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Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria
ISBN: 978-92-807-3373-0
Job Number: DEW/1785/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Ibadan, Nigeria, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Published by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), November 2014
© 2014 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
ISBN: 978-92-807-3373-0
DEW/1785/NA
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Mention of a commercial company or product in this document does not imply endorsement by UNEP
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Citation
Adelekan, I., Olajide-Taiwo, L., Ayorinde, A., Ajayi, D. and Babajide, S. (2014). Building Urban Resilience:
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria. [Padgham, J. and J. Jabbour (eds.)].
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya.
A digital copy of this report along with supporting appendices are available at
www.start.org/upa/ibadan.pdf
Managing Editor: Jon Padgham
Associate Editor/Production Coordinator: Jason Jabbour
Assistant Editor: Katie Dietrich
Copy Editors: Bart Ullstein and Kristie Bates
Layout and Design: Jennifer Odallo and Audrey Ringler
Printing: UNON Publishing Services Section, Nairobi-ISO 14001-certied/D1 No. 14-00109/250
Cover Photo: © Ajilore
UNEP promotes
environmentally sound practices
globally and in its own activities. This
report is printed on paper from sustainable
forests including recycled bre. The paper is
chlorine free, and the inks vegetable-based. Our
distribution policy aims to reduce UNEP’s
carbon footprint.
is report represents one from a series of nine city-level reports on urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA),
which together form a larger knowledge assessment. e knowledge assessment was carried out in Dakar
(Senegal), Tamale (Ghana), Ibadan (Nigeria), Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Kampala (Uganda), Addis Ababa
(Ethiopia), Dhaka (Bangladesh), Kathmandu (Nepal) and Chennai (India). e nine reports and a synthesis
report can be downloaded at: http://start.org/programs/upa
Funding Partners
Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Kampala, Uganda
ISBN: 978-92-807-3371-6
Job Number: DEW/1783/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Kampala, Uganda, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Tamale, Ghana
ISBN: 978-92-807-3372-3
Job Number: DEW/1784/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Tamale, Ghana, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Chennai, India
ISBN: 978-92-807-3377-8
Job Number: DEW/1789/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Chennai, India, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
ISBN: 978-92-807-3369-3
Job Number: DEW/1781/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Kathmandu, Nepal
ISBN: 978-92-807-3376-1
Job Number: DEW/1788/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Kathmandu, Nepal, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
ISBN: 978-92-807-3370-9
Job Number: DEW/1782/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Dhaka, Bangladesh
ISBN: 978-92-807-xxxx-x
Job Number: DEW/xxxx/xx
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dhaka, Bangladesh, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Dakar, Senegal
ISBN: 978-92-807-3374-7
Job Number: DEW/1786/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dakar, Senegal, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria
ISBN: 978-92-807-3373-0
Job Number: DEW/1785/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Ibadan, Nigeria, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan i
Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria
Ibidun Adelekan, Lawrence Olajide-Taiwo,
Adedayo Ayorinde, Dickson Ajayi and Stephen Babajide
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Building Urban Resilience
ii
Preface
Food production in and around cities is an integral part of the urban fabric in much of the
developing world. In these regions, urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) plays an important
role in diversifying urban diets and providing environmental services in urban and peri-urban areas.
As such, there is growing interest in UPA as a strategic component of urban resilience and climate
change adaptation planning. However, advocacy for UPA in this capacity is outpacing the body of
evidence regarding important stressors and drivers that act on UPA. Such knowledge is especially
critical in the developing world where urban areas are experiencing rapid growth and transformation.
In these regions, UPA is facing intensifying pressures from urban encroachment, waste disposal,
pollution, and climate change that may undermine the sector’s long-term viability.
e need to better understand these critical sustainability dimensions provided the impetus for
city-level knowledge assessments of UPA, whose main ndings are contained in nine underlying
assessment reports including this one. e assessed cities were Dakar (Senegal), Tamale (Ghana),
Ibadan (Nigeria), Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Kampala (Uganda), Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), Dhaka
(Bangladesh), Kathmandu (Nepal) and Chennai (India). All of the reports and the synthesis report
can be found at http://start.org/programs/upa. e assessments were conducted in 2012, with initial
stakeholder engagement beginning in 2011. e assessments were led by city-based teams, the
composition of which varied, with some of the teams being comprised predominately of researchers
and other teams comprising of a mix of researchers, city ocials and urban NGO representatives.
e assessments seek to better understand the changing nature of UPA systems, and the critical interactions
at the land-water-climate nexus that inuence resilience of UPA in rapidly growing developing-country
cities. e audience for these assessments includes national and city-level policymakers, sectoral experts
and city planners, the research community, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that interface
with urban farmers and other actors within the broader UPA sector.
e UPA assessments are part of a larger project on strengthening understanding of critical links
between climate change and development planning in West Africa, East Africa and South Asia.
e premise for the project is that progress towards undertaking eective action to address climate
change risks in these regions is hindered by low levels of awareness of global climate change, lack of
understanding of the ndings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and other
sources of scientic information, lack of location and sector specic knowledge, and the need for
strengthening capacities to undertake integrated assessments that support decision making. is
multi-year project has been a collaborative eort between the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), START, the University of Ghana,
the University of Dar es Salaam, and the Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS).
Jon Padgham Jacqueline McGlade
Deputy Direct Chief Scientist
International START Secretariat United Nations Environment Programme
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan iii
We would like to thank the dierent individuals and institutions who in one way or another
contributed to the execution of the larger European Commission-led project. In particular,
the successful implementation and completion of the project, and the subsequent knowledge
assessments were made possible due to the close cooperation and commitment of the International
START Secretariat; the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) represented by the Division
of Early Warning and Assessments and the Oce of the Chief Scientist; the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO), the University of Ghana, the University of Dar es Salaam, and the Bangladesh
Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS). Several colleagues across these organizations rendered
valuable insight, expert advice, guidance and encouragement during this 4-year endeavor. We would
especially like to recognize the eorts and support of Ghassem Asrar, Hassan Virji, Katie Dietrich,
Clark Seipt, Chris Gordon, Pius Yanda, Atiq Rahman, Chipo Plaxedes Mubaya, Adelina Mensah,
Elaine Tweneboah, Abu Syed, Salif Diop, Audrey Ringler, Jennifer Odallo, Peter Gilruth and Joseph
Alcamo as well as Jon Padgham and Jason Jabbour, the project managers and editors of this series.
e overall project and the associated UPA assessments were made possible in large part thanks to
funding provided by the European Commission (through project ENV/2008/149690 ‘Understanding
the Findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report
“Climate Change 2007”—Integrating Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Development
Planning’), as well as by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the Global
Climate Change Programme at the US Agency for International Development (USAID). e editors
of this series wish to thank these organizations for their nancial support.
In addition to the numerous authors listed in each of the separate reports, we are grateful to the
following people for providing useful insights and feedback during the early conception of the
knowledge assessment, and helpful review comments on the various manuscripts: Rafael Tuts, Anna
Skibevaag, Stephen Twomlow, Elizabeth Migongo-Bake, Trang Nguyen, Volodymyr Demkine, Jane
Battersby, Marielle Dubbeling, Anna Kontorov, Richard Munang, Jesica Andrews, Fatoumata Keita-
Ouane, Jacqueline McGlade, Keith Alverson, Stuart Crane, Martina Otto, Robert Yennah, Beverly
McIntyre, and Tom Downing. We would also like to express our sincere appreciation for the generous
support of colleagues at the University of Cape Town’s Climate Systems Analysis Group who with the
climate projections for six African cities.
Acknowledgements
Building Urban Resilience
iv
ADP Agricultural Development Programmes
AFAN All Farmers Association of Nigeria
CAFAN Catsh Farmers Association of Nigeria
CBOs Community-Based Organizations
CIP Climate Information Portal
CMIP5 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5
DESA Department of Economic and Social Aairs of the United Nations
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FEWS-Net Famine Early Warning Systems Network
FGD Focus Group Discussion
GCMs General circulation models
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GPS Geographical Positioning Systems
IDRC International Development Research Centre (Canada)
IMF International Monetary Fund
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IWMI International Water Management Institute
LGAs Local government areas
NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action
NFDP National Fadama Development Programme
NGO Non-Governmental Organizations
NLDP National Livestock Development Programme
NMA Nigerian Meteorological Agency
NPC National Population Commission
NPK Nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K)
MMT Mean Maximum Temperature
OMF Organo-Mineral Fertilizer
OYSADEP Oyo State Agricultural Development Programme
OYSEMAS Oyo State Emergency Management Agency
RCP Representative Concentration Pathway
RUAF Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security
SAP Structural Adjustment Programme
START System for Analysis, Research, and Training
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UPA Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture
Acronyms and abbreviations
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan v
Executive summary .................................................................................................................................... viii
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................1
Objectives and methods ................................................................................................................................3
Objectives of the study.............................................................................................................................3
Description of methods ...........................................................................................................................4
e City of Ibadan ..........................................................................................................................................5
Urban growth trends ................................................................................................................................5
Population and demographic projections for the city .........................................................................6
Climate information.......................................................................................................................................9
Temperature trends and projections ......................................................................................................9
Rainfall trends and projections ............................................................................................................12
Urban and peri-urban agriculture..............................................................................................................17
UPA’s contribution to Ibadan’s food supply ........................................................................................17
Description of the UPA systems ...........................................................................................................17
Policy, institutions and governance that inuence UPA .........................................................................25
Challenges facing UPA ................................................................................................................................27
Urban encroachment ............................................................................................................................27
Waste generation and disposal .............................................................................................................30
Increased climate risks ...........................................................................................................................32
Food prices and urban food security in Ibadan .......................................................................................37
Recommendations ........................................................................................................................................39
References ......................................................................................................................................................43
Contents
Building Urban Resilience
vi
Executive summary
This report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban agriculture
(UPA) for the city of Ibadan, Nigeria that was conducted in 2012. It examines the state of UPA
in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing climate risks with the
objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to aect the long-term
sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing and emerging
challenges. e assessment is intended to:
1) describe the dominant characteristics of urban and peri-urban agriculture, and identify key
knowledge gaps in these UPA systems;
2) explore the array of stressors that contribute to vulnerability of UPA systems to climatic and
other environmental changes; and
3) identify critical areas for strengthening policies and institutional capacities that contribute
to sustaining the UPA sector within the larger context of resilient cities and food systems.
e rapid expansion of urban centres in Nigeria brings both opportunity and peril with respect
to food security. Urbanization and urban growth are taking place against a backdrop of adverse
economic policies linked to the removal of subsidies on fertilizer and fuel, persistent high ination,
rising unemployment and extreme climate events, all of which impact on the country’s food security.
Urban and peri-urban agriculture is increasingly viewed as an option for helping to meet the food
and nutritional security needs of burgeoning cities in Nigeria. However, the sector faces substantial
obstacles and challenges to its long-term sustainability stemming from haphazard urban sprawl and
accompanying land-use changes, widespread pollution and other forms of environmental degradation
that create health hazards for producers and consumers of food grown in and around urban centres,
increasing risks to production systems and food chains from extreme climate events, and lack of
visibility in urban development policies and planning frameworks. ese are all important issues in
Ibadan.
Addressing the various sustainability challenges that UPA faces requires addressing critical knowledge
gaps and, in some cases, a fragmented and outdated knowledge base about UPA. is assessment
attempts to redress these knowledge gaps by providing a synthesis of experience, knowledge and
scientically credible information about UPA activities in and around Ibadan, and the multi-stressor
context of vulnerability facing the sector. It is hoped that the ndings will stimulate dialogue within
and across relevant sectors and actors and that its recommendations will inform and support more
resilient urban planning that holds food security as a core concern.
