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Dry needling versus acupuncture:
the ongoing debate
Kehua Zhou,
1,2
Yan Ma,
3,4
Michael S Brogan
5
1
Department of Health Care
Studies, Daemen College,
Amherst, New York, USA
2
Daemen College Physical
Therapy Wound Care Clinic,
Daemen College, Amherst,
New York, USA
3
Division of Interdisciplinary
Medicine and Biotechnology,
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical
Center, Harvard Medical School,
Boston, Massachusetts, USA
4
Internal Medicine and Sleep
Center, Eye Hospital, China
Academy of Chinese Medical
Science, Beijing, China
5
Department of Physical Therapy,
Daemen College, Amherst,
New York, USA
Correspondence to
Dr Kehua Zhou, Department of
Health Care Studies, Daemen
College, 4380 Main Street,
Amherst, NY 14226, USA;
kzhou@daemen.edu
Accepted 18 September 2015
Published Online First
6 November 2015
▸ http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/
acupmed-2015-010977
To cite: Zhou K, Ma Y,
Brogan MS. Acupunct Med
2015;33:485–490.
ABSTRACT
Although Western medical acupuncture (WMA)
is commonly practised in the UK, a particular
approach called dry needling (DN) is becoming
increasingly popular in other countries. The
legitimacy of the use of DN by conventional non-
physician healthcare professionals is questioned
by acupuncturists. This article describes the
ongoing debate over the practice of DN between
physical therapists and acupuncturists, with a
particular emphasis on the USA. DN and
acupuncture share many similarities but may
differ in certain aspects. Currently, little
information is available from the literature
regarding the relationship between the two
needling techniques. Through reviewing their
origins, theory, and practice, we found that DN
and acupuncture overlap in terms of needling
technique with solid filiform needles as well as
some fundamental theories. Both WMA and DN
are based on modern biomedical understandings
of the human body, although DN arguably
represents only one subcategory of WMA. The
increasing volume of research into needling
therapy explains its growing popularity in the
musculoskeletal field including sports medicine.
To resolve the debate over DN practice, we call
for the establishment of a regulatory body to
accredit DN courses and a formal, comprehensive
educational component and training for
healthcare professionals who are not physicians
or acupuncturists. Because of the close
relationship between DN and acupuncture,
collaboration rather than dispute between
acupuncturists and other healthcare professionals
should be encouraged with respect to education,
research, and practice for the benefit of patients
with musculoskeletal conditions who require
needling therapy.
INTRODUCTION
Western medical acupuncture (WMA) is a
therapeutic modality involving the inser-
tion of solid filiform needles. It is a
modern adaptation of traditional acu-
puncture (TA) using current biomedical
understanding and research evidence.
1
WMA is widely practised by convention-
ally trained healthcare providers includ-
ing physicians, chiropractors, and
physical therapists (PTs).
1
Although
WMA is relatively commonplace in the
UK and Sweden,
1
a particular approach
called dry needling (DN), which is
mainly practised by PTs, is becoming
increasingly popular in other major
western countries.
2–4
WMA, DN and TA
are all needling procedures that involve
penetration of the skin with solid filiform
needles with therapeutic intent. DN is a
technique that PTs and other healthcare
professionals use to treat various painful
conditions of the musculoskeletal system,
usually myofascial pain syndrome,
4
whereas TA is a technique used by profes-
sional acupuncturists. Compared with
DN, both TA and WMA have a broader
range of indications including muscu lo-
skeletal pain, and gastrointestinal and
neurological disorders.
15
Patients and
healthcare professionals may be confused
about the relationship between DN and
acupuncture as they seem to share simi-
larities and yet may differ in certain
aspects. Currently, little information is
available from the literature regarding the
similarities and differences between these
two needling techniques. In this article,
we aim to: (1) explore the professional
controversies surrounding the practice of
DN; (2) review the origins, theory, and
practice of DN and acupuncture; and (3)
seek potential solutions in response to
the ongoing debate.
THE ONGOING DEBATE
The dispute about the legitimacy of DN
practice by healthcare professionals who
are not physicians or acupuncturists has
been ongoing now for more than a
decade, particularly in the USA. Here, we
focus on the debate between acupunctur-
ists and PTs regarding DN practice.
