources (principally fish and shellfish). To the important
questions of when and from where domesticated animals entered the Arabian peninsula therefore must be added the question of
what constitutes a transition to true pastoralism in the ancient Arabian record. With new evidence from Southern Arabia, it
is now possible to address these issues there.
KeywordsFauna-Grazing-Manayzah-Pastoralism-Shi’b Kheshiya-Southern Arabia
This short article provides a first glimpse at ancient hunting structures in Southern Arabia, which represents a new field of research. The hunting structures of Yemen are compared to the well-known desert kites of North Arabia. The form of the Yemeni desert kite does not change; it is fixed. Two long walls lead to the head which is an open structure with many chambers on the left side, a guiding wall on the right side and a gangway in between. Three examples are presented in detail. Desert kites served for hunting gazelles and were probably in use from the Neolithic till the Sabean period.
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Many fundamental studies of the origins of states have built upon landscape data, but an overall study of the Near Eastern landscape itself has never been attempted. Spanning thousands of years of history, the ancient Near East presents a bewildering range of landscapes, the understanding of which can greatly enhance our ability to infer past political and social systems.
Tony Wilkinson now shows that throughout the Holocene humans altered the Near Eastern environment so thoroughly that the land has become a human artifact, albeit one that retains the power to shape human societies. In this trailblazing book—the first to describe and explain the development of the Near Eastern landscape using archaeological data—Wilkinson identifies specific landscape signatures for various regions and periods, from the early stages of complex societies in the fifth to sixth millennium B.C. to the close of the Early Islamic period around the tenth century A.D.
From Bronze Age city-states to colonized steppes, these signature landscapes of irrigation systems, tells, and other features changed through time along with changes in social, economic, political, and environmental conditions. By weaving together the record of the human landscape with evidence of settlement, the environment, and social and economic conditions, Wilkinson provides a holistic view of the ancient Near East that complements archaeological excavations, cuneiform texts, and other conventional sources.
Through this overview, culled from thirty years' research, Wilkinson establishes a new framework for understanding the economic and physical infrastructure of the region. By describing the basic attributes of the ancient cultural landscape and placing their development within the context of a dynamic environment, he breaks new ground in landscape archaeology and offers a new context for understanding the ancient Near East.
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