Key Findings
Agriculture is an important activity that features signicantly in the land use of Ibadan. Agriculture
in urban and peri-urban areas of Ibadan is an important activity in which dierent socio-economic
and demographic classes are engaged, including in related activities as input suppliers, processors,
marketers and transporters. Ibadan’s UPA systems feature fresh vegetables, cereal and root crops,
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan vii
and a rapidly growing livestock sector in peri-urban areas that includes sh farming. Poultry, eggs
and sh produced in Ibadan not only provide for the city but in addition, day-old chicks and eggs
are transported to other parts of the country and to other West African countries including Chad,
Guinea, Republic of Benin, Togo, and Mali. Peri-urban farmers play a signicant role in supplying
food to the city, as more than two-thirds of farmers sell more than half their agricultural produce in
Ibadan and nearby towns and cities.
Rapid urban development and population growth in peri-urban areas have negative implications
for the availability of agricultural land and for the urban environment. e city has grown at a
tremendous rate since the oil boom of the 1970s, and population projections indicate that the city’s
population will double in the 25 years between 2005 and 2030. Most of the growth is occurring
radially in peri-urban areas, and oen on environmentally sensitive lands that are used for agriculture
and that provide important environmental services, namely oodwater management. As this growth
pattern is likely to continue, the city could engulf a signicant portion of present-day peri-urban
areas, with outlying rural areas developing into new peri-urban ones. Less land will be available for
agricultural activities in the city and the hydrology of the catchment area will be further aected by
the loss of vegetation cover and subsequent concretization of land surfaces for settlements and urban
infrastructure.
Increased intensity of urban pressures and climate risks are contributing to enhanced severity
of ooding with negative implications for agricultural activities and urban food systems. e
prevalence of heavy rainstorms combined with uncontrolled urban development on ood plains and
wetlands, widespread degradation of forests and poor waste management practices have contributed
to the incidence of severe ood events in the city. ese have had resulted in adverse eects on
the livelihoods of farmers and those engaged in agriculture-related activities, as well as damage
to infrastructure and agricultural processing equipment. Floods have resulted in urban farmers
facing major nancial losses. e combination of rapid urban development and climate change
is an important and growing source of vulnerability for UPA farmers and the city’s food system.
Multi-decadal analyses of meteorological characteristics show that Ibadan is experiencing a warming
trend, and changes in the characteristics of seasonal rainfall.
e high volume of wastewater and solid waste generated in the city is negatively impacting
the quality of soil and water for agriculture, giving possible rise to health risks. e discharge
of untreated euent and industrial wastewater into streams, rivers and drainage channels, and
contamination of soils from industrial waste are major sources of pollution. ese pose serious
health risks to urban dwellers who consume produce grown on contaminated soils or irrigated or
washed with wastewater. Major rivers and streams, such as the Alaro, Ogunpa, Ogbere, Kudeti, Gege
and Ona, contain heavy metals of which zinc, lead and copper are the most abundant, and exceed
acceptable limits in all of them. Heavy metal contamination of vegetables grown with wastewater
in dierent parts of the city, particularly from around Eleyele Dam on the Ona, could pose serious
human health risks from long-term exposure.
Signicant knowledge gaps need to be addressed in order to develop appropriate responses to
the sustainability challenges facing UPA. Carrying out this assessment revealed the paucity of
up-to-date statistics that could be useful for fully assessing the signicance of UPA. For instance,
hard data on the number of people engaged in agricultural activities as either a primary or secondary
income source are not available, nor is there hard data on how engagement in urban agriculture
inuences household food security. Eorts should be made by the relevant government agencies to
Building Urban Resilience
viii
strengthen their research units and liaise with research institutions to undertake detailed surveys at
local and city levels, so that credible data are available. Such data would help in the advocacy of UPA
in urban planning eorts.
Knowledge about how extreme temperatures and rainfall aect livestock and plant diseases is another
important knowledge gap, as is understanding of climate change impacts specic to horticultural
crops, urban livestock and farmed sh, which remain vastly under researched relative to cereal crops
and rural livestock systems. Detailed studies are also needed to better understand how rapid urban
growth and subsequent land-use change may interact with a more extreme climate.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 1
Founded in 1829 as a war camp, Ibadan represents the pinnacle of pre-colonial urban development
in Nigeria. Now the capital city of Oyo State in southwestern Nigeria, it was once described
as the largest city in Sub-Saharan Africa (Lloyd and Mabogunje, 1968), and Ibadan remains the
largest indigenous urban centre in Sub-Saharan Africa. Its designation, in 1952, as the regional
and administrative headquarters of the old Western Region of Nigeria contributed to the city’s
rapid population growth—from a modest population of 60 000 in 1856, the population of the
metropolis had increased to 1.34 million in 2006 (Adelekan, 2010) and, for the Greater Ibadan area,
2.55 million. With approximately 2889 people per square kilometer (km2), Ibadan has one of the
highest population densities in Nigeria (NPC, 2006). Presently, Ibadan is the second most populated
city aer Lagos in Nigeria’s southwest region. While the majority of Ibadan residents are traders,
many are civil servants and a few are farmers producing a variety of agricultural products that
contribute to the food system serving the urban population.
© Fridah
Introduction
1
Building Urban Resilience
2
Although many towns and urban centres in Nigeria originally developed from farming or shing
communities, today urban farming is not suciently recognized or promoted as a feasible means of
bolstering food and livelihood security or as a strategy for greening the urban space (Ezedinma and
Chukuezi, 1999; Adedeji and Ademiluyi, 2009). is state of aairs prevails in Ibadan where UPA has
not been accorded due recognition by policy makers, although the practice has been ongoing since
the early 19th century (UN-HABITAT, 1994; IWMI/RUAF, 2007).
Across Africa more generally, public policies are slow to acknowledge the multi-functionality of
UPA, resulting in it remaining part of the unregulated, unmonitored informal economy with little
empirical evidence on its economic value. is is reected in the fact that UPA is rarely included in
ocial statistics (Cohen and Garrett, 2010; de Zeeuw et al., 2011). It was not until 2007, through
the Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security’s (RUAF’s) multi-stakeholder and
planning initiative for urban agriculture, that the rst attempt was undertaken to characterize and
identify the challenges and prospects of UPA in Ibadan and to bring together all stakeholders to
guide the process of strategic planning for urban agriculture in the city.
Urban and peri-urban farming is an important activity in Ibadan, contributing to the food supply
and livelihoods of many along the value chain. Prevailing conditions of rapid urbanization, removal
of subsidies, soaring ination, and rising unemployment and natural disasters have been identied as
factors that foster the growth of UPA in southern countries (Mougeot, 1994; 2005). Local authorities
are key players in this context; however they typically fail to integrate the food production systems,
or for that matter the spatial arrangement of food markets so as to enable access to food by the urban
poor, when designing, planning and managing urban areas (FAO, 2011; Battersby, 2011).
In most low and middle-income countries, including those of West Africa, urban areas have expanded
haphazardly with little land-use or strategic planning to guide changes. Increased competition
between urban land uses and agricultural land in urban and peri-urban areas, in the absence of
deliberate planning for urban and peri-urban food production, presents a signicant challenge to
the urban food system, and to food and nutrition security in cities. is is particularly true in cases
where little eective control exists over land-use conversion from agriculture to non-agricultural
uses (Satterthwaite et al., 2010; FAO, 2011). Most agricultural land in and around urban centres in
Nigeria, for example, is now being engulfed by urban development (Lynch et al., 2001; Brinkmann
et al., 2012).
Urban food systems, including that of UPA, will face increasing challenges as both climate change
and urbanization intensify over the course of this century. Increased frequency of ooding in poorly
planned cities such as Ibadan will impact both urban food production and food chain infrastructure
for moving food from rural and peri-urban locations into the city. Low-income groups in urban
areas are particularly sensitive to disruptions in food access, thus the emerging challenge created by
the convergence of rapid urban growth with climate change is of paramount concern.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 3
FIGURE 2.1
Conceptual framework
Strategies and
responses
Environmental,
climatic and socio-
economic change
Agents, institutions
and policies
Urban and
peri-urban
agriculture
Extent of
marginality
Objectives of the study
is assessment examines UPA in Ibadan in a multi-stressor context of rapid urban growth, climate
variability and change, and environmental degradation. is assessment focuses on urban and, in
particular, peri-urban environments of the city, and the farming systems—food crops, livestock
and aquaculture—within them. e assessment’s conceptual framework illustrates the key drivers
and stressors, development factors and peri-urban products and services that were considered. e
assessment framework is presented in Figure 2.1.
e objectives of this assessment are to:
• assemble and synthesize knowledge on agricultural activities in urban and peri-urban areas
of Ibadan, and to strengthen the knowledge base as related to the multiple stressors and
drivers that contribute to UPA’s vulnerability;
• identify where insucient knowledge exists and highlight where additional research and
assessment eorts are needed to support policy planning and decision-making at the city
level; and
• strengthen capacity within the research community to undertake assessments, and foster
networks of regional technical expertise, and to encourage stronger communities of practice
engaged in the topic of urban food production and climate change.
Objectives and methods
2
Building Urban Resilience
4
Description of methods
e Ibadan city assessment was carried out by an interdisciplinary team of researchers in agriculture,
geography, development practice and urban planning, between May 2011 and December 2012. e
assessment team worked in cooperation with the State Ministry of Agriculture, Departments of
Agriculture in the peri-urban local government areas and the Oyo State Agricultural Development
Program (OYSADEP). Decisions on the critical issues to study, and of the selection of specic
sites and/or farming systems to examine, were made by the assessment team with inputs from key
stakeholders during the assessment inception workshop, held in Ibadan in June 2011.
e knowledge assessment was undertaken using the following methods:
i. Review of empirical research studies on dierent aspects of the assessment topic published
in scientic journals, published and unpublished research reports and documents, and
climate data sets.
ii. Specically designed, semi-structured questionnaires used with sample populations of
dierent categories of UPA stakeholders.
iii. In-depth interviews with key informants engaged as researchers, UPA practitioners and
planners.
iv. Spatial mapping of dierent categories of farming undertaken by on-ground identication
of farms in Ibadan by 15 trained eld assistants over a period of two weeks. An iterative
process was employed to aid the location of all farms in any district. e use of Geographical
Positioning Systems (GPS) by eld assistants enabled the digital mapping of farm locations.
v. Secondary data collection that contained information on dierent farmer groups and
associations—a number of registered farmers in dierent farming associations in the city,
spatial location of farms, etc., and a review of newspaper reports, policy papers and other
secondary data sources.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 5
Ibadan consists of 11 local government areas (LGAs) for governance and administrative purposes.
Five of the LGAs are located in the metropolitan core of the city, while the remaining six are
either predominantly peri-urban or rural settlements (Figure 3.1). Ibadan’s total land area is
3 123 km2, of which about 15 per cent is urban and the remaining 85 per cent is classied as
peri-urban. Ibadan North LGA is the largest among the urban LGAs (145.58 km2) while Ibadan
North West is the smallest at 31.38 km2. e peri-urban LGA of Ido (865.49 km2) covers the largest
land area.