Acupuncturists oppose the practice of
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DN by PTs because they perceive DN to be a form of
acupuncture, which they feel should not fall into the
scope of practice of PTs and other practitioners, such
as chiropractors. They also argue that, with minimal
training, PTs are unlikely to be able to master the
technique and thus may endanger patient safety and
wellbeing.
6
In response, PTs claim that DN is not acu-
puncture
3
because, although both acupuncture and
DN are needling techniques, DN is base d on modern
biomedical science rather than TA theories or
terminology.
3
However, DN and acupuncture clearly overlap to
some extent in view of their most common indication
(musculoskeletal pain) and their use of solid filiform
needles.
34
Additionally, with the single exception of
cases of pneumothorax due to inappropriate and/or
unlawful practice, which is also reported in acupunc-
ture practice,
7–9
no significant patient safety events
have been reported in relation to the practice of DN.
Thanks to accumulating evidence for its applicability,
utility, and lack of side effects (which are minimal to
none), the practice of DN is becoming increasingly
popular among conventionally trained healthcare pro-
viders around the world, especially among PTs in the
USA.
2–4
DN is the de facto practice of PTs in many
countries and states across the USA, yet it is unavail-
able in others, which further convolutes the debate of
who can and should practise DN.
3
The other argument lies in the training of PTs in
DN.
6
The practice of acupuncture by trained clini-
cians requires enhanced experience. In most states and
countries, the practice of acupuncture requires hun-
dreds and often thousands of hours of acupuncture
education in specialised educational programmes. In
the USA, the practice of acupuncture requires state
licensure, which is based on passing national level
examinations and maintaining good professional
records. The practice of acupuncture is governed by
the acupuncture or medical board of the state educa-
tion department in most states across the USA.
By contrast, current training of DN for PTs in the
USA is done only through continuing education or
certificate programmes, which are not strictly regu-
lated and have few (if any) standards that need to be
complied with.
36
With these non-formal training pro-
grammes in DN, acupuncturists argue that PTs’ expos-
ure, experience and skills in needling therapy are
likely to be limited.
6
Additionally, evaluation systems
for the practice of DN by PTs are currently unavail-
able, and standards for healthcare governing adminis-
trations and policymakers are not yet established.
DRY NEEDLING
History of DN
DN, subtypes of which include related techniques
known as intramuscular stimulation or trigger point
needling, refers to the use of either solid filiform
needles or hollow-core hypodermic needles for the
treatment of muscular pain. Although some PTs claim
that DN was first developed in the 1940s by Janet
Travell, little evidence exists to support this state-
ment.
410
In Myofascial pain and dysfunction: the
trigger point manual, Travell and Simons
11
sum-
marised the key elements of the DN technique as: (1)
use of a needle of sufficient length to reach the con-
traction knots in the trigger points without any prefer-
ence for needle diameter (range 0.3–3.4 mm); and (2)
use of an aseptic technique via careful cleansing with
a suitable antiseptic (usually alcohol wipes). Travell
and Simons
11
did not mention any specific type of
needle used in DN when they proposed that it was as
effective as local lidocaine injection in relieving
trigger point pain; however, they did mention that
‘DN’ would induce post-injection soreness, which
might be more severe and last for a longer period of
time than the injection of lidocaine. Thus, the needle
that they were referring to is more likely to have been
a hypodermic needle, rather than an acupuncture
needle.
Further evidence that the origin of DN involved the
use of hypodermic needles for the treatment of myo-
fascial pain is provided by findings of a review of DN
history. The earliest reference to ‘DN’, as per Legge,
10
was in an article about low back pain in 1947 when
Paulett
12
reported that ‘DN’ and injecting saline both
relieved pain. In 1952, Travell and Rinzler
13
explored
the origins of myofascial pain, and commented that
effective treatment of myofascial pain might include
DN. The needles used in these early publications
related to DN were likely to have been hypodermic
needles, as injection of saline or local anaesthetic was
simultaneously mentioned and compared.