The city of Ibadan
3
FIGURE 3.1
Urban and peri-urban
LGAs of Ibadan
Urban growth trends
T
he existence of universally acceptable urban characteristics such as a non-agricultural economic
base, density of physical development and services, heterogeneity of the population and occupational
structure are taken into consideration in classifying a settlement as urban. e peri-urban area of a city,
in addition to its agricultural economic base, will have evidence of a transforming landscape in terms
of physical development and a diversity of economic activities. A peri-urban area may, therefore, be
regarded as a dynamic interface with urban and rural features rather than a xed geographical zone
(Simon et al., 2006).
5 0 5 10 Kilometers
2
3
4
5
Ibadan North
Ibadan N.E.
Ibadan S.E.
Ibadan S.W.
Ibadan N.W.
Ibadan Region boundary
LGA boundary
Locations
Urban LGAs
Peri-Urban LGAs
LEGEND
LGAs
Igbina
Abidogun
Batake
Onidundu Olanda
Lapite
AKINYELE LGA
AFIJIO LGA
OGUN STATE
OGUN STATE
OGUN STATE
Moniya
Sasa
Ojoo
Ajibode
Akufo
Idamo
IDO LGA Awotan
Ologuneru
Eleyele
Idi Ishin
Apata
Challenge
Ayegunle
Odo Onal Elewe
Ajakanga
OLUYOLE LGA
Ogundeji Osho
Obedun
Laduntan
ONA-ARA LGA
Akaran
Aba EkuOlomi
Felele
Mapo
Bere Iwo rd
Amuloko
Egbeda
Erunmu
Olodo
Olorunda
Lagun
LAGELU LGA
Sagbe
Apatere
Iyana-Oa
EGBEDA LGA
NIGERIA
Oyo
State
Monatan
Basorun
Mokola
Sango
Odo-Ona
Omin Adio
Ido
1
2
3
4
5
Area of Main Map
1
N
Building Urban Resilience
6
e criteria for describing a settlement as urban in Nigeria are both dynamic and contextual. While
the 1952 national census considered any compact settlement of 5000 inhabitants or more as urban,
the 1963 and 1991 censuses dened urban centres as settlements with populations of 20 000 or
more. Urban growth in Ibadan has been associated with a process of peri-urbanization. Before 1970,
Ibadan was surrounded by rural villages with virtually no peri-urban development. However, since
the oil boom of the 1970s, national economic development has had a signicant inuence on the
urbanization processes of the city. Ibadan has grown both in physical size and population, becoming
a large, sprawling city with no discernible pattern of development. Extensive areas, which were earlier
characterized by rural features, have either been incorporated into the city or transformed into
peri-urban areas, such that former rural areas including Alakia, Bode-Igbo, Lalupon, Moniya,
Odo-Ona, Ogbere and Olodo are all now part of peri-urban Ibadan.
Extensive peri-urban developments have taken place along the major roads and highways leading to
other major towns in the region. Developed land increased from only 1 km2 in 1830 to 214 km2 in
1988 (Onibokun and Kumuyi, 1999), and an examination of the areal extent of the city using satellite
imagery indicates that urban development has extended signicantly in the last three decades with
the developed land area for the city reaching 401 km2 by 2012 (Figure 3.2).
e city’s growth has been largely facilitated through transport development and the establishment of
several educational and research institutions. e passage of the Lagos-Kano railway through Ibadan
in 1901 played an important role in the development of the city (Onibokun and Kumuyi, 1999), while
the convergence of two major trade routes—through Ijebu and Abeokuta—in the city encouraged
the migration of large numbers of people who established trading activities in Ibadan in the 1950s
and 1960s. Ibadan thus became a commercial focus of the entire Western Region of Nigeria. Many
new developments took place aer 1973, which encouraged the outward growth of the city in almost
all directions (Areola, 1994), with the construction of the Ibadan-Lagos expressway generating the
greatest urban sprawl, east and north of the city, in the 1980s. e Eleyele expressway in the west of
the city also generated signicant expansion in this part of the city. Since then the city has extended
further into the neighbouring LGAs of Akinyele and Egbeda (Fourchard, 2003).
e phenomenal population increase in the city in more recent years has taken place mainly in the
peri-urban areas (Table 3.1). While the average population growth rate per year in the metropolis
was a mere 0.5 per cent between 1991 and 2006, the average growth rate for the peri-urban areas was
4.8 per cent a year over the same period.
Population and demographic projections for the city
Projections for the city suggest that over the next decade or more the number of inhabitants in Ibadan
will increase by around 60 per cent (Figure 3.3). Similarly, Oladele and Oladimeji (2011) project that
Ibadan’s population will increase 68 per cent, and land conversion for urbanization will increase by
58 per cent between 2000 and 2020. e city is extending radially, and if this continues it could engulf
signicant areas that are currently peri-urban and transform more distant rural settlements into new
peri-urban areas. e sharp increase in demand for land and physical development, in the absence of
strict urban growth regulations, will likely result in a loss of important environmental services as well
as a decrease in available land for agricultural activities in the city. e conversion from permeable
land surfaces (e.g., agricultural lands, wetlands and forest remnants) into impermeable surfaces for
housing and industry can change the hydrologic ow across the catchment area such that storm
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 7
water runo would increase, resulting in heightened ood risks. Furthermore, the urban heat-island
eect could become more pronounced, with the urban environment warmer than the surrounding
area. Studies are needed to better understand how rapid urban growth in Ibadan (and other Nigerian
cities) changes critical environmental characteristics of the area and how these changes might be
amplied by changing climate. is is an important knowledge gap.
FIGURE 3.2
Ibadan’s urban growth,
1963–2012
Source: Adelekan, 2010
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Kilometers
1963 Built-up area
1973 Built-up area
1981 Built-up area
2012 Built-up area
Dualcarriage road
Main road
River
Reservoir
Legend
To O yo
Moniya
Idi-Ose
I.I.T.A
Sasa
Idi-Omo
Awotan
Monatan Isebo
Olode
To Ife
Adegbayi
R. Ogbere
To Akanran
Challenge
Dugbe
Bere
Mapo
From Abeokuta
Oluyole Eztension
Ijokodo
Sango
Eleyele
Idi-Ishin
Okebola
Oke Ado
Molete
Oje
Agodi
GRA
Basorun
Mokola
Sabo UCH
Apata
Ganga
Owode
Estate
Olorunsogo
Alakia
Leyland
To I wo
Alegongo
Olodo
Ajibode
Agbowo
Agbowo
New
Bodija
Estate
Apete
Ojoo
Moor Plantation
R. Ona
University
of Ibadan
Odo-Ona
Elewe
Oluyole Estate
New
Garage Lagelu
Industrial
Layout
R. Ogumpa
Odo-Ona
Yemetu
Gate
Onfreke
Old
Bodija
NISER
Odogbo
Barracks
Olunloyo
Sanyo
N
Building Urban Resilience
8
TABLE 3.1
Population characteristics of urban and peri-urban LGAs, 1991–2006
LGA Area (km2) 1991
population
2006
population
Population
increase (%)
Growth
rate (%)
URBAN
Ibadan North 145.58 302 271 306 795 1.5 0.1
Ibadan NE 81.45 275 627 330 399 19.9 1.3
Ibadan NW 31.38 147 918 152 834 3.3 0.2
Ibadan SE 80.45 225 800 266 046 17.8 1.2
Ibadan SW 124.55 227 047 282 585 24.5 1.6
Total 463.41 1 178 663 1 338 659 13.6 0.9
PERI-URBAN
Akinyele 427.26 140 118 211 359 50.8 3.4
Egbeda 136.83 129 461 281 573 117.5 7.8
Ido 865.49 53 582 103 261 92.7 6.2
Lagelu 283.92 68 901 147 957 114.7 7.6
Ona-Ara 369.37 123 048 202 725 64.8 4.3
Oluyole 577.10 91 527 265 059 189.6 12.6
Total 2 659.97 606 637 1 211 934 99.8 6.7
Source: National Population Commission (2007) and Survey Department Ministry of Lands, Housing and Survey, Ibadan.
FIGURE 3.3
Population trend for
Ibadan, 1950–2025
Source of data: (DESA, 2013)
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
Year
Population (million)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 9
Temperature trends and projections
Analyses of minimum and maximum temperatures over the city for the period 1981–2010 show a
general warming trend (Figures 4.1 and 4.2). e rate of change of minimum temperatures is greater
than the change observed for maximum temperatures.
Climate information
4
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
24.5
24
23.5
23
22.5
22
21.5
21
Mean Minimum Temperature Linear (Mean Minimum Temperature)
Temperature °C
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
33
32.5
32
31.5
31
30.5
30
29.5
Mean Maximum Temperature Linear (Mean Maximum Temperature)
Temperature °C
FIGURE 4.1
Mean annual minimum
temperatures (°C) for
Ibadan, 1981–2010
Source: Nigerian
Meteorological Agency
FIGURE 4.2
Mean annual maximum
temperatures (°C) for
Ibadan, 1981–2010
Source: Nigerian
Meteorological Agency
Building Urban Resilience
10
Mean monthly maximum temperatures are projected to increase by 1.2 to 1.4° C in the 2040 to 2060
time period above historic baseline temperatures (1970–2000) for a low greenhouse gas emission
scenario (Figure 4.3a) and by 1.6–2.0° C under a high scenario (Figure 4.3b). Mean monthly
minimum temperatures exhibit a similar pattern with temperatures increasing by 1.1–1.4° C under
the low scenario (Figure 4.4a) and 1.8–2.0° C under a high scenario (Figure 4.4b).
e gures below show an envelope of projected temperature change derived from a suite of
regionally downscaled climate model projections from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
Phase 5 (CMIP5) set of climate models, under a future scenario of low (Representative Concentration
Pathway [RCP] 4.5)1 and high (Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5) greenhouse gas emissions.
e projections are indicated as an envelope of possible future temperature rise; the middle bolded
line represents the mean of the upper and lower bounds of the envelope. A wide dierence between
the lower and upper lines within a gure indicates relatively low agreement between the models,
whereas a narrow dierence indicates relatively high agreement between the models. us, while the
future will become warmer, predictions of the extent of warming can vary widely across the models
within a particular month and should be interpreted with caution. Climate projections were derived
from the University of Cape Town’s Climate Information Portal2.
1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathways
2 http://cip.csag.uct.ac.za/webclient/map
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
(2040–2060) – (1970–2000)
Change in monthly mean Tmax (°C)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
FIGURE 4.3a
Maximum temperature
under an RCP 4.5 scenario
Mean
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 11
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Change in monthly mean Tmax (°C)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(2040–2060) – (1970–2000)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Change in monthly mean Tmin (°C)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(2040–2060) – (1970–2000)
FIGURE 4.3b
Maximum temperature
under an RCP 8.5 scenario
FIGURE 4.4a
Minimum temperatures
under an RCP 4.5 scenario
Mean
Mean
Building Urban Resilience
12
Rainfall trends and projections
In recent years, Ibadan has experienced changes in rainfall patterns exemplied by an increase in
mean annual rainfall (Figure 4.5), a shorter wet season and the virtual disappearance of the short
dry season, the so called August break (Chineke et al., 2010). Analysis of rainfall records for Ibadan
over a 30-year period, 1981–2010, shows marked variations in rainfall characteristics for the
1981–2000 period as compared with the 2001–2010 period (Table 4.2). Shorter wet seasons have
been experienced in the latter 10-year period, with a mean of 169 days relative to 186 days during the
earlier period, 1981–2000. ough a 10-year period is not sucient time to establish whether there is
a trend towards a shorter season, such a shi could have signicant implications for crop farming in
the region, which is largely rain-fed, as a shorter wet season translates into a reduction in the growing
period. Analysis of Ibadan’s rainy season length conducted by the University of Cape Town’s Climate
Systems Analysis Group found a slight but statistically insignicant decrease in rainfall length for the
1971 to 2005 period.
Heavier rainstorms have also been recorded in more recent years. In the period 2001–2010, six
rainfall events with amounts more than 100 mm over a 24-hour period were recorded, while for
1981–2000 only one was recorded (Table 4.2). e mean number of rainstorm events of 31–50.9 mm
also increased in the latter period. An analysis of heavy rainfall events for 1971–2005 (Figure 4.7)
indicates that the month of June experiences the highest incidence of heavy rainfall, and June and
July have experienced a slight increase of around 0.3 days/decade over the observed 35 years.
Future projections of rainfall (Figures 4.8 and 4.9) indicate that Ibadan will experience changes in
rainfall distribution with an overall increase in annual rainfall by mid-century (2040–2060) compared
with the baseline period of 1970–2000. e low (RCP 4.5) and high (RCP 8.5) emissions scenarios
show general agreement, though with some changes in magnitude between the two. Projections
for rainfall during Ibadan’s April through October rainy season indicate increased rainfall in April,
September and October, and in the normally dry months of February and March, and decreased
2.0
2.5
3.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Change in monthly mean Tmin (°C)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(2040–2060) – (1970–2000)
FIGURE 4.4b
Minimum temperature
under an RCP 8.5 scenario
Mean
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 13
TABLE 4.2
Rainfall for Ibadan, 1981–2010
Rainfall Characteristic 1981–2000 2001–2010
Mean duration of wet season (days) 186 169
Mean number of rain days/year 85 80
Mean rainfall amount/year (mm) 1 029.9 1 125.7
Mean number of rain days with 31–50.9mm 6.3 9.3
Mean number of rain days with 51–100mm 3.1 4.8
Number of rain days >100mm 1 6
Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency
FIGURE 4.5
Annual rainfall for
Ibadan, 1981–2010
Source: Nigerian
Meteorological Agency
FIGURE 4.6
Length of wet season,
days, 1981–2010
Source: Nigerian
Meteorological Agency
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
1400
1600
1800
2000
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Years
Total rainfall (mm)
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
200
250
150
100
50
0
Days
Building Urban Resilience
14
FIGURE 4.7
Days per month that
the number of rain
days exceeds the 95th
percentile, indicating
extreme precipitation
(top), and the decadal
trend in changes in days
per decade of extreme
precipitation (bottom)
Observed monthly averages Ibadan
Observed monthly trends Ibadan
Observed 1971 to 2005
Median trend (days)
Jan
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2
2.5
1.5
1
0.5
00 0 0 0 0
0.323 0.333
0 0 0 0 0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0.059
0.529
1.206
2
2.324
2.618 2.5
1.765
2.438 2.412
0.235 0.206
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rain days > 95th percentile (days/month)
Rain days > 95th percentile (days/decade)
rainfall in May, June and August. Rainfall projections for July have a wide spread of increased and
decreased rainfall so it is not possible to state with any certainty how rainfall in that month will
change.
e bars in the gures below indicate the spread of the climate model results and thus the relative
degree of uncertainty in the envelope analysis. e shorter the bar, the greater the degree of agreement
between the models and the higher the certainty of future rainfall projections. e distribution of
the bars is also important. Bars that are distributed predominately in one direction relative to the
zero line indicate agreement between the models regarding the direction of future rainfall (increased
rainfall—bar is mostly above the zero line—or decreased rainfall—bar is mostly below the zero line).
Bars that evenly straddle above and below the line show poor agreement and thus a relatively high
degree of uncertainty. For example, there is low agreement between the models for the month of July
(tall bar and spread above and below the zero line), indicating high uncertainty, and close agreement
between the models for the month of October (short bar and projections not straddling above and
below the zero line), indicating lower uncertainty.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 15
Heavy rainfall events
Multi-model ensemble projections of the change in heavy rainfall events for 2040–2060 relative to
1971–2005 baseline indicate increased incidence in heavy rainfall at the start of the rainy season
in April, and for June–November. However, while the relative change in incidence is high, up to a
60 per cent increase in April, the absolute incidence is likely to remain fairly low. It is important to
note that the projections presented here are for a single point location. Large-scale ooding events
can occur due to rainfall within a small, localized region. However, oen, ooding events are the
50
40
30
20
10
-10
0
-20
-30
Change in monthly total rainfall (mm)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(2040–2060) – (1970–2000)
FIGURE 4.8
Rainfall projections under
an RCP 4.5 scenario
50
40
30
20
10
-10
0
-20
-30
Change in monthly total rainfall (mm)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
(2040–2060) – (1970–2000) FIGURE 4.9
Rainfall projections under
an RCP 8.5 scenario
Building Urban Resilience
16
FIGURE 4.10
Change in rain days > 95th
percentile, days/month
FIGURE 4.11
Mean maximum wind
gusts, 1989-2008
Source: Adelekan, 2012
50
40
30
20
10
0
Mean maximum wind gust (knots)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1999–2008 1989–1998
result of larger-scale catchment dynamics resulting in high river levels and high soil moisture content.
Under such conditions, heavy local rainfall can lead to localized ooding.
(Decrease)
3
2
1
0
-1
3
2
1
0
Rain days > 95th percentile (days/month)
Rainfall (mm)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Observed 1971 to 2005 (Increase) 10th to 90th percentile range 2040 to 2060
Wind
High-wind events have increased in Ibadan over the 1998-2008 period as compared with the
1989-1998 period (Adelekan, 2012) (Figure 4.11). ese small-scale events can trigger high losses,
particularly where housing and other infrastructure is of poor quality. In a survey of wind-aected
areas of Ibadan from a 2008 high-wind event, Adelekan (2012) reported that nearly half of the
residents experienced displacement from dwellings, losses that were compounded by thievery and
disruption of livelihoods that occurred in the wake of the storm.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 17
UPA’s contribution to Ibadan’s food supply
Urban and peri-urban agriculture is an important activity in Ibadan, providing a signicant source
of nutrient-rich foods to the city, and a source of livelihoods for farmers and those involved along
the value chain. Past studies (Gbadegesin, 1991; Abumere and Oluwasola, 2001) estimated that
23–25 per cent of food crops sold in city markets were produced within the metropolis. In the
Abumere and Oluwasola (2001) study, peri-urban locations were estimated to supply 54 per cent of
food crops to the city, while the rural areas in the Ibadan region supply 14.5 per cent of food crops to
the city. Less than 8 per cent of food comes from outside the state—the north of the country supplies
the bulk of major grains including sorghum, millet and beans—while a high percentage of rice is
imported from outside the country. More recently, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO, 2012) reported that urban and peri-urban horticulture provides as much as
80 per cent of the city’s vegetable supply, and creates individual incomes ranging from US $330 to
more than US $3 000 a year for a network of vegetable producers, input suppliers and vegetable
traders, though this study is based on secondary data. Food grown in urban/peri-urban areas of
Ibadan is largely marketed through informal channels including sale at farm gates, home sales,
hawking and through urban markets. Only 5 per cent supply their produce to shops and supermarkets
(IWMI/RUAF, 2007).
Description of the UPA systems
A survey of agricultural activities in the 11 LGAs of Ibadan undertaken as part of this assessment
identied 796 farms, over 90 per cent of which were in peri-urban zones. ese farms fall into ve
main categories of which livestock farming and aquaculture are dominant, with more than 67 per
cent of all farms falling into these categories (Table 5.1).
Urban and peri-urban agriculture
5
TABLE 5.1
Category, number and distribution of UPA activities in Ibadan
Activity Urban Peri-urban Total
Aquaculture 10 120 130
Livestock (poultry, pig, goat and cattle) 15 394 409
Mono-cropping 25 129 154
Mixed-cropping 12 55 67
Mixed Farming (crop and livestock) 8 28 36
Total 70 726 796
Source: UPA assessment survey
Building Urban Resilience
18
Crop production
Within Ibadan’s urban core, a majority of farmers (63 per cent) engage in urban agriculture for
food self-provisioning and as a means towards household food security, while 34 per cent farm
for commercial purposes. Only about three per cent farm because they have no other means of a
livelihood (Yusuf et al., 2008). e main food crops grown in core urban areas are leafy vegetables
including amaranth and corchorus, fruit such as plantain/banana, citrus fruit and pineapple,
arable crops including maize, cassava and yam, and tomatoes (Gbadegesin, 1991; Abumere and
Oluwasola, 2001).
Land accessed for agricultural activities within the urban area includes private plots, land in and
around residential areas, vacant plots on government and institutional land and land along rivers
and roadsides (Figure 5.1) (IWMI/RUAF, 2007). Of these, vacant plots in major facilities such as
research and educational institutions, hospitals, military and police barracks and airports aord
farmers the largest area for crop farming. Food production in backyards and other smaller plots is
also important, with 40 per cent of crop farmers using their backyards and two per cent boxes or
pots. For crop production done outside of the home, 28 per cent farm on vacant plots, 19 per cent on
rented land, and 11 per cent on land they own.
Vegetable farming in urban areas is mostly practiced around Ojo, Sango, Odogbo and Mokola military
barracks, and Eleyele, Apete, Ologuneru and other swampy/wetland areas. As river catchments
provide easy access to irrigation water, the ood plains of the Ogunpa, Kudeti and Dandaru rivers are
used for urban, and outwards to peri-urban, production of maize, cassava, vegetables, plantain, and
banana, and on-farm marketing. Small-scale agro-processing, especially those of cassava products
(garri, starch, fufu and lafun), are typically located very close to rivers due to their need for plentiful
water. Pig and sh farm operations are also predominately located near the rivers.
© DSLands
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 19
FIGURE 5.1
Distribution of urban and
peri-urban agricultural
activities in Ibadan
Source: Estimate derived
through the UPA assessment
Peri-urban farmers play an important role in the city’s food supply, as a considerable proportion
of food produced by these farmers is sold in Ibadan and nearby towns and cities. e majority of
peri-urban farmers cannot be described as practicing subsistence farming given that more than
70 per cent sell more than half of their agricultural produce, 16 per cent sell less than half of what
they grow while only four per cent consume all that they produce (Abumere and Oluwasola, 2001).
A striking feature is the specialized nature of peri-urban LGAs in the production of three staple
food items: while Akinyele and Ido LGAs dominate in root crops production, Oluyole and
Ona-Ara LGAs lead in maize production. In peri-urban areas where relatively large amounts of
land are available, agricultural activities are characterised by farm settlements, livestock rearing and
plantation agriculture. ese areas include Olubokun farm settlement in Ido LGA, and cassava and
banana plantations at Moniya and Laniba, both in Akinyele LGA. Other subsistence and commercial
N
Ajio
Ibarapa
East
Iseyin
Ogun State
Osun State
Legend
0510 10 Kilometers
N
Ajio
Ibarapa
East
Iseyin
Ogun State
Osun State
Rail line
Road Network
Water Body
Vegetation
Forest Reserve
Aquaculture
Livestock
Mono Cropping
Mixed Cropping
Mixed Farming
Agricultural Research Institute
Local Government Area
Legend
0510 10 Kilometers
N
N
Building Urban Resilience
20
farming practices are spread across the six peri-urban LGAs where cassava, maize, vegetables, yams,
plantain and sweet potatoes are produced (Kintomo et al., 1997; Ojo et al., 2009; Olajide-Taiwo
et al., 2010).