11–13
Nonetheless, the earliest available study directly iden-
tified using the search term ‘dry needling’ in PubMed
was authored in 1979 by Lewit,
14
who used acupunc-
ture needles in DN practice. He found that DN pro-
duced immediate, complete analgesia of the painful
spot without hyperaesthesia for patients with myofas-
cial pain. Based on these results, Lewit
14
reported that
the therapeutic effects of needling in myofascial pain
originated from the mechanical stimulation of the
needling per se and was due to neither the anaesthetic
nor the sclerosing solution. In 1980, Gunn et al
15
recommended the manipulation of acupuncture
needles to produce a grabbing sensation in patients
with trigger point pain. Gunn et al
15
reported that the
techniques were inspired by TA and that DN had
powerful therapeutic effects for patients with chronic
low back pain. Development of DN was limited in the
1980s and 1990s as indicated by the limited number
of publications (<30) in the literature during this
period.
10
However, since the 2000s, interest in DN
has resurged as healthcare professionals, especially
PTs, have begun to recognise the beneficial effects of
DN on pain.
2–410
Currently, DN is practised by many
healthcare professionals in Europe, Australia, more
Education and practice
486 Zhou K, et al. Acupunct Med 2015;33:485–490. doi:10.1136/acupmed-2015-010911
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than half of the states across the USA, and in many
other countries.
2–410
Theory of DN
The use of DN is based on an understanding of
human anatomy and physiology regarding myofascial
pain and trigger points.
4
Theories regarding DN
involve various neurophysiological mechanisms,
14
which are indirectly supported by an expanding
volume of clinical research. Between 1980 and April
2015, almost 200 publications were retrievable by a
PubMed search using the term ‘dry needling’. The
majority of this literature reports on the therapeutic
effectiveness of DN using solid filiform needles for
various types of musculoskeletal pain.
16–18
Within the
available meta-analyses, one study reported that DN
treatment of myofascial pain in the lower back
appeared to be a useful addition to standard therap-
ies,
17
and another study found that DN was an effect-
ive intervention for upper-quarter myofascial pain,
which decreased immediately after treatment and at
follow-up at 4 weeks.
18
Since the most recent
meta-analysis,
18
20 new articles involving DN had
been indexed in PubMed by April 2015. Almo st all of
them have reported that DN is effective for specific
types of musculoskeletal pain.
DN procedure
In general, DN techniques can be divided into superfi-
cial and deep techniques.
34
In superficial DN,
needles are inserted superficially (around 5–10 mm)
into tissue above the underlying trigger points.
4
After
retention for a short time (30 s to 3 min), the needle
is removed and the pain is expected to be greatly
relieved. If residual pain occurs, the procedure can be
repeated another two to three times. Other superficial
needling techniques exist too. For example, Fu’s
superficial needling involves insertion of needles at an
angle of 20–30° without penetrating the muscle.
4
In
the newly evolved wrist and ankle needling, the
needles are inserted almost horizontally at the wrist
and ankle within the connective tissue layer between
the muscle and skin.
4
As the needle is inserted and
manipulated in the superficial layer of the body, no
muscle twitch is expected.
4
In deep DN, needles are
inserted deep into the tissues directly toward the
trigger points in order to reach them.
4
‘Sparrow
pecking’, whereby solid filiform needles are manipu-
lated in and out of each trigger point to elicit a local
twitch response, is commonly used with treatment
regimens typically consisting of a course of three or
more treatments, given once a week.
17
Although
Dunning et al
4
states that needles (one or more) are
left in situ for between 10 and 30 min, DN practice
by PTs is typically ‘fast-in and fast-out’, often
described as ‘pistoning’, and does not usually involve
needle retention.
2
Most studies do not specify the
angle of needle insertion, but the conventional
needling technique usually involves perpendicular
penetration of the skin.
17
ACUPUNCTURE
History of acupuncture
DN has been intertwined with acupuncture since its
inception. Meta-analyses of acupuncture or DN for
myofascial pain have included studies in both fields in
order to decrease bias and strengthen the validity of
the results.
16–18
Results of research into the effects of
needling can often be applied to both DN and acu-
puncture. The term acupuncture originally referred to
the ancient healing technique originating from China
2000 years ago, which has been widely practised all
over the world as a professional practice in the field
of complementary and alternative medicine. TA
involves the stimulation of specific points on the body,
based upon the theoretical ‘meridian’ concept, via
penetration by solid filiform needles.
5
Original acu-
puncture instruments were made from so-called bian
stones. With the introduction and application of iron
instruments, bian stone needles were replaced by
medical needles made of metal. Acupuncture theories
and techniques have been expanded and optimised by
the contribution of acupuncturists of the various time
periods throughout history. Since the inception of
Chinese culture, acupuncture has been used as one of
the major tools for the restoration and maintenance
of health in China.