Farmers engaged in cereal and tuber production in Ibadan tend to be ocially registered by the
Farmer’s Association (Table 5.2). A review by the assessment team of the All Farmers Association
of Nigeria 2010 report, more than half (61 per cent) of the 2 131 registered crop farmers are cassava
growers, 80 per cent of whom have their farms in peri-urban locations, of which 35 per cent operate
in Akinyele LGA. Similarly, 78 per cent of maize farmers are located in peri-urban areas, mostly in
Ido and Akinyele LGAs. Rice and yam cultivation is almost entirely centred in Ona-Ara LGA—99 and
100 per cent of registered rice and yam growers, respectively. e above statistics give an indication
of the importance of arable crop farming as an economic activity in Ibadan, although around
two-thirds of all farmers in the region are small-scale and are not registered with an association.
Livestock production
e involvement of urban farmers in livestock production (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and rabbits,
poultry keeping and aquaculture) (Figure 5.3) has been attributed to the quick returns and prot
margins it oers relative to cropping as well as the fact that less land is required. Many livestock farms
in urban or peri-urban areas hire labourers from the city and from nearby villages. e interaction
of the villagers with these large-scale farms has motivated the establishment of small-scale livestock
farms in nearby villages.
TABLE 5.2
Registered crop farmers by type in Ibadan (urban and peri-urban)
Crop Number of registered farmers
Cassava 1 309
Maize 231
Sweet Potato 241
Rice 104
Yam 246
Total 2 131
Source: All Farmers Association of Nigeria, Oyo State (2009/2010)
TABLE 5.3
Registered livestock farmers by type in Ibadan (urban and peri-urban)
Livestock Number of registered farmers
Cattle 103a
Aquaculture 431b
Poultry 98c
Pigs 601d
Sheep and Goats 117a
Sources: a) All Farmers Association of Nigeria, Ibadan; b) Catsh Farmers Association of Nigeria, Oyo State; c) Poultry
Association of Nigeria, Oyo State; d) Olugasa, 2006
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 21
Pig farming
In Ibadan, pig farming is a male-dominated enterprise (Oni and Yusuf, 1999; Oguniyi and Omoteso,
2011), although women assist in lighter aspects such as feeding, watering and mucking out. Women
are also closely involved in the raising of goats, sheep and poultry. Most pig farmers are married,
and thus have access to family labour. In Ibadan about 70 per cent of the pig farmers are 31–50 years
of age, while those of 51–60 are mainly pensioners who began pigfarming to generate additional
income. Oguniyi and Omoteso (2011) noted that 76 per cent of pig farmers in the city had more than
ve years previous experience, and almost 90 per cent nance their business from personal savings.
Other sources of funding are cooperatives, family and friends.
Fish farming and aquaculture
In recent years, the potential for breeding sh in urban areas has gained recognition, resulting in
greater participation by city dwellers. e less intensive nature of sh farming compared with poultry
keeping, the small space requirement, the relatively light time and nancial commitments required
to maintain a farm, and enabling conditions for private sector investment have further encouraged
participation (Miller and Tunde, 2011; Olagunju et al., 2007). Pond sizes are predominately small,
57 per cent are 400 m2 or less, 27 per cent 401-800 m2 and just 16 per cent larger than 800 m2.
Fiy-three percent of farmers have no more than two ponds, 35 per cent have three or four, and
12 per cent have ve or six ponds (Olagunju et al., 2007).
© I. Adelekan
Building Urban Resilience
22
As of April 2010, 431 sh farmers were registered members of the Oyo State chapter of the Catsh
Farmers Association of Nigeria (CAFAN). Results of this UPA Assessment Survey show that 32 per
cent of catsh farmers operating in Ibadan have their farms within the urban area, while 68 per cent
farm in peri-urban areas. ree-quarters of those engaged in aquaculture in Ibadan are male and the
vast majority (92 per cent) had previously been employed as civil servants or worked in the private
sector as bankers, teachers or in other professions. About 63 per cent are engaged in sh farming as
their primary occupation and almost 90 per cent of sh farmers operate their farms for commercial
purposes.
Poultry keeping
Southwest Nigeria is the hub of poultry production in West Africa, with Oyo State being a core region
of hen production in Nigeria. Ibadan therefore plays an important role in poultry production—
the Oyo State chapter of the Poultry Association of Nigeria estimates that there are 98 commercial
poultry farms in Ibadan of which 93 are in the city’s peri-urban areas and ve in the urban area.
Lagelu LGA hosts the largest number of poultry farms (44 per cent) followed by Egbeda with
27 per cent. In addition, there are a number of small-scale poultry farms in the city. Of the four
very large poultry farms in the urban area, two each are located in Ibadan NW and Ibadan SW
LGAs, respectively. According to University of Ibadan-based animal science experts, poultry and
eggs produced in Ibadan not only provide for the city as day-old chicks and eggs are also transported
to other parts of the country and other West African countries including the Republic of Benin,
Chad, Guinea, Mali and Togo.
Characteristics of producers
Farmers in urban and peri-urban locations of Ibadan dier in terms of their socio-economic and
demographic characteristics. Although more than 90 per cent of commercial vegetable farmers
belong to the low-income group, this is not the case with other categories, particularly livestock
keepers, including poultry and sh farmers, who are mostly well educated and from middle and
high-income groups. e majority of vegetable garden owners in the city of Ibadan are part-time
© Food Farmers News
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 23
farmers between the ages of 20-50 years. Most have some level of formal education, the majority
of which are women, who are able to integrate small-scale production with other household duties
(Kintomo et al., 1997; Odebode, 2006; Olajide-Taiwo et al., 2010).
An IWMI/RUAF (2007) survey of urban agriculture in three LGAs showed that, in addition to
farming, 33 per cent derived part of their income from the civil service, 28 per cent from trading,
and 13 per cent from other artisanal activities. e survey also noted that yearly income of 60 per
cent of UPA farmers was less than N100,000 (approximately US $600) in 2007. Further, the majority
of urban farmers, of whom about 60 per cent had less than 10 years of city farming experience, had
previously practiced traditional farming in rural areas.
Finance
e IWMI/RUAF 2007 survey revealed that the major source of nance available to urban farmers
is personal savings (43 per cent). Some farmers benet from local contributions, cooperatives and
loans from the Farmers Association, while a very few access credit from banks (3.5 per cent), money
lenders (3 per cent) and other sources (3 per cent). ere has been very limited access to government
loans despite claims by the government that it has several programmes to assist farmers (Oyejide,
2006). In peri-urban areas, informal credit is the main source of nance but the percentage of farmers
with access to this varies across LGAs—52–83 per cent of farmers have access to informal credit in
Akinyele, Lagelu, Ona Ara and Egbeda LGAs, while only 23–30 per cent of farmers benet from it in
Ido and Oluyole LGAs, respectively (OYSADEP, 2001).
Water use and other inputs and management factors
Dierent sources of water are accessed for all categories of farming in the city. Streams, shared wells
and water from drains are the major sources for irrigation, and some farmers grow crops on wetlands
(IWMI/RUAF, 2007). Water management strategies vary from mulching to constructed drainage
channels. Farmers also construct raised beds, and use watering cans and portable petrol-driven
water pumps (Kintomo et al., 1997; Ojo et al., 2011). About 67 per cent of the farmers engaged in
aquaculture access groundwater through deep wells, boreholes and springs—the others rely solely on
streams and rivers (Estimated through the UPA Assessment Survey).
e large volume of wastewater generated from domestic and industrial activities in the city, if treated,
could be safely utilized for horticulture, aquaculture and other uses. Reusing wastewater and by-
products from agriculture and food processing in urban aquaculture has the potential of mitigating
the problem of limited access to nutrient inputs and water resources faced by many farmers, while
also reducing pressure on the limited supply of freshwater (Bunting et al., 2006). However, the lack of
a wastewater treatment facility in the city currently prevents realization of this opportunity.
Agricultural inputs are purchased on the open market, from other farmers, and a combination of
other sources (IWMI/RUAF, 2007). Farmers in the city source their seeds mainly from imports,
while peri-urban farmers obtain theirs from local markets or from saved seeds (Ojo et al., 2011). If
soil fertility is low, inorganic fertilizer (mainly NPK 15-15-15) or cured and uncured poultry manure
is used, especially for plots that have three or four crop cycles per season. More sustainable options
for soil fertility management could be achieved by stronger policy support for conversion of waste
to fertilizer (Box 1).
Building Urban Resilience
24
As few farmers patronize input agencies, the adoption of improved varieties and technologies
from the university and research institutes is limited. e use of agrochemicals is found to be more
prevalent on peri-urban farms, possibly due to the smaller size of farms in the city (IWMI/RUAF,
2007; Olajide-Taiwo et al., 2011). Weeding is carried out either with hoe or by hand depending on the
crops being grown and cropping system. Many farmers manage their farms themselves, using family
or hired labour as required for various eld operations. In the case of crop farms, labour use varies
from 3000 to 10000 hours per hectare with initial clearing operations, construction of drainage
channels and seed-bed preparation accounting for very high labour use (Kintomo et al., 1997;
Ojo et al., 2011).
Urban development pressures have led to more intensive use of existing land and overcultivation,
with a consequent depletion of soil fertility of farmlands and farmers having to rely on fertilizers to
ensure high yield. Extension agents interviewed during the assessment process also noted that the
removal of subsidies by the federal government means that many small-scale farmers can no longer
aord to use fertilizers on their farms, resulting in some either abandoning or changing away from
crop farming because it is no longer protable.
Box 1. Productive use of urban wastes for food production
e large quantity of solid waste generated within the city constitutes a major environmental
problem in the absence of proper and ecient waste management or recycling systems. e
wastes are, however, rich in organic matter and other plant nutrients that have the potential to
provide a readily available supply of organic fertilizer for farming.
Nearly 70 per cent of the solid wastes generated in urban Ibadan could be easily composted,
according to Bammeke and Sridhar (1989). Attempts have been made to harness this potential
with the support of a UNDP/UNICEF-funded pilot initiative designed to convert biodegradable
wastes to organic fertilizer in one of the inner city communities (Wahab et al., 2010). A 5 tonne
capacity plant was commissioned in November 2002 to produce 50 kg bags of organic fertilizer
per day for sale to farmers within and around the city limits. In pilot tests, the nished compost
and compost enhanced with additional nitrogen and phosphates produced yields comparable
to those treated with synthetic fertilizer. e initiative also generated economic returns and
employment for the local community involved (Sridhar and Adeoye, 2003; Adeoye et al., 2008).
However, the irregular supply of electricity to the composting plant has hindered the capacity
of this plant to consistently produce compost.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 25
Almost all government policies or programmes in Nigeria invariably aect food supply, demand
and pricing to varying extents. Support for agricultural inputs has been a central element of
Nigerian agricultural policy and consists primarily of attributing public subsidies so that farmers
can more easily acquire inputs such as fertilizers and improved seeds. Nigeria’s agricultural policy,
which invariably inuences what transpires at the city level, is nevertheless limited by a general lack
of coherence, absence of continuity, a top-down approach with little participation by stakeholders,
and minimum support for small enterprises.
A number of national policies and programmes have been specically formulated to improve the
productivity and income potentials of farmers. While the 1970s were characterized by a general lack
of interest in supporting agriculture due to the prots of oil exploitation, in the wake of the major
food crisis in the country in 1976, programmes were put in place to boost agricultural production
such as Operation Feed the Nation (1976–1979) and Green Revolution (1979–1983), which provided
subsidized inputs and access to credit. ese two programmes also strongly encouraged urban
dwellers to engage in agricultural production. e momentum generated by the programmes was
Policy, institutions and
governance that inuence UPA
6
© Afdaa
Building Urban Resilience
26
Box 2. Opportunities created By UPA
Urban development and socio-economic inuences in the Ibadan region have led to the migration
of rural people and farm labourers to the city. UPA oers opportunities for engaging unskilled,
newly urbanized people in dierent stages of solid waste collection, production and marketing
of organic fertilizers, greening the city, and related agricultural activities. In this respect,
environmental restoration indirectly
becomes a new employment area
that some researchers suggest could
oer prospects for revitalization in
economically distressed urban areas
(Armar-Klemesu and Maxwell,
2001; Nierenberg, 2011). Other job
opportunities exist in processing,
storage, marketing and transportation.
UPA also oers opportunities for the
unemployed and recent graduates of
technical colleges, polytechnics and
colleges of agriculture to be protably
employed through skills development
in the local production of farm
implements, equipment and machines
for agro-processing. Skills development in processing agricultural products and the production of
organic fertilizers are additional opportunities for enhancing economic power among the urban
population. While there are several potential entry points for UPA-related livelihoods, the extent
to which UPA creates employment opportunities is unknown due to a lack of studies.
Locally fabricated cassava grater
reversed, however, with the introduction in 1987 of the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP),
which resulted in a rollback of agricultural subsidies. Other key programmes that support agriculture
include the Agricultural Development Programmes (ADP), the National Livestock Development
Programme (NLDP), and the National Fadama Development Programme (NFDP).
e World Bank-supported Oyo State Agricultural Development Programme (OYSADEP) has
contributed to the promotion of the adoption of new methods and agricultural innovations by
farmers in rural and peri-urban areas of Ibadan. Specically, OYSADEP seeks to stimulate ecient
agricultural production through the transfer of proven and adaptable technologies in all areas of
agriculture including cultivation of crops, rearing of livestock and production of sh, with the aim
of increasing farmers’ productivity and enhancing incomes and standards of living. OYSADEP
has, however, had little or no direct impact on agricultural activities in Ibadan’s metropolis because
the agency largely focused on rural and peri-urban areas. Urban farmers nevertheless have easier
access to consultants and market information and are more exposed to the extension activities of
agro-chemical companies, though not always with positive results.
Ocial policy recognition of urban agriculture could help to foster wider secondary benets of
UPA within the urban economy (Box 2). To integrate the needs posed by urban growth with other
important socio-economic activities, it is critical that UPA is integrated in urban development plans
such that land-use and land-zoning regulations provide for it.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 27
Vulnerability of UPA in the city was examined by administering specially designed questionnaires
to dierent categories of farmer and other stakeholders. In-depth interviews with key
informants were also conducted. Identied constraints to UPA provided by practitioners during a
UPA-stakeholder workshop organized by the assessment team include inadequate nance, adverse
weather/climate factors, poor pricing, pests and diseases, prohibitive cost of farm inputs and absence
of agricultural extension visits. Other constraints noted were problems associated with disposal of
farm waste, misuse of agrochemicals, inadequate access to land and loss of farmlands as a result of
competition from other land uses.
Urban encroachment
e traditional land-tenure system in Nigeria is a complex and delicate problem facing agricultural
development. Prior to the promulgation of the Land Use Decree in 1978, almost all lands in southern
Nigeria, including the Ibadan region, were administered under customary tenure, which is the major
Challenges facing UPA
7
© Levinge
Building Urban Resilience
28
type of traditional landholding in Nigeria. Under this system land is held by the community, through
the family, the village or the clan. e right of an individual to use land, therefore, derives strictly
from his or her membership in the community. is traditional land-tenure system is guided by
two basic tenets: rst, the title of any member of the community to land is usufructuary and land no
longer in use by an individual usually reverts to the community; and second, outright sale of land is
completely prohibited. e federal government’s 1978 Land Use Decree was intended to ease access
to land by creating two forms of rights of occupancy, the statutory right and the customary right,
granted by the governor of a state and local government respectively.
In Ibadan the traditional system has been largely displaced by individual ownership and land
has become a marketable commodity even though land ownership is theoretically vested in the
government through the land-use decree. Land stipulated for cropping is limited in size to not more
than 500 ha, or 5000ha for grazing land, but the governor may grant a statutory right of occupancy to
any person for a variety of purposes—residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural, recreational,
etc. e implication of this change in land-tenure rules is that, subject to existing legal provisions, an
investor can buy agricultural land and then apply for Certicate of Occupancy or Governors Consent
for a change of use as stipulated in sections 6(2) and 22 of the Land Use Decree. e creation of this
informal land market has had the eect of diminishing the availability of land for UPA, as more lands
are developed for housing and industry.
e most obvious impact of urbanization in Ibadan is the increase in the built-up area within
the city and the outward movement of people and activities from the main city to the city fringes
and erstwhile rural lands. e changing nature of the peri-urban land market and intensifying
development pressures have led to increased uncertainty about whether “idle” lands can be cultivated
(Jaiyebo, 2003). e sprawl into rural areas, mainly the southern and southeastern parts since the
1980s, has led to a decline in large agricultural lands. A study of the four forest reserves within the
city, for instance, showed the phenomenal rate at which forests have been converted for urban use
since the 1970s. Olurin (2004) showed that by 2002, 90 per cent of the original forest reserve in
1961 had been encroached upon for urban development (Figure 7.1). Oladele and Oladimeji (2011)
estimated that 58 per cent of the land in peri-urban Ibadan will be converted for settlement and other
infrastructure by 2020 compared with 2000. e quarrying of sand, gravel, rocks and red earth, one
of the most widespread new economic activities in Ibadan region, has also resulted in the loss of
agricultural land including valleys with rich alluvial soils, which have either been leased or sold for
quarrying purposes.
Wetlands favoured for the cultivation of arable crops and vegetables, especially during the dry
season, have also been aected. Urban development in the Eleyele catchment has reduced the
riparian wetland forest and the surrounding light forest from 3.84 km2 in 1984 to 1.09 km2 in 2004,
with the built-up area increasing from 4.47 km2 to 7.52 km2 (Tijani et al., 2011). In addition to
the resultant loss of agricultural land and consequent reduction in the availability of crops during
the dry season, wetland loss also has implications for ood and water resource management in the
city. e encroachment of ood plain and channelization of major rivers and streams, such as the
Dandaru, Kudeti and Ogunpa which cut across the city, have further reduced the space available
for UPA within the city. Oladele and Oladimeji (2011) estimate that the area characterized as urban
fringe increased by 27 per cent between 1986 and 2000 at the expense of farmland and water bodies,
including wetlands.
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 29
Area (ha)
1961–1970 1971–1980 1981–1990 1991–2002
Total developed area Total forest area
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
2.5 36.3
750
140.6
645
705
0.6
783
FIGURE 7.1
Conversion of Ibadan
forest reserves,
1961–2002
Source: Olurin, 2004
Nigeria’s most important wetlands have shrunk by two-thirds in the past 30 years © Dr. M. Idris
Building Urban Resilience
30
Waste generation and disposal
Population growth and increasing industrial activities have resulted in the signicant generation of
wastes of dierent types: an average of 0.71 kg of waste is generated per person per day, meaning that,
based on the 2006 population for Ibadan, some 48586 tonnes of waste are generated in the city each
year (SIP, 2010). Of this, around 66 per cent is domestic waste, 20 per cent commercial waste and
11 per cent comes from industrial sources (Adewumi et al., 2005).
Due to the lower population densities in peri-urban Ibadan, less waste is generated compared to
the urban metropolis. However, the current trend of siting of waste dumps outside city limits has
the potential of introducing contaminants into peri-urban soils and water sources. e inability of
municipal authorities to eectively manage the huge quantity of waste generated in the city has led
to uncontrolled and direct dumping of domestic, agricultural and industrial wastes in open dumps,
rivers and wetlands. is practice has been recognized as one of the most critical problems facing the
city (Omoleke, 2004).
Solid waste dump and disposal in Bodija, Ibadan © I. Adelekan
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 31
e use of surface waters for waste disposal has been facilitated by Ibadan’s drainage network. e
Ogunpa River and its major tributary, the Kudeti, drain the eastern part of Ibadan while the Ona and
its numerous tributaries including the Alalubosa, Alaro, Oshun and Yemoja drain the western part
of the city. It is in this section of the city that more recent residential and industrial developments
have taken place, resulting in large volumes of industrial wastewater being discharged into the rivers
and streams since the majority of industries do not have eective wastewater treatment plants. In the
Oluyole Industrial Estate, euents are routinely discharged directly into surrounding streams and
rivers through the drainage system. Major rivers such as the Ona and Alaro that ow through the
industrial estate have become highly turbid, particularly at the points of discharge in the industrial
zone, and the rivers and streams throughout the metropolis have become the recipients of waste
streams in amounts exceeding their natural purication capacity (Osibanjo et al., 2011).
e high levels of contamination from industrial and other wastes constitutes a risk to urban and peri-
urban agriculture activities, which depend to a large extent on these water sources (Tijani et al., 2004;
I
peaiyeda and Onianwa, 2009; Awomeso et al., 2009; Omoloye, 2009; Ogedengbe and Akinbile, 2010;
Adedeji et al., 2011; Osibanjo et al., 2011). Major rivers and streams in the city including the Alaro,
Gege, Kudeti, Ogbere, Ogunpa and Ona contain heavy metals of which zinc, lead and copper are the
most abundant, and exceed acceptable limits in all streams (Tijani et al., 2004). ese contaminants
result from the deposition and discharge of industrial euents and chemical wastes on lands and
water bodies. Contamination of soils from industrial wastes also constitutes a problem. Omoloye
(2009) observed that cadmium (9.63 mg/kg) and mercury (2.33 mg/kg) accumulated in the soil
beyond safe limits due to the location of an Exide Battery plant (1 km radius) in the vicinity of Wofun
village, a peri-urban settlement predominantly inhabited by peasant farmers.
Heavy metal contaminants constitute a major environmental pollution risk in Ibadan and pose
serious health risks to the urban population (Adedipe et al., 2005; Oladeji, 2008; Omoloye, 2009;
Adedeji et al.; Ladigbolu and Balogun, 2011). It also has serious implications for UPA because
euents and wastes do not decompose completely. Rather, non-degradable contaminants remain in
the environment, and in most cases, the heavy metals in contaminated soils can be taken up by and
later accumulate in edible plants, thereby increasing risks of heavy metal exposure by consumers
(Nieboer and Yassi, 1998). However, the level of bioaccumulation in plants and subsequent exposure
to consumers can vary substantially depending on the soil pH, organic matter and clay content
as well as plant characteristics. It has been observed that the most important sources of chemical
contamination of urban agricultural sites in Nigeria are derived from industrial processing plants or
leachates from solid waste dumpsites (Margaret, 1996; Ogunyemi et al., 2003).
Signicant dierences in heavy metal concentration are found in vegetables that are grown with
wastewater in dierent parts of the city (Adams et al., 2010). Vegetables produced in the city around
the Eleyele Dam on the Ona River have the highest percentages
of lead, arsenic, and cadmium. Heavy
metal contamination of sh in water bodies in the city has also been established (Olaifa et al., 2004).
Monitoring studies are needed to determine the level of contamination of foods produced in and around
Ibadan in order to provide evidence that would prompt action to reduce prod
ucer and consumer health
risks.