5
Acupuncture likely emerged in the USA in the late
1800s when large numbers of Chinese workers
migrated to the west coast to build railways; however, it
made its official debut in 1971 when journalist J
Reston
19
published an article in the New York Times
describing his personal experience with acupuncture,
followed by the visit of US President Nixon to China in
1972. In the UK, physicians were reported to have been
needling tender points to relieve musculoskeletal pain in
the 1800s, and interest in acupuncture surged in the
1970s.
1
Ever since then, acupuncture has become more
and more popular in major western countries.
120
Due
to its growing popularity and an accumulation of
research evidence, acupuncture, particularly WMA, has
been widely integrated into the practice of conventional
healthcare in major western countries.
20
Theories of acupuncture
Classical theories and principles of point selection in
TA are based on historical concepts of balancing Yin
and Yang and dredging ‘meridians ’. Such theories are
used to differentiate TA from WMA. Nowadays, both
classical theory and modern biomedical sciences are
included in the education of acupuncturists in China
and around the world. Besides TA, the contemporary
version, WMA, which is based on the understanding
of human anatomy, physiology, and pathology, is also
widely practised, especially among physicians and
other healthcare professionals.
115
One example of
Education and practice
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WMA is peripheral neuromodulation, in which practi-
tioners stimulate somatic nerves in order to influence
autonomic nerves (via somatovisceral reflexes).
21 22
A special category of acupuncture points are the ah
shi (translated as ‘ouch’) points, which include acu-
puncture points that are tender to touch or pressure,
with a similar definition to trigger points. Dorsher
23
reported that the distribution of trigger points has a
95% overlap with acupuncture points in the treatment
of pain disorders. Thus, in pain conditions, trigger
points may represent similar (if not the same) physio-
logical phenomena as acupuncture points.
23
Acupuncture procedure
Acupuncture involves many different techniques with
various types and lengths of needles depending on the
condition and the acupuncture point location. The
commonly used procedure for musculoskeletal pain
involves ah shi points with treatment protocols similar
to DN but with needle retention. Traditionally, acu-
puncture point selection and treatment is based on
‘syndrome differentiation’, which incorporates inspec-
tion (including the tongue), palpation (including the
pulse), and systematic inquiry. This is the process that
many acupuncturists and Traditional Chinese
Medicine practitioners use to generate a traditional
diagnosis, treatment principle and plan.
24
Acupuncturists usually emphasise de qi sensations
during treatments.
25
De qi refers to a composite of
sensations including local muscle twitches and propa-
gation of sensation upon needling.
25
Historically, de qi
sensation has been considered to be the foundation
for the therapeutic effectiveness of acupuncture for
pain,
25
and this is supported by research demonstrat-
ing that the stimulation of A-delta afferent nerves that
is associated with the de qi sensation
26
is important in
mediating the clinical effects of acupuncture.
27
Most acupuncture procedures last 30–45 min and
involve a perpendicular needle insertion. It is worth
noting that during the same time period that DN was
developing in the western world, Professor Dinghou
Lu and colleagues at Beijing Sports University strongly
advocated needling at tender (ah shi) points using an
oblique angle, as this gave better therapeutic effects in
myofascial pain compared with vertical needle
insertion.
28
NEEDLING EFFECTS IN THE MUSCULOSKELETAL
SYSTEM: THERAPEUTIC MECHANISMS
During the past two decades, tremendous progress has
been made investigating the mechanisms of action
underlying the effects of needling on the musculo skel-
etal and nervous systems. Besides the widely recog-
nised gate control theory and regulation of the
endogenous opioid system,
1
two other major findings
worth noting are the regulation of the purinergic sig-
nalling system and stretch-like needling effects in the
musculoskeletal system.
29–31
Researchers in China and
the USA have demonstrated that acupuncture induces
an immediate local increase in adenosine (part of the
purinergic signalling pathway) in both humans and
animals.
29 30
Adenosine has not only been found to
be involved in pain modulation, but is also a vital
source for energy for muscles.
32
Interestingly, besides
pain relief, needling of muscle has been found to
increase muscle strength and improve the range of
movement at joints.