Building Urban Resilience
32
Increased climate risks
Flood risks
An increase in heavy rainfall events and ooding are key risks associated with climate change that
have direct relevance to UPA, and to urban food systems and food security more generally. e
pattern of higher-intensity rainstorms in recent years has resulted in increased runo arising from
reduced vegetation cover over the city, a higher percentage of articial surfaces and poor drainage
systems, which trigger ooding. Major ood events with devastating eects on agriculture in the
city occurred in 2010, 2011 and 2012. In particular, the rainfall event of 26 August 2011, during
which 187.5 mm of rain fell—the highest recorded amount for 51 years—resulted in unprecedented
ooding with widespread impacts on the city’s commercial infrastructure, settlements, food system
and UPA sector. e extreme rain event, which occurred during what is normally the August break
in the rainy season, caused widespread damage estimated to be in excess of 30 billion Naira (Agbola
et al., 2012).
is ood event provided an apt example of the compounding risks of overdevelopment in
environmentally sensitive areas converging with extreme climate events. e intensity of the ooding
was exacerbated by extensive illegal building within stream setback corridors, siltation of waterways
and the upstream Eleyele Dam, deforestation in the surrounding area, and blockages of culverts and
drainage channels with municipal solid waste (Agbola et al., 2012; Ajayi et al., 2012).
Collapsed bridge linking Apete to other parts of Ibadan, 2011 © I. Adelekan
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 33
2 2 40 Kilometers
Study locations
Other aected locations
Lakes
Flooded area
Local Govt. Areas
Expressway
Main road
Main river
Minor river
N
FIGURE 7.2
Flooded areas of Ibadan
in August 2011
Source: Adelekan, 2015
Building Urban Resilience
34
e UPA sector and the urban food system infrastructure faced high losses. Seedlings, farm crops
and large numbers of livestock, poultry and sh were lost to the ood, and infrastructure and
agricultural processing equipment were also damaged. For many farmers, investments were either
severely damaged or totally wiped out, as reported in national newspapers (Box 3). Transportation
in the city was also aected. Apata, Oluyole and Owode estates, amongst others, were completely cut
o from other parts of Ibadan as a result of the ood that overowed or damaged bridges linking
the communities. Damage to three bridges over rivers at Odo-Ona, Oluyole and Apete hindered the
movement of people and the transportation of goods, including agricultural products. e complete
cut-o of Apete from the rest of the city owing to the collapse of the bridge linking the community to
other parts of the city resulted in increased prices of food (Sunday Tribune, 28 August, 2011).
Many sh farmers in Ibadan encountered huge losses from the heavy rainfall and subsequent ood
episode, which caused the collapse of dykes around sh ponds, and destruction of earthen ponds,
washing sh away. e sh farm at the University of Ibadan lost 200000 fry, 10000 ngerlings,
30 000 juveniles, 1 000 pieces of African Snakehead (Parachanal obscura), 2 600 medium-size
catsh, 250 0.8kg point-of-sale catsh, 500 2kg brood-stock catsh and about 1000 table-sized red
tilapia (University of Ibadan Bulletin, 2011). As a commercial venture, the shpond satised the
nutritional needs of members of the university community, causing havoc among sh consumers
on the university campus (pers com, Head, Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, University
of Ibadan). Poultry farms lost three weeks of production of day-old chicks as the supply of eggs
for incubation was aected. Fish farms and poultry farms in the city were reported to have been
seriously aected by subsequent ooding in 2012. e newspaper media reported estimates by
trade associations of hundreds of millions in lost Naira for sh farmers and poultry operations
(Momoh et al., 2011, cited in Agbola et al., 2012).
Box 3. Impacts of 26 August 2011 ood
A farmer at Ologuneru, a peri-urban location in Ibadan, revealed that several hectares ofhis
cassava farm were completely destroyed. “I’ve never seen or witnessed such ood before in my
life. It uprooted cassava and destroyed all the maize I planted,” he lamented. Bose Bademosi
explained that her cassava processing machines and all the cassava tubers brought in by customers
for grinding and processing into such other products as fufu and garri were swept away. In her
words, “I didn’t know that rain water could uproot cassava-processing machines that were tightly
and strongly xed to the ground. I don’t think that ood was ordinary. You need to see the level of
damage done to our processing factory at Olunde in Ibadan. e ood destroyed all that we had
in the factory.”
Many poultry and livestock farmers were also touched by the disaster. In the Odo-Ona area, a well-
knownsheep and goat farmer lost more than 50 sheep and goats, while in Aho village, Ajibode, a
peri-urban community renowned for poultry farms, sh ponds and piggeries, the ood wreaked
havoc as farmers’ investments were wiped out. A farmer who lost all his coops, which housed 331
birds, including 300 layers, 29 turkeys and two broilers, indicated that before the ood he made
a minimum net prot of N17 000 from selling eggs and poultry. e ood, however, resulted in a
loss of more than N1 million investment for him. Another farmer revealed that he lost 500 sh,
120 pullets, 47 cockerels and 13 turkeys in the disaster. “Apart from the buildings, this farm was
worth more than N1 million. Now they are all gone. It took me 19 years to build up this farm and
I lost it all in one night.”
Sources: The Sun, 02 September 2011; Nigerian Tribune, 11 October 2011
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 35
ese recent severe ood events in the city are illustrative of the potential risks from a more
extreme climate that are facing farmers and those engaged in agriculture-related activities such as
transportation, processing, storage and marketing, as well as direct impacts on urban food security
resulting from reduced access and availability of food, particularly by the urban poor who are already
food insecure.
Farmer perceptions of changing weather patterns
Focus group discussions and informational interviews were conducted with UPA farmers to better
understand the state of local knowledge about observed changes in weather patterns that may impact
on food production. e following section describes these observations, which point to where more
research is needed to more fully understand and assess emerging risks and impacts of climate change.
A large proportion of UPA farmers in Ibadan depend on rainfall, streams and wells for crop cultivation
and livestock, including sh farming, thus changes in rainfall patterns and characteristics in terms
of annual rainfall amount, length of the rainy season, and onset of the rains have signicant eects
on agriculture. Crop farmers reported that changes in rainfall patterns in recent years have impacted
signicantly on maize production—traditionally, there are two maize planting seasons: the rst in
April/May and the second in July/August. e survey indicated that many farmers can no longer
plant twice a year as a result of the delayed onset of rains—one planting, in April, is now practiced
by the majority of farmers except for those who farm close to rivers, around wetlands or irrigate
their land. Delayed onset of the rains was also noted in peri-urban farmer assessments carried out
by Agbola and Ojeleye (2007). is change in rainfall patterns has led to more farmers turning to
cassava production. Furthermore, the farmers noted that early cessation of rains has resulted in low
yield of their late season crops.
© I. Adelekan
Building Urban Resilience
36
Farmers noted that an increase in heavy rainfall in recent years has negatively aected the productivity
of some farm crops, such as cowpeas and pepper, as this aects owering and subsequent yields. e
onset of the rainy season is also associated with outbreaks of insect pests and diseases; farmers oen
use pesticides to cope with these, which add to the cost of production and if not used appropriately
may also result in contamination of crops and health risks for those who apply them.
Farmers in the focus groups noted that conditions are warmer than in previous times, and that
temperatures are not favourable for vegetable production, though they are benecial for drying of
harvested cassava. Farmers were particularly concerned about how excessively high temperatures
would aect diseases of poultry and pigs, based on their observations of increased livestock diseases
during warm periods. ere is a signicant knowledge gap with respect to potential disease dynamics
under warming conditions.
Rainstorm damaged maize farm at the University of Ibadan
© I. Adelekan
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 37
Food prices in Ibadan markets uctuate as a result of a number of factors, including government
policies on taris of imported foods, removal of subsidies on fertilizer and fuel prices, global food
prices, rainfall distribution during the cropping season, and civil unrest. For example, the reduction
of fuel subsidies in recent years has contributed to high transportation costs for agricultural produce,
increased cost of feeds for sh, livestock and poultry and higher cost of living for farmers, all of
which translate into rising food prices. Moreover, the closure of land borders with neighbouring
countries arising from recent political and social conicts, particularly the Boko Haram insurgency
in northern Nigeria, has also contributed to reduced protability for agriculture. For example, in
2012, ten trailer loads of eggs destined for export from Ibadan to other West African countries was
returned to Ibadan, resulting in an egg glut and a consequent fall in price of eggs in the city—a crate
of 30 eggs was sold for N100 during this period in Ibadan instead of the normal price of N800– N900.
Since 2007 and continuing through 2012, widespread oods have been experienced across the
northern and southern states of the country, which have aected agricultural production and
consequently food prices. According to FEWSNET, food prices rose sharply in September 2007
following the spate of ooding that resulted in below average harvests of major food crops. is
situation was compounded by the global rise in food prices, particularly so for rice.
In 2008, food prices remained high; peaking in July, following the late start of the wet season and
the unocial rise in the cost of diesel fuel. e above-average rains resulting in an early harvest for
a range of crops caused some decline, but prices of most food commodities were still substantially
higher compared to the ve-year average. Prices were higher than their ve-year averages by 90 per
cent for maize, 100 per cent for cowpea, 35 per cent for imported rice, and 55 per cent for garri in
August 2008. Compared to August 2007, prices of staples for the month of August 2008 were higher
by 128 per cent for maize, 83 per cent for garri, 107 per cent for cowpea and 28 per cent for imported
rice. e removal of import taris on rice resulted in the price of imported rice increasing from
N114/kg in March to N187/kg in May and N150/kg in September, 2008 (FEWS-Net, 2008).
e eect of recent high food prices on food insecurity in Ibadan is not known. However, analysis
by Ajani et al., (2006) estimated that 76 per cent of Ibadan residents reported some level of food
insecurity, with about 30 per cent of respondents reporting moderate to severe hunger. A few
analyses have been done to understand the eects of high food prices on food security (Badmus and
Ogundele, 2009; Odozi and Omonona, 2012) but none have approached the issue through the lens
of urban food security.
e extent to which UPA can address food insecurity in Ibadan and other cities in Nigeria is an open
question, as there have been no studies to date to assess its potential. Nigeria does rank high among
Food prices and urban food
security in Ibadan
8
Building Urban Resilience
38
African countries for which there are data on the proportion of the poor involved in UPA and the
share of income they derive from it (Figures 8.1 and 8.2), suggesting that UPA may be an important
contributor to household food security for those urban poor who have the available space and
resources to engage in urban farming. However, the extent to which UPA can serve as an eective
buer against recent upwardly spiraling food prices is not known. is is an important knowledge gap
in light of the global discourse on resilient urban food systems and the food localization movement.
FIGURE 8.1
Households participating
in urban farming, by
expenditure quintile
Source: Zezza and
Tasciotti, 2010
FIGURE 8.2
Share of income from UPA,
by expenditure quintile
Source: Zezza and
Tasciotti, 2010
Note: The bars correspond to expenditure quintiles, from the poorest (‘Poorest quintile’, on the left) to the richest (‘5th’,
on the right). Countries are ordered by level of Purchasing Power Parity GDP per capita.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Malawi 2004
Madagascar 2001
Bangladesh 2000
Nepal 2003
Ghana 1998
Vietnam 1998
Nigeria 2004
Pakistan 2001
Nicaragua 2001
Indonesia 2000
Guatemala 2000
Albania 2005
Ecuador 1995
Bulgaria 2001
Panama 2003
Poorest quintile 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Malawi 2004
Madagascar 2001
Bangladesh 2000
Nepal 2003
Ghana 1998
Vietnam 1998
Nigeria 2004
Pakistan 2001
Nicaragua 2001
Indonesia 2000
Guatemala 2000
Albania 2005
Ecuador 1995
Bulgaria 2001
Panama 2003
Poorest quintile 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 39
This report demonstrates that the UPA sector in Ibadan provides a critical source of fresh,
nutrient dense foods for the city’s food basket, and is an important livelihood resource for
those engaged in UPA. is report also demonstrates, however, that the sector is facing critical
challenges to its long-term sustainability stemming from unregulated urban sprawl, environmental
degradation, and extreme climatic events. is assessment oers several recommendations to city
planners, government ocials, researchers, and other stakeholders to consider for addressing these
sustainability challenges.
Devise policies that recognize and support urban and peri-urban agriculture. Urban agriculture,
in particular, and peri-urban agriculture to some extent, lacks much-needed recognition from policy
makers. Currently, existing legislation and policies at the state and city level neither explicitly prohibit
nor support UPA. Development of an urban agricultural policy framework and municipal planning
strategies would do much to provide the condence to promote regulatory integration, while giving
greater visibility to and support for UPA. Addressing urban encroachment on land that supports UPA
must be a priority in policy formulation. Land-use plans for wards within the city, LGAs, and the city
as a whole need to be developed. One potential entry point for this would be to delineate space for
UPA at ward and neighbourhood levels through incorporating it into neighborhood-improvement
plans, ward-development and urban-renewal plans (IDRC, 2003). Currently, plans for urban renewal
do not take this into consideration.
Encourage a leadership role by the State Ministry of Agriculture. e Oyo State Ministry of
Agriculture needs to assume a more active leadership role in championing the recognition of UPA,
as well as providing the needed incentives and technical assistance to practitioners. One important
entry point would be through the engagement of the ministry with private sector, NGOs and other
stakeholders. Large commercial private enterprises, like Zartech, Hope Poultry, Ajanla Farms and
Obasanjo Farms, are the visible private-sector players involved in UPA and would be an obvious entry
point. Other players need to be identied and their activities coordinated to enhance collaboration
and boost UPA in Ibadan. is coordination can be done either by creating a UPA unit in the State
Ministry of Agriculture or by establishing a functional multi-stakeholders forum for all groups
involved in UPA, set up and facilitated by the State Ministry of Agriculture. ere is also the need to
explore synergies among all stakeholders, and provide platforms to share knowledge and experiences.
Actors: Ocials in the Oyo State Ministry of Agriculture, Oyo State Agricultural Development
Programme (OYSADEP), e FADAMA project.
Bring greater visibility to UPA in urban land-use planning. Although an urban- and regional-
planning law presently exists, which guides the activities of the Ministry of Physical Planning and
Urban Development, in its current form the law is not adequate with respect to the actual policies
Recommendations
9
Building Urban Resilience
40
guiding land use. is results in haphazard urban development that encroaches upon ood plains,
wetland areas and forest reserves as well as onto agricultural lands. Given the projections of rapid
urban growth in Ibadan over the next one to two decades, there is a strong need to review existing
planning laws to minimize environmental and climatic risks associated with haphazard planning.
To this eect, a master plan needs to be prepared for the city, which should take account of the
following recommendations: 1) reduce urban encroachment pressures on streams and drainage
channels, which are becoming increasingly clogged with solid wastes, contributing to ooding of
the city; 2) keep oodplains and other environmentally sensitive lands, including wetlands and
forests, from being used for illegal development; 3) reduce direct discharge of euents into streams;
and, 4) aid the recognition of UPA’s multifunctionality as an urban land-use category that requires
safeguarding. For example, providing setbacks for streams, which should not be built on but can
be used for urban agriculture, would contribute to keeping oodplains and other environmentally
sensitive lands from being used for illegal urban development and waste disposal. Such landscape-
scale considerations would be consistent with adaptation planning for both rapid urban growth and
climate change given the likely increase in ooding as land surfaces are concretized and high rainfall
events potentially increase. Such eorts would also raise the visibility of UPA and contribute to its
support.
Another specic policy need is that of improving tenure for urban farmers operating on a temporary
basis on public land. e law currently allows only seven days notice for all occupants of public
land operating on a temporary occupation license. is law needs to be reviewed to provide for a
minimum of one year’s notice. It is also important that land-use and land-zoning regulations are
amended to provide for UPA activities.
Actors: Ministry of Physical Planning and Urban Development, Ministry of Lands, Ministry of
Justice, the House of Assembly.
Address pollution risks to water use and management. e network of rivers, streams and drainage
channels in Ibadan need to be protected from use as waste disposal channels. is will contribute
to ensuring cleaner water, reduced contamination potential of UPA products, and reduced ood
risks. us, in addition to the land-use policy recommendation, there is a need to reduce urban
encroachment and waste disposal into surface waters and drainage channels. Such eorts should
include regularly desilting rivers and streams to facilitate the ow of oodwaters and reduce pollution,
and channelizing of water bodies such as the Odo-Ona and Ogbere Rivers in order to reduce the
incidence of oods. e city government should also consider, as a long-term strategy, providing
wastewater treatment facilities for Ibadan that would provide a reliable source of safe irrigation
water. Such eorts would need to be linked to formulation of stronger pollution abatement laws and
regulatory mechanisms to ensure that industries and other establishments develop environmental
best practices for wastewater and euents discharge.
Eorts to address water pollution should also include building broader awareness of health and safety
risks associated with production and consumption of UPA products, for example with respect to safe
handling of agro-chemicals, irrigation using polluted water sources and appropriate post-harvest
handling to ensure reduced contamination risk.
Actors: Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Environment and Habitat (Department of
Environmental Sanitation and Sewage).
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 41
Support robust waste-to-resource management planning. Solid waste generation in the city has
enormous potential for production of organic fertilizer. at potential has not been adequately
exploited, as the capacity of the existing ve organic fertilizer plants in the city, even if operating at
full capacity, cannot cope with the enormous quantities of organic waste generated. City planners
therefore need to appreciate the resource potential of solid waste and work with the private sector to
invest in waste-to-fertilizer plants.
ere are a number of co-benets associated with this, apart from the increased supply of organic
fertilizer and possible reduction in the cost of fertilizer. Crop production would be enhanced, and
the fertilizer plants would provide employment for workers at dierent stages of waste collection and
separation, fertilizer production and marketing. e city would be cleaner, and there would be less
clogging of streams and drainage channels, which is critical for enhancing ood risk management.
Feasibility studies need to be carried out to better understand the potential of these resources and
to identify policies and measures that encourage waste recovery for agriculture. Also, assessments
of waste streams need to be carried out such that sources of potential contaminants, heavy metals,
for example, are identied and measures put in place to minimize contamination risks to organic
fertilizers.
Actors: Oyo State Ministry of Agriculture, Oyo State Ministry of Environment, Science and
Technology, Oyo State Waste Management Board, Raw Materials Research Council of Nigeria, and
the private sector.
Strengthen urban food supply chains to risks of disruption from ooding. e rapidly growing
urban population needs greater food access and stability, and farmers need to ensure the protability
of their enterprises. As demonstrated in this report, greater attention needs to be paid to strengthening
critical points in food processing and transport systems that may be vulnerable to extreme events,
such as oods and high winds. Planning for other extreme events associated with climate change,
such as heatwaves, needs to also be considered. In the case of UPA, which mostly produces perishable
products—fruit and vegetables, eggs, dairy, meat and sh—better storage facilities, including cold
storage, could become more important in a warming and more variable climate.
Actors: Input dealers, producers/farmers, processors, marketers, transporters, policy makers,
researchers, extension practitioners, NGOs, state and local government ocials in the departments
of agriculture, environment, land and public health.
Bolster climate risk management and adaptive capacities. Planners and policy makers in the city
need to be proactive to climate risk management in the face of present climate variability, extreme
weather events and expected impacts of possible climate change. In addition to the aforementioned
measures with respect to land-use planning and ood risk management, measures that could be
considered in adapting to climate change include:
i. development of eective early warning systems for oods and other extreme weather
events;
ii. establishment of a disaster risk reduction unit within the Oyo State Emergency Management
Agency (OYSEMA);
iii. provision of weather insurance to protect farmers from climate risks;
iv. establishment of a multi-stakeholder dialogue process to increase communication and
share learning about climate change; and
Building Urban Resilience
42
v. promotion of forestry and agro-forestry to reduce the urban heat-island eect and climate-
induced landslides and oods, and to promote resilient landscapes.
Address critical knowledge needs and capacity gaps. Carrying out this assessment revealed the
paucity of up-to-date statistics that could be useful for fully assessing the signicance of UPA. For
instance, hard data on the number of people engaged in agricultural activities as either primary or
secondary income sources are not available, even though information on occupations was collected
during the 2006 National Population Census, nor is there hard data on how engagement in urban
agriculture inuences household food security. Eorts should be made by the relevant government
agencies to strengthen their research units and liaise with research institutions to undertake detailed
surveys at local and city levels, so that credible data are available. Such data would help in the
advocacy of UPA in urban planning eorts.
Knowledge about how extreme temperatures and rainfall aect livestock and plant diseases is another
important knowledge gap, as is understanding of climate change impacts specic to horticultural
crops, urban livestock and farmed sh, which remain vastly under-researched relative to cereal crops
and rural livestock systems. Detailed studies are also needed to better understand how rapid urban
growth and subsequent land-use change may interact with a more extreme climate.
ere is also need for increased training of farmers and extension on safe practices for UPA, as this
will have a positive impact on farmers as well as protect public health. To this end, the government
should strengthen existing farmers’ associations such as the All Farmers Association of Nigeria
(AFAN). Targeted training and technical assistance should also be provided to urban producer groups
to strengthen their organizations and improve their production, processing and marketing activities
and related food safety measures. Further, urban farmers should be given the same improved access
to loans and farm inputs from relevant agencies of government at reduced or subsidized rates as rural
farmers.
© Jan Chip
Sorting grains
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan 43
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Citation
Adelekan, I., Olajide-Taiwo, L., Ayorinde, A., Ajayi, D. and Babajide, S. (2014). Building Urban Resilience:
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria. [Padgham, J. and J. Jabbour (eds.)].
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya.
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is report represents one from a series of nine city-level reports on urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA),
which together form a larger knowledge assessment. e knowledge assessment was carried out in Dakar
(Senegal), Tamale (Ghana), Ibadan (Nigeria), Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Kampala (Uganda), Addis Ababa
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This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
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examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
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This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
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examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
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examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
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This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
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This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Kathmandu, Nepal, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
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This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
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This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dhaka, Bangladesh, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
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This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Dakar, Senegal, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Building Urban
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Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria
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Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
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www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Ibadan, Nigeria, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
Building Urban
Resilience
Assessing Urban and Peri-urban
Agriculture in Ibadan, Nigeria
ISBN: 978-92-807-3373-0
Job Number: DEW/1785/NA
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel.: +254 20 762 1234
Fax: +254 20 762 3927
e-mail: publications@unep.org
www.unep.org
www.unep.org
International START Secretariat
2000 Florida Ave NW #200
Washington, D.C. 20009, United States
Tel.: +1 202-462-2213
e-mail: start@start.org
www.start.org
www.start.org
This assessment report presents the ndings of a knowledge assessment on urban and peri-urban
agriculture (UPA) for the city of Ibadan, Nigeria, that was conducted in 2012. The assessment
examines the state of UPA in the city through the lens of intensifying urban pressures and increasing
climate risks with the objective of identifying how these and other drivers potentially interact to
aect the long-term sustainability of UPA, and what response options are needed to address existing
and emerging challenges.
global change SysTem for Analysis, Research & Training