33–35
These effects of needling are
suggested to be similar to those of stretch in physical
exercise. Langevin et al
31
reported that acupuncture
functions like physical stretch, activating fibroblasts
that trigger signal transduction pathways at the
molecular level. Fibroblasts not only produce proteins
that make up the extracellular matrix, but also trans-
form into myofibroblasts to repair injury via produc-
tion of collagen and α smooth muscle actin protein.
36
Findings from research studies on the mechanisms
of action underlying the effects of needling not only
explain why needling per se is effective for musculo-
skeletal pain treatment,
29–35
but also account for the
growing use of DN in the musculoskeletal field
including sports medicine. Needling may thus
improve muscle performance, although large, high
quality research studies are needed to determine the
optimal parameters of needling, including location
and direction of needle insertion, duration of needle
retention, the requirement for a local twitch response
or de qi sensation, the frequency of treatments, and its
potential role as a preventive measure. As convention-
ally trained healthcare professionals are usually well
equipped with profound knowledge about the muscu-
loskeletal system, and acupuncturists are usually well
trained in needling procedures, collaborations
between these professionals may help optimise the use
of needling therapy in musculoskeletal conditions.
DN VERSUS ACUPUNCTURE: A POTENTIAL
SOLUTION
Questions surrounding the practice of DN and its rela-
tionship with acupuncture exist among patients and
clinicians. Acupuncture overlaps with DN with
respect to needling instruments, technique, and its
widespread use in disorders of the musculoskeletal
system. Additionally, both WMA and DN are based
on modern biomedical understandings of the human
body. Acupuncture points (including ah shi points)
and trigger points overlap significantly in the treat-
ment of pain; localised muscle twitches in DN and de
qi sensations in acupuncture, respectively, are used as
prognostic criteria to predict the effectiveness of need-
ling. As stated by White and colleagues in the defin-
ition of WMA,
1
variations include subcutaneous
needling over tender muscle trigger poin ts. Thus, DN
should be recognised as a subcategory of WMA.
As physicians are well trained in needling proce-
dures, pathophysiology and the management of
common disorders, their practice of WMA (including
Education and practice
488 Zhou K, et al. Acupunct Med 2015;33:485–490. doi:10.1136/acupmed-2015-010911
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DN) can generally be considered safe. However, a
dispute exists regarding the practice of DN by health-
care professionals who are not physicians or acupunc-
turists and may lack the necessary training. For the
interests of patients, greater effort should be paid to
identifying solutions to the dispute rather than ques-
tioning the legitimacy of DN practice by other health-
care professions.
Although needling therapy has been proven to be
safe in general, healthcare professionals who are not
physicians or acupuncturists need to develop their
competence in order to provide skilled and proficient
treatment and to prevent possible adverse events
related to needling. Besid es the establishment of a
regulatory body to accredit DN courses, so that stan-
dards are set to guarantee patient safety and optimal
outcomes, needling practice per se and the use of DN
to treat patients should require formal and compre-
hensive education and training, which should include
the essential biomedical education and training in
needling skills needed to practise DN safely. This will
add credence and strengthen the capability of these
healthcare professionals in the practice of DN for the
treatment of musculoskeletal disorders.
CONCLUSION
DN and acupuncture overlap with respect to needling
techniques using solid filiform needles as well as some
fundamental theories. DN should be recognised as
one subcategory of WMA. The establishment of a
regulatory body to accredit DN courses and a formal
and comprehensive education and training pro-
gramme are needed to support its practise by health-
care professionals who are not physicians or
acupuncturists. Because of the close relationship
between DN and acupuncture, collaboration rather
than dispute between acupuncturists and other health-
care professionals should be encouraged with respect
to education, research, and the practice of needling
for the benefit of patients with musculoskeletal pain
who require needling therapy.
Contributors KZ conceived the idea and drafted the article.
MSB provided constructive guidance and feedback. YM
co-authored a portion of the article.
Competing interests None declared.
Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally
peer reviewed.
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Education and practice
490 Zhou K, et al. Acupunct Med 2015;33:485–490. doi:10.1136/acupmed-2015-010911
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ongoing debate
Dry needling versus acupuncture: the
Kehua Zhou, Yan Ma and Michael S Brogan
doi: 10.1136/acupmed-2015-010911
2015
2015 33: 485-490 originally published online November 6,Acupunct Med
http://aim.bmj.com/content/33/6/485
